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",isbn:"978-1-80356-336-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-335-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-337-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c13b60a29b20349f816a6ab71ba35e42",bookSignature:"Prof. Mingzhou Yu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11497.jpg",keywords:"Lab-on-a-Chip, Microfluidics and Nanofluidic Platforms, Micro and Nanoscale Phenomena, Mass and Heat Transport, Multiphase Flow, Nanoparticle-Laden Flows, New Unit-Operation, Theoretical Model, Numerical Method, Experiment, Application, Engineering",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher selected for the Alexander von Humboldt research fellowship and previously affiliated with the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology as a postdoc researcher. Dr. Yu is a holder of 90 journal papers, with an h index of 21, is a member of A& WA (USA) and AAAR (USA), and is the holder of 24 registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"188972",title:"Prof.",name:"Mingzhou",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"mingzhou-yu",fullName:"Mingzhou Yu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188972/images/system/188972.jpg",biography:"Mingzhou Yu is now a Professor at China Jiliang University and a Guest Professor at Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Chinese Academy of Science. He received his PhD degree from Zhejiang University in 2008 with the major fluid mechanism. During the time period between 2009 and 2012, he moved to Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany, as a Alexander von Humboldt researcher where he worked with Prof. Gerhard Kasper and Dr. Martin Seipenbusch. Since 2013, he joined Prof. Junji Cao's research group as a guest Professor at Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, Chinese Academy of Science. During the time period between 2013 and 2016, he worked in The Hongkong Polytechnic University and Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain, as a research associate or postdoc researcher. He is now leading a Aerosol Science and Technology Laboratory supported by Zhejiang Special Provincial Support in CJLU. He has published more than 90 cited articles and five books (or chapters).",institutionString:"China Jiliang University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"China Jiliang University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72130",title:"Pheromones and Chemical Communication in Insects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92384",slug:"pheromones-and-chemical-communication-in-insects",body:'\nChemical communications in insects are exploited for many features as food seeking and preference, orientation, recruitment, defense, reproductive habitats, predator recognition, and mate attraction [1]. Chemical communication is distinguished by its effectiveness over long distances than others as mechanical and visual communications. Various active compounds were isolated and identified from different plant species that explore several activities toward other organisms [2, 3, 4, 5]. The wide range of these compounds affects different insect pests in different ways. Herbivorous insects may use host plant volatiles for determination of food, mates, and/or oviposition and hibernation sites by stimulation of insect chemoreceptor cells in taste sensilla present on antennae, tarsi, and mouthparts [6]. The manipulation of insect behavior occurs by detection of the chemical stimuli known as semiochemicals [7] or infochemicals [8]. Semiochemicals are defined as informative molecules released from one organism that evokes either a behavioral or physiological response between members of the same or different species. They are mainly used in plant-insect or insect-insect interactions as alternative or complementary components to insecticide approaches in different integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Such compounds are mainly affecting the behavior of various insect pests via chemical signals which occur between insect and insect or plant and insect. Semiochemicals considered a promising component in IPM programs for controlling insect pests. They are involved in different control strategies such as monitoring, mass trapping, mating disruption, and attract-and-kill and push-pull strategies [1].
\nIn insects, the interaction of chemical signals can either stimulate or inhibit the behavior of the pest and so change its response. The response of insects to plant volatiles differs and is either attractive (adapted herbivore) or repellent (non-adapted herbivore). The classification of plant volatiles as attractants and repellents is not standardized due to fluctuation of insect behavior responses to such volatiles depending on their concentration. Herbivorous insects develop host plant compounds and use them as sex pheromone precursors or sex pheromones [9]. For example, male orchid bees assemble terpenoid mixtures from orchids and transfer them as an aggregation pheromone to stimulate leakage in mating [10]. Furthermore, moths, butterflies, grasshoppers, beetles, and aphids utilize pyrrolizidine alkaloids as feeding deterrents against their parasites and/or predators [11]. The interactions which occur between different organisms are divided into two main categories, intraspecific and interspecific, depending on how the interactions occur. An intraspecific communication passes between individuals of the same species, while an interspecific communication involves an interaction between members of different species. Based on the communication signal and subsequently the relation between the receiver and the emitter, semiochemicals are classified into two main functional groups: pheromones and allelochemicals [1].
\nPheromones are defined as species-specific chemical signals which enable communication between life-forms of the same species. Pheromones are secreted by insects which caused a specific reaction, for example, either a definite behavior (immediate effect on the behavior of the receiver) which is called a releaser pheromone or a developmental process (physiological effects on the receiver) which is called a primer pheromone [12]. Pheromones have been classified into eight various types: aggregation pheromones, alarm pheromones, oviposition-deterrent pheromones, home recognition pheromones, sex pheromones, trail pheromones, recruitment pheromones, and royal pheromones. Primer pheromones stimulate the olfactory sensory neurons that emit signals to the insect’s brain which stimulate hormones released by the endocrine system [13]. Caste determination in social insects (bees, wasps, ants, termites, locusts) resembles the most famous example for primer pheromone in Figure 1 [14]. Releaser pheromones are divided by function into sex pheromones, trail pheromones, alarm pheromones, etc. Sex pheromone is the most commonly known which species specific that attract opposite sexes for mating is highly. Concerning trail pheromones, these are commonly known in social insects for orientation and also for recruit nest mates toward a suitable food source. For example, ants and termites deposit these pheromones as they navigate their territory, thus promoting extensive nets of chemical routes [15]. On the other hand, bees release airborne orientation pheromones including forage marking, nest entrance finding, and swarming from the Nasonov gland. These pheromones are composed of mixtures of geraniol, farnesol, citral, and other minor compounds [16]. Alarm pheromones are well-developed pheromones in social insects for defensive function and are composed of multicomponent volatiles as mono- and sesquiterpenes and acetates [16, 17, 18]. The aggregation pheromones attract conspecifics of both sexes, e.g., bark beetles. The beetles start digging up into the bark of the host tree, thus releasing a mixture of terpenoids which are long-range aggregation pheromones that synthesized de novo, and others produced terpenoids via gut symbiotic bacteria or sequestered from the host tree. Depending on evoke aggregation pheromones, a great number of beetles attack, leading to killing of the host tree [14, 19].
\nSchematic profile drawings for exocrine glands of some social insects with a pheromonal function (capital lettering) [
The second subclass of semiochemicals is allelochemicals which includes substances that transmit chemical messages between different species. Fundamentally, these substances resemble an interspecific communication which are emitted by individuals of one species and are understood by individuals of a different species. Allelochemicals are divided depending on the benefits and costs to the signaler and receiver. They have been divided into five categories according to [1, 20] as follows.
\nAllomones (from Greek “allos + hormone” = excite others): released from one organism that stimulate a response in an individual of another species. The response is beneficial to the emitter, e.g., poisonous allelochemicals. They can also be seen as a deterrent emitted by insects against their predators as a defense mechanism. Granular trichomes which cover plant leaves and stems release herbivore-deterring allomones under stress conditions as a defense process. These allomones are toxic for the herbivorous insect pests, e.g., nicotine from a tobacco plant. Moreover, bolas spiders can deceit, lure, and capture male moths by synthesizing and mimicking moth pheromones [14].
\nKairomones (from a Greek word “kairos” = opportunistic or exploitative): emitted by one organism that stimulate a response in an individual of another species. The response is beneficial to the recipient, e.g., orientation of predaceous checkered beetles (Coleoptera, Cleridae) toward the aggregation pheromone of their prey and bark beetle (Coleoptera, Curculionidae, Scolytinae) [14, 21]. Kairomones may be allomones or pheromones depending on the circumstances. For example, American bolas spiders attract their prey (male moths) by releasing attractant allomones which serve as sex pheromones emitted by female moths. Also, exudates of warm-blooded animals that pull blood-sucking insects toward their hosts serve as kairomones.
\nSynomones: beneficial to both the releaser and receiver. Examples include scents used by flowers to attract pollinating insects. Moreover, herbivore-induced plant volatiles are considered to be active synomones which recruit natural enemies of insect pests toward the affected plants [22]. Also, synomones play an essential role in mate-finding communication. This role relies on the reduction of competition in the olfaction communication channel between closely related species with overlapping pheromone components. This advisable action is important in preventing exhaustion from the time and energy required for orientation toward heterospecifics [23]. In termites, hydroquinone is a phagostimulant compound secreted by labial glands distinguished as pheromones and synomones when different species are partaking the same foraging territory. It acts as a pheromone when recognized by nest mates of the same species and as a synomone when perceived by another termite species [24].
\nAntimones: maladaptive for both the releaser and receiver. These substances are produced or acquired by an organism that, when encountered by another individual of a different species in the natural environment, activate in the receiving individual a repellent response to the emitting and receiving individuals [1].
\nApneumones (from a Greek word “a-pneum” = breathless or lifeless): emitted by a non-living source, causing a favorable behavioral or physiological reaction to a receiving organism, but harmful to other species that may be found either in or on the non-living material. Apneumones were suggested by [7]. Rare cases of these allelochemicals have been found later in the literature, e.g., hexanal and 2-methyl-2-butanol released from rabbit stools attract sandfly females for oviposition [25].
\nChemical communication is an essential item for insects’ survivals that qualify them to adapt their behavior depending on the surrounding environment [1]. In insects, chemical communication is based on a mixture of one or several semiochemical substances which stimulate various receptor organs. The efficiency of semiochemicals in chemical communication is mainly based on various physical properties such as chemical nature, solubility volatility, and its lifetime in the environment. Also, the stability of such volatiles affects their efficiency in IPM programs [1]. Dispersal is a natural activity of insect where the movement is directed (taxes) or random (kineses) which is motivated by chemical or visual stimuli. There are three mechanisms of insect behavioral responses for finding an odor source. In the first mechanism called true chemotaxis, the insects align their body directly toward the odor source due to sensing the gradient of odor molecules. For the second mechanism, the insect does not discover the odor direction but becomes stimulated either for moving at different rates which is called orthokinesis or turning at various frequencies depending on changes in odor concentration (klinokinesis). The third mechanism depends on the odor of molecules impulse insect toward some other stimulus. Anemotaxis is the most common example for this mechanism where the molecules of an attractive chemical stimulate the receptive insects to fly upwind [26].
\nIn insects, chemosensory stimulation occurs in various receptor organs via constant bombardment of chemical signals which improved the insect’s ability to detect, discriminate, and distinguish innumerable different molecules as different odors. The insect receptor organs include antennae, mouthparts, and ovipositors. These receptors are very sensitive even for a few molecules of specific semiochemicals. Attraction (directed movement toward stimuli) and repulsion (directed movement away from stimuli) are the main insect responses to various odors. For field traps, insect catches not only occur via taxes but also via kineses (random movement). The insect can detect any odor by olfactory receptors located in the sensory organs including antennae, mouthparts, and ovipositors [27]. Various types of sensilla are recorded including trichodea, basiconica, styloconica, chaetica, etc. Knowledge of the types of sensilla on the antennae and mouthparts provides a foundation for understanding the olfaction and feeding preferences of herbivorous insect pests and subsequently can be useful for improving new control strategies for the target pests [28, 29]. The basic structure of sensillum is explored by [30] in Figure 2. The sensillum formed from the sensory neuron attached to branched cuticular pores (P) which allows odor passage. Sensillum pores act to filter molecules received from the airstream and concentrated it in the lumen of the sensillum and passed to branched neurons which convey impulses from and to the central nervous system.
\nBasic structure of sensillum [
In insects, the ability to discriminate different odors depends only on the evolutionary pressures of the molecules which stimulate the development of specific binding proteins (BPs) and specific receptor sites present on individual chemosensory neurons. This selectivity bestowed upon chemosensory neurons by the receptor types expressed represents one level of signal filtering in the insect’s olfactory system. The olfaction mechanism in insects is summarized by [14] in Figure 3. In brief, a chemical signal crosses the sensillum lymph (SL) through a pore and then binds to highly specific binding proteins: pheromone binding proteins/odorant binding proteins (PBPs/OBPs). The signal-PBP/OBP-complex passes or is transported to the chemosensory neuron, where it binds to a specific olfactory receptor protein (OR or R) in the neuron membrane. These receptor proteins were identified in 1999 by [31, 32]. They all belong to the same “seven-transmembrane-domain” protein family; however, they differ between taxa a great deal [33]. From a molecular perspective, binding to the OR activates so-called G-proteins, which are also located in the neuron membrane and part of a phosphorylation-dependent energy exchange, triggering a cascade of signaling reactions. These eventually lead to electrical impulses being sent down from the axon of the neuron to the antennal lobe (AL) (Figure 4). The AL is structured into a number of neuron groups (glomeruli) that are innervated separately and only in response to specific individual odors or classes of chemically similar ones [34]. Filtering of these signals is accomplished after reaching the AL glomeruli depending on their quality, quantity, and temporal and spatial characteristics. From the AL, specific patterns of neural activity are processed to higher integrative centers of the brain, such as the mushroom bodies (MBs; Figure 4), which are believed to be involved in the control of complex behaviors.
\nSimplified schematic concept of perireceptor events in the insect’s chemosensory sensilla. Absorbed stimulus molecules diffuse from the sensillum surface through pores in the cuticle (C) into the sensillum lymph. There, they are taken up by odorant- or pheromone-binding proteins and are transported through the aqueous lymph until they reach a specific receptor molecule (R) on the outer dendritic membrane (DM). This activates dendritic ion channels via membrane-bound proteins (*) and intracellular second messenger cascades such as cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), inositol trisphosphate (IP3), and Ca ions. Also, the stimulus molecule could degrade in the sensory lymphatic room by specific enzymes (E) into inactive metabolites so that it can no longer activate the receptor [
Schematic view of the central brain area of the honeybee showing the antennal lobes with their specific glomeruli (small circles). From the AL projection neurons (PN) send olfactory information into the mushroom bodies. The MBs are higher-order integration centers of olfactory, visual, and mechanosensory information and are believed to play a role in the control of complex behaviors as well as learning and memory. SOG: Sub-esophageal ganglion [
Olfactory/chemical signals represent essential components in different insect management strategies including monitoring, mass trapping, luring and killing, mating disruption, and push-pull strategy (stimulo-deterrent diversion). Also, host plant volatiles play an important role in IPM strategies as the main olfactory response of insect pests for determination of food, mates, and/or oviposition and hibernation sites [1]. Host plant volatiles are often induced by different environmental factors. For instance, the feeding process of herbivore may increase emission of volatiles in plants; these volatiles are referred to as herbivore-induced plant volatiles that stimulate natural enemies to find their prey as illustrated in Figure 5 [37]. Moreover, isolation and identification of such molecules are essential for consideration as new substances involved in IPM programs.
\nHerbivore-induced volatile effects on herbivores and their natural enemies [
Recently, the application of different semiochemicals has become an important category of integrated pest management. Various semiochemical compounds are widely applied not only for controlling insect pests [38, 39, 40, 41] but also for conservation of rare and threatened insects [42]. Semiochemical substances provide prospective interest in IPM programs depending on the outcome advantages of using such substances. For instance, these substances are distinguished by high volatility that allows diffusion for long distances, application in low concentrations, and rapid dissipation that reduces health and environmental risks compared with chemical pesticides. The efficacy of such molecules mainly depends on their physical properties, i.e., molecular structure, volatility, solubility, and lifetime in the environment. Also, the environmental factors are an important parameter that affect the activity of semiochemical compounds. For example, temperature affects the stability of such compounds by increasing the diffusion of volatile compounds, leading to decreased molecule lifetime in the environment [1].
\nControl strategies of herbivorous insects are mainly based on semiochemicals which include monitoring, mass trapping, lure-and-kill (attract-annihilate), mating disruption, and push-pull strategy (stimulo-deterrent diversion) tactics. Pheromones are considered as a promising and important component in IPM programs. It can be applied singly or in integration with other control strategies in the agricultural system management for monitoring and controlling various insect pests [1]. The pheromone application is performed in two ways: indirect control and direct control strategies. The direct control involved mass trapping and area-wide dissemination which includes disruption, attractant, and attract-and-kill (lure-and-kill). However, the indirect control involves monitoring for quarantine and spray timing strategy. Pheromone traps are widely used commercially for different purposes in IPM strategies. For example, pheromone-baited traps are used as attract-and-kill or mating disruption techniques to prevent males from reproducing. Furthermore, pheromone can play an important role for detection of information about insect populations. It represents an overview for sex ratio and the mating status which are serious data for the detection of the population phase which is subject to cyclical changes in population density [43, 44]. Interestingly, strategies depending on pheromone application are useful for measuring the genetic diversity of insect pests. For example, the genetic diversity of the Asian long-horned beetle in Asia, North America, and Europe is reported to be based on pheromone traps [45].
\nCombinations of different communication signals are extremely more efficient in attracting insects than a single stimulus for controlling insect pests. The most successful strategies for insect management were recorded for a combination between different communication signals as visual (color, shape, or size) and olfactory stimuli [1]. Lure-and-kill strategy is an important and widespread tactic which used sticky materials to prevent captured insect from escaping and/or baited with insecticide. Also, combining an insecticide and/or a food stimulant can further enhance the efficacy of visual-depending traps for field applications. The chemical and visual stimuli that attract insects to their host plants have been incorporated into a wide range of insect traps that work better than using a single stimulus [46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Many examples exist where visual stimuli enhance insect responses to semiochemical-based traps [51, 52, 53]. Using spheres with red color attractant coated with a non-drying adhesive combined with attractants with odors resembling ripening apples results in an excellent control of the apple maggot fly,
In [1] it was reported that the main reasons adolescent use social media is for information sharing, alleviating boredom, escapism, to interact socially with peers, building social capital and to receive feedback on their appearances. Therefore, adolescents’ participation in social media platforms is an important aspect for “social participation” [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, research has also shown that social media use can have an impact on the emotional state of the adolescent and the extent to which they can be influenced by peers [5]. Although, research on adolescents’ use of social media is widely reported, this research is focusing on one social media platform, YouTube. YouTube is a video sharing platform that allows content creators to share videos easily, and viewers can view most videos without subscription, registration or restriction.
According to [6] 80% of parents survey in the United States of America (USA) indicate that their children younger than 11 years of age watches videos on YouTube. According to [7] 85% of USA boys and 70% of USA girls between the ages 13 and 17 years of age use YouTube on a daily basis.
In [3] it was shown that adolescents develop a familiarity with the YouTubers (both as content creators and viewers) as they can identify with what they represent. This prolific use of YouTube by adolescents, and even pre-adolescent children, expose children to a variety of content: good and bad. Although it has been reported that adolescent do access YouTube content “for good” such as incidental learning [8], informal learning [9], dealing with anxiety [10], practicing safe sexual health [11] and to obtain information regarding medical procedures [12] to name a few, unfortunately a number of studies have reported on using YouTube “for bad”.
This chapter reports on a systematic review of literature on the negative aspects associated with YouTube, specifically concerning adolescents.
The chapter is structured as follows: Section 2 provides a description of the research methodology, Section 3 provides the data analysis and results. The results are discussed in Section 4 and the chapter is concluded in Section 5.
This study employed a systematic review of literature as the methodology. Two research platforms (ProQuest and Ebscohost) were used to access scholarly articles. The ProQuest platform included 12 databases (including ProQuest Central, Health & medical Collection, healthcare Administration database, Nursing and Allied Heath Database and Psychology Database) and the Ebscohost platform included multiple databases (including APA PscyArticles, APA PsycInfo, Family and Society Studies Worldwide, Health Source – consumer edition, Health source: Nursing/academic edition, humanities source, MEDLINE,) In both instances the search terms used were “YouTube” AND “(adolescents or teenagers)”. In both instances “YouTube” had to appear in the title of the paper and “adolescents/teenagers” needed to appear in the abstract of the paper. This search criteria ensured that the search was focused on the YouTube social media platform, with the user segment of adolescents or teenagers. The only filtered aspect was that only peer reviewed scholarly articles should be included.
The initial search with the keywords revealed 99 papers. 76 papers were excluded based on the following criteria:
Duplicate paper
Not written in English
Not focusing on “dark side” aspects
Table 1 illustrates that the final results obtained was a review of 24 papers. These 24 papers.
Platform | Initial results | Final results |
---|---|---|
ProQuest | 44 | 6 |
EbscoHost | 58 | 18 |
Search results.
Thematic Analysis [13] was employed to analyze the content of each of the 24 papers. Phase one is concerned with the researcher familiarizing herself with the data. This was accomplished by reviewing the articles obtained in the search and applying the exclusion criteria. Phases two to five almost occurred in parallel. Phase two was concerned with coding which involves the identification of the theme addressed by the paper. Eight main themes were identified and is illustrated in Table 2. The third phase was concerned with sub-themes. For example, it emerged that YouTube videos featuring smoking also features violence and sexualized imagery. Phase four was concerned with reviewing the themes. This phase involved identifying links between sub-themes, for example it emerged that YouTube videos featuring alcohol also featured sexualized content. This is illustrated in Figure 1. Phase five was self-evident, as the eight themes that emerged was very well-defined in terms of the context in which it was presented. Phase six is concerned with the write up of the data. This was done in two phases, first by providing a short description on each of the studies and then discussing the results in Section 6.
Theme | Source | Year of study |
---|---|---|
Smoking | [14, 15, 16, 17] | 2010, 2016, 2017, 2013 |
Alcohol | [15, 18, 19, 20] | 2016, 2017, 2015, 2017 |
Body Image/Health | [21, 22, 23] | 2020, 2013, 2017 |
Bullying | [2, 24, 25] | 2018, 2017, 2017 |
Self-Harm/Suicide | [26, 27, 28] | 2020, 2011, 2010 |
Advertising | [19, 29] | 2015, 2020 |
Drugs | [2, 30] | 2018, 2010 |
Vulnerabilities | [2, 31] | 2018, 2017 |
Themes identified from paper.
Themes and sub-themes.
Thematic analysis uncovered eight major themes. The themes that were uncovered are detailed in Table 2.
Figure 1 illustrate how the themes (in yellow) are connected with the sub themes (in blue). The themes and sub themes have emerged from the literature where the authors discussed the theme in terms of the sub themes. For example, Kim et al. [14] conducted a content analysis of smoking fetish videos on YouTube and discovered videos containing smoking glamourizes the activity and it also contains a lot of sexualized imagery and violence. They call for guidelines to manage videos as young children have access to videos that should have parental guidance (PG) ratings.
Likewise, YouTube videos featuring alcohol, also contained sexualized imagery, were present in a number of music videos [18] where the use of alcohol was glamourized [20] and advertised [19].
Each of these themes will be discussed below.
Four of the twenty four articles discussed the promotion and “eroticized” nature [14] of smoking. In [14] 200 videos were sampled from 2300 videos obtained by using the search words “smoking fetish” and “smoking fetishism”. Their analysis revealed (at 4 November 2007) 2220 smoking fetish videos. Using the same search term (“smoking fetch”) it was observed by looking at the playlists only, that there are over 7000 smoking fetish videos now1. Their analysis further showed that although some content was not available for under 18-year old’s, 85.1% of the content was available to everybody. Their study further found that almost 60% of the smoking fetish videos were sexually charged with scantily clad women. They also recommended stronger rating for the videos as it contained sexuality and violence.
In [16] it was tested whether health messages that informs adolescents of the risks of smoking had an impact on their perception of smoking. Their research showed that smoking exposure to adolescents on YouTube correlates with an apparent increased prevalence of smoking.
In [15] it was investigated how tobacco was presented in music videos. The results showed that, at that time (2015), the music videos contained 203 million representations of tobacco products where adolescents were exposed four times more than adults to tobacco products per head of the UK population. The research also showed that for both alcohol and tobacco girls were more.
In [17] it was explained that adolescents perceive cigars to be less harmful than cigarettes. As a consequence, smokers remove the tobacco binder through a process known as “freaking”. The results of their multi-study indicated that adolescents participate in freaking because they believe it ‘Easier to smoke’ (54%), ‘Beliefs in reduction of health risks’ (31%), ‘Changing the burn rate’ (15%) and ‘Taste enhancement’ (12%). Study 2, which concentrated on the comments of freaking videos, indicated that adolescents were unaware or not understanding the risks associated with smoking.
The alcohol theme is associated with the presence or consumption of alcohol in YouTube videos. Four papers reported on the extent to which alcohol was present in YouTube videos.
Further to what was reported above, [15] also investigated how the presence of alcohol was presented in music videos. The results showed that, at that time (2015), the music videos contained 1006 million representations of alcohol products where adolescents were exposed five times higher for alcohol than for tobacco and four times higher than adults for alcohol representations per head of the UK population. Exposed than boys.
In a further study of Cranwell et al. [18] analyzed “lyrics and visual imagery” of “49 UK Top 40 songs and music videos”. They found that the presence of alcohol in music videos were often accompanied with sexualized imagery or the objectification of women., that the use of alcohol was part of the image, lifestyle and sociability of the video actors and finally the videos promoted excessive drinking with no regards to consequences. Their study concluded, with a caution to the role of advertisers play in the promotion of music video product placements. The placement of alcohol in the videos are often not in line with the “advertising codes of practice”.
Managing the advertising content on social media, has received some attention. In [19] it was investigated whether organizations conform to their digital marketing standards, even on social media. Specifically, the study focused on the extent alcohol is advertised/promoted on YouTube to viewers that are under the legal drinking age. The also, found that alcohol companies’ digital marketing is not sufficient to protect underage viewers from viewing advertisements that promotes the consumption of alcoholic beverages.
In [20] it was further reported that alcohol use was presented as a fun, social activity with underage drinkers. A content analysis on 137 YouTube videos were conducted and concluded that YouTube is an effective platform to advertise alcohol use to adolescents.
The body image/health theme is concerned with the way body image/health information is communicate and perceived on YouTube. Three papers reported on the dissemination of body image/health data on YouTube.
In [21] an experimental study was conducted to examine the effects of health advice on “adolescent girls’ state of self-objectification, appearance anxiety and preference on products that can be used to enhance appearance”. The study used YouTube videos to inform adolescent girls on healthy behaviors. The results from 154 adolescent girls showed that younger girls tend to self-objectify more. Furthermore, the younger adolescent girls’ self-objectification mediated the effects on appearance anxiety and the use of products to improve their appearance.
In [22] misinformation spread on YouTube regarding anorexia was investigated. Three doctors analyzed 140 videos on YouTube regarding anorexia. They classified content as “informative, pro-anorexia, or other”. It was found there were less pro-anorexia videos than informational videos creating awareness on anorexia, but pro-anorexia videos were more liked by the viewers. The researchers advocated for more awareness on truthfulness of YouTube videos, especially concerning beauty and lifestyle advice. They recommended that celebrities should be employed to create awareness of anorexia.
In [23] it was reported on adolescents accessing YouTube videos to learn about weight loss. They reported that adolescents showed negative feelings regarding body image. The exploratory research analyzed 50 videos that were identified by searching with the key word “diet”. Their analysis concluded that the videos did not show appropriate guidelines to safely lose weight as it was made by non-qualified people. They recommended that policies by government should be in place, or at least be present on the YouTube platform to guide the information being made available on YouTube.
Bullying is concerned with the actions to cause physical or emotional harm to another party. Four papers reported on the extent of bullying content visible in YouTube videos. In [2, 31] it was identified as a common theme as part of digital vulnerabilities of adolescents. However, two papers focused exclusively on bullying.
In [24] investigated the degree to which bullying content is present on YouTube. They found that 89 videos showed violence, 38 videos presented content related to suicide. Only 56 videos were promulgating positive messages related to finding help. They concluded that professional agencies should work towards spreading messages to stop bullying behavior.
In [25] it was reported that YouTube is the most popular social networking platform among Canadian adolescents. This research reported on the analysis of 55 video logs (vlogs) about bullying. They recommended that YouTube can be used as a platform to disseminate and discuss bully behavior.
Self-harm/suicide theme is associated with activity to inflict injuries on themselves, or in extreme cases take their own lives. Four papers reported on these types of activities. In [32] research on the “blue whale challenge” was reported. The “blue whale challenge” encouraged adolescents to self-harm and eventually kill themselves. Through a thematic analysis of comments on 60 publicly posted YouTube videos, they learnt that although the comments were focused on raising awareness of the risks of the challenge, it might encourage vulnerable individuals to partake in the challenge. They advocated for “safe messaging guidelines” to create awareness to social media users on the risks associated with content that promote self-harm/suicide.
In [26] reference is made to another challenge, namely Tide pod, which encourages non-suicidal self-harm. The analysis of 413 YouTube videos that featured content on self-harm/suicide revealed that 80% of the videos promoted awareness regarding the risks. Other results indicated that an anlysis of the comments revealed that 2.9% of the comments encouraged suicide, 2.1% of the comments were on how to fight suicidal thoughts, 5.4% of the comments were related to the poster wanting to commit suicide and 5.8% of the comments were negative. They concluded that further research is needed to investigate the negative impact social media platforms can have on the mental health of adolescents.
In [27] the 50 most popular videos depicting self-harm was analyzed. It was revealed that 58% of the videos did not warn viewers of the potential sensitive content to be displayed. The analysis showed that 42% of the videos were portraying a neutral message with regards to self-harm, 27% of the videos discouraged self-harm. However, 23% of the videos provided “mixed messages” regarding self-harm and 7% of the videos encouraged self-harm. They concluded their research by recommending that teachers and parents need to be made aware of self-harm content on YouTube to which vulnerable adolescents can be exposed to.
In [28] 65 videos that demonstrated the asphyxiation game was analyzed. Results showed that 90% of the videos featured males. The videos demonstrated different asphyxiation techniques, including hypoxic seizures (55%) and the sleeper hold (88%). The researchers concluded that YouTube provides a platform for adolescents to view videos on choking and that continued exposure to such videos might normalize the act of choking. They advocated for increased awareness of this to alert youths to the risks associated with the choking games.
Product advertisement on YouTube, is not always regulated by the same digital marketing guidelines as formal digital marketing platforms. Two papers spoke directly about the advertisement of products in YouTube videos.
Further to the promotion of alcohol in [19] to underage drinkers, as reported above, another paper investigated the presence of product placement in microcelebrities’ YouTube videos.
In [29] 1961 comments were analyzed and it revealed that the followers of the specific YouTube channel accepted the commercial content promoted by the star of the YouTube channel. However, they cautioned that viewers are not always aware of product placement, due to lack of transparency, and that viewers might have a skewed view of the life of microcelebrities and the extent to which their lifestyles are supported by industry.
Three papers, [2, 30, 31] reference drugs as being a theme in YouTube videos. Although [2, 31] referenced the presence of drugs as a general theme, [30] explained in detail the effect of Salvia, a short-acting hallucinogenic drug that adolescents in the United States used. The research focused on the analysis of self-taped videos of the use of Salvia. It was reported that the onset of the drugs’ effects was quick, within 30 seconds and lasted for approximately 8 minutes. The research concluded that YouTube was an effective medium to showcase the effect of drug use.
Through content analysis [2, 31] found that YouTube content creators focused on four major themes of: sex, bullying, pregnancy and drugs. These four themes presented the vulnerabilities adolescents are exposed through YouTube content. They concluded that the language used in the YouTube content was aimed at adolescents. Furthermore, they found that the videos that adolescents made themselves, were more often watched by other adolescents. Videos that were made by institutions to promote a certain “positive” message, were not well watched, or distributed.
The analysis of the 24 articles provided eight “dark side” themes associated with YouTube content that adolescents engage with. These “dark side” themes describe the typical dangers that adolescent can be exposed to when viewing YouTube videos.
It was apparent that a number of videos featured sexualized imagery, in addition to the promotion of smoking and alcohol consumption [14, 18]. The promotion of alcohol to underage drinkers were also revealed [19, 20].
It was quite interesting to observe that the context in which smoking and alcohol was promoted was through music videos. Often in the music videos, smoking and the consumption of alcohol was perceived as fun, and socializing activities [18].
A number of papers reported that certain YouTube videos do attempt to create awareness of the risks and dangers associated with some activities promoted on YouTube [26, 32]. However, the research reported mixed results. For example, in [22] it was reported that there are fewer pro-anorexia videos observed from the sample than informational videos that caution against anorexia, however the pro-anorexia videos were more “liked” than the informational videos.
A common theme that emerged from the research was: “regulation”. In [14] it was stated that the regulation of smoking advertisements, and smoking fetishism is not sufficient. Strong regulations on advertising was also mentioned in [19]. Advertising Agencies need to be made aware, or realize that the viewers of YouTube content are becoming younger [6], and potentially more vulnerable due to the desensitizing effect of over consumption of YouTube content. The promotion of inappropriate products, such underage drinking and smoking, and the potential unawareness of a young viewer of intentional product placement [29] need to be more effectively regulated. Adolescents are greatly influenced by social media influencers [33] or microcelebrities [29] and although the intention of these influencers or microcelebrities are not always negative, they might unintentionally promote negative behavior. Furthermore, the use of “corrective messages” [16] to counteract the effect of making smoking socially acceptable. This was also advocated by [24] who argued that governmental institutions or professional organizations invest in the promulgation of “positive messages” to prevent bullying and assist adolescents who are/have been bullied.
Parents need to be aware of the availability of potentially harmful content on YouTube (also other video sharing platforms such as Tic Toc). Often, the harmful videos do not limit underage or vulnerable viewers to access the content. Although it was shown that some videos to promulgate health messages, parents need to ensure that their children do not get desensitized due to the over consumption of content. Children often do not understand the risks associated with certain “fun” activities such as freaking [17] or games [26, 32].
Adolescents’ motivation of social media use in general can provide the explanation of the impact it can have on adolescent well-being. In [1] it was shown that motivation for social media use which include passing the time or escapism are inversely related to well-being and body satisfaction and well-being respectively. Therefore, apart from the “negative message” received on social media, such as YouTube, the reason for “escaping” or “passing the time” using social media can further have a detrimental effect on adolescent well-being.
YouTube (and similar video sharing platforms) is a popular social media platform for adolescents. Although not all the content on YouTube is problematic, this research has shown that there is truly worrisome content on YouTube which adolescents, especially young adolescents have free access to. Although social media use in general need to be regulated, parents need to regulate the content that their younger adolescents consume of YouTube as the do not always understand the risks associated with the content presented. Also, due to the presentation of some content as “fun” and “sociable”, it can normalize viewers into believing that it is acceptable to partake in illustrated activities.
Apart from “being aware” of potential harmful content on YouTube which can have a detrimental impact on the well-being of adolescents, regulating authorities need to capitalize on the prolific viewership of YouTube by promoting “positive messages” on YouTube.
Furthermore, although the focus of the study was on uncovering the themes that can promulgate “negative messages”, parents, users and regulators need to be aware that the motivations of adolescents’ YouTube use might in itself be harmful to their well-being.
Due to the limited number of empirical studies conducted on the “dark themes of YouTube”, future research can be dedicated to uncovering the impact these dark themes have on the well-being of adolescents.
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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As I have had opportunities to live and visit some countries regularly since 2009, it became possible to study owl beliefs mainly in Kyrgyzstan but also comparing some findings with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Turkmenistan. In Kyrgyzstan, 124 persons were interviewed in 2010: 82 males and 42 females. Age of respondents varied from 12 to over 60 and all lived in the capital area of the country. Half of the respondents listed owls as wise and 43% just as a bird, and nobody saw the owl as a bird bringing bad luck. On the contrary, 34% believed that owls are helpful and bring good luck. Kazakhstan shares a Central Asian veneration of owls. Eurasian eagle owl feathers are used as precious amulets protecting children and livestock from evil spirits. The main reason why so many Mongolian people hold the owl to be sacred could be the history that the owl once saved the life of Genghis Khan, king of kings and supreme Khan of all the Mongols and Kalmyks in Tartary Empire. 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