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[2] among thousands of human-made chemicals, almost 1000 chemicals may have endocrine-disrupting properties [3]. Initially, it was thought that EDCs deploy their actions mainly through various nuclear hormone receptors like estrogen receptors (ERs), progesterone receptors (PRs), androgen receptors (ARs) and thyroid receptors. However, as research progressed on EDCs and their mechanism of actions, it is now known that they can also act on non-nuclear receptors, nonsteroid receptors, orphan receptors and other enzymatic pathways related to metabolism, cancer and other physiological processes [2].
As the compounds classified under EDCs are from dispersed heterogeneous sources, they can be divided into two major classes, synthetic and natural. Synthetic EDCs include industrial solvents and their byproducts [dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), alkylphenols etc.], agricultural pesticides [methoxychlor (MTX), chlorpyrifos, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)], fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, plasticizers [phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA)] and pharmaceuticals [diethylstilbestrol (DES)] whereas, phytoestrogens (genistein, coumestrol etc.) are grouped under natural sources of EDCs. Humans are exposed to the broad range of EDCs mainly through the dietary intake (fish, meat, dairy and poultry products) and to some extent by inhalation and dermal uptake [2, 4]. Mostly EDCs are highly lipophilic, and they tend to get accumulated in the adipose tissues [5, 6]. They can accumulate in human and other large mammals’ fatty tissues through biomagnification and bioaccumulation as they are the top predators in the food chain [7]. Due to their long half-life, they remain stored in the adipose tissues for years. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are the best example of long term accumulations in human tissues [8]. However, plasticizers like BPA have a very short estimated half-life of about four hours. Instead of bioaccumulation, they generally get excreted via urine [9]. Still, BPA has a very adverse effect on the human endocrine system due to their continuous exposure throughout the days [10].
Among the vast range of chemicals under EDCs, some are referred to as “obesogens” as they promote or induce weight gain in individuals by altering endocrine pathways involved in metabolism, energy homeostasis and appetite. The phthalates, perfluorinated compounds, BPA, dioxins, and some pesticides showed obesogenic potentials [11, 12]. Though their mechanism of action is not very well understood, some report indicated that these chemicals might act through Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma γ (PPAR-γ), a ligand-activated transcription factor, has a role in various cellular functions as well as glucose homeostasis, lipid metabolism, and prevention of oxidative stress [13, 14]. Some suggest they may act via the thyroid axis, as the thyroid hormone is a crucial regulator of metabolism [15, 16]. Hence, this field is relatively new and emerging in EDC’s research and needs further studies.
The prevalence of obesity and associated diseases like type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndromes and cancers are progressively increasing at an alarming rate in recent years. Globally the cases of obesity have nearly tripled since 1975. As per a WHO report, in 2016, 13% of adults aged 18 or more are obese worldwide. A more recent report stated that approximately thirty-eight million children (under five years) are obese. In simple language, obesity can be defined as an “abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health” [17]. The measure of obesity is generally done by body mass index (BMI), defined as a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of his/her height in meters (kg/m2). A BMI of 30 or greater falls within the obese range; the limit changes to 25 or more in Asian populations [18, 19]. It is a widely accepted fact that the primary cause of obesity is the imbalance between calory intake and energy expenditure. However, obesity is a complex disease caused mainly by endocrine disruption, which also involves interaction between genetic and environmental factors.
The Obesogen Hypothesis suggests that environmental chemicals, characterized as “obesogens,” induce obesity by enhancing the engagement, differentiation and size of adipocytes, by altering metabolic setpoints or modifying the hormonal control of appetite and satiety [20]. Many EDCs are obesogens in nature and found abundantly in our environment, which may induce adipogenesis and lipid accumulation in the tissues. About 50 of such compounds have been identified to date [20]. Various mechanisms of action of the obesogens are discussed later in this chapter.
Obesogens have peculiar characteristics which make them potential to interfere with various endocrine and metabolic pathways. They are believed to be xenohormones as they imitate or partially resemble natural hormones and have unwanted physiological effects. They can bind to endocrine receptors present on the cell membrane, cytosol, or nucleus, thereby altering their natural functions [21]. Along with the structural similarities with native hormones, their ability to do this also relies on its lipophilicity and small molecular weight. Partition coefficient, half-life and molecular weight are the three main components of xenohormones. A partition coefficient (P) is “the ratio of the concentration of a substance in one medium or phase (C1) to the concentration in a second phase (C2) when the two concentrations are at equilibrium; that is, partition coefficient = (C1/C2)equal.” [22]. This is how the distribution efficiency of a chemical is measured between two mediums. Here in obesogen’s case, it is between the tissue and blood. A compound’s octanol–water partition coefficient expresses that (KOW), referred to the ratio of a chemical’s concentration in the octanol phase to its concentration in the aqueous phase of a two-phase octanol/water system [23]. It is an essential measure of its lipophilicity of a chemical. The bioaccumulation and toxicity of a chemical largely depend upon KOW. As being organic, obesogens are naturally lipophilic compound, which means they have a higher KOW value. More the value of the KOW of a compound, the more will be its tendency to accumulate in the adipose tissues [24].
Now, coming to the half-life, the biological half-life of a chemical is the time it takes to break down or eliminate half of the chemical’s quantity from the body. In the body, a longer biological half-life implies longer endurance. Ideally, obesogens have longer biological half-lives means a short exposure can have life-long consequences [25]. The last of the three properties, molecular weight, refers to the size of a compound molecule. Small molecules can diffuse more readily through adipocytes. However, many large molecules having high molecular weight can give rise to smaller metabolites which may have a similar effect to obesogens [24]. The bioaccumulation and the binding affinity for the receptors largely depend upon these three criteria. Many obesogens perfectly fit into these criteria. Moreover, some of them are also resistant to degradation [e.g. 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47)] [21]. A summary of some well-known obesogens with their characteristics is listed in Table 1.
Source | Obesogens | Chemical characteristics | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Log KOW | Biological Half-life | Mol. weight | ||
Industrial | BPA | 3.32 | 21.3 +/− 7.4 h [26] | 228.29 g/mol |
Bisphenol S (BPS) | 1.65 | 6.8 ± 0.7 h [27] | 250.27 g/mol | |
BDE-47 | 6.76 [28] | 664 days [29] | 485.79 g/mol | |
3,3′,4,4′-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB-77) | 6.72 | 1.2 Months [30] | 292 g/mol | |
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) | 7.6 | 12 hours [31] | 390.6 g/mol | |
Dioxin | 6.8 | 5.8 years [32] | 322 g/mol | |
Perfluorooctanoic acid | 4.81 | 12.6 days | 414.07 g/mol | |
Pesticides/insecticides | Dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) | 6.91 | 7 years [33] | 354.5 g/mol |
Tributyltin (TBT) | 3.1–4.1 [34] | 23–30 days [35] | 290.1 g/mol | |
Atrazine | 2.61 | 10.8–11.2 hours [36] | 215.68 g/mol | |
Pharmaceuticals | Diethylstilbestrol (DES) | 5.07 | 2–3 days [37] | 268.3 g/mol |
Nicotine | 1.17 | 2 h [38] | 162.23 g/mol |
Chemical characteristics of some obesogens.
Note: All values are acquired from the PubChem database otherwise mentioned.
Though the mechanism of obesogens’ actions in inducing obesity is not very clear, some studies suggest few mechanisms by which obesogen could act. This disruption of lipid homeostasis by obesogen may involve several mechanisms, some of which are as follows (Figure 1):
increasing the adipocytes number,
increasing the size of the adipocytes,
altering endocrine regulation of adipose tissue development,
changing hypothalamic regulation of appetite and satiety
altering basal metabolic rate and energy homeostasis
altering insulin sensitivity at the organ level
Mechanisms of obesogen actions.
Obesogens generally disturb the endocrine system by interfering with PPARγ and other hormone receptors like estrogen receptor, androgen receptors and glucocorticoid receptors. PPARγ is one of the primary regulators of adipogenesis. It is highly expressed in adipose tissues and induce differentiation of adipocytes by promoting lipogenic enzymes. Along with adipogenesis, it activates genes involved in maintaining energy balance. Upon activation, PPARγ forms a heterodimer complex with nuclear receptor 9-cis retinoic acid receptor (RXR) an act as promoters for the genes required for storage of fatty acid and repression of lipolysis. That is why this PPARγ:RXR heterodimer is called the “master regulator of adipogenesis” [39]. Obesogen tributyltin (TBT) acts as a ligand and show high binding affinity with PPARγ and nuclear receptor RXR. By activating PPARγ and RXR, it might promote adipogenesis and lipid dysbiosis [40, 41]. Obesogens like spirodiclofen and quinoxyfen activate PPARγ while others like fludioxonil activate RXR [13]. Phthalates are also known activators of PPARγ, as they are shown to promote 3 T3-L1 cells to adipocytes differentiation [42]. Obesogen can increase the amount of adipose tissue by increasing the size as well as numbers of adipocytes. They can induce the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to differentiate into preadipocytes and adipocytes [43]. In vitro assays show numerous compounds with obesogenic properties can induce the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to differentiate into preadipocytes and adipocytes via PPARγ dependent pathways. TBT exposure to 3 T3-L1 preadipocytes induces them to differentiate into white adipose tissues (WAT) [44]. Bisphenol A (BPA), combined with insulin, can accelerate the conversion of 3 T3-L1 fibroblasts to adipocytes [45]. Even prenatal exposure to TBT in mouse shows preferential differentiation of MSCs towards the adipose lineage [43] (Figure 2).
PPARγ-RXR mediated action of obesogens.
From the studies available so far, it is evident that any ligand which can bind to PPARγ can induce adipogenesis and can be called obesogens. However, as human adipose tissue stores many of them, they can have a more significant cumulative effect. These additive effects are not well studied yet.
Obesogens are reported to act via other hormone receptors like estrogen receptor, androgen receptors and glucocorticoid receptors. Many studies have reported that they act via the nuclear hormone receptor-mediated pathways. Molecular cross talks with other signaling pathways have also been reported. Steroid hormones have an essential role in lipid storage and disposition of body fat. Estrogen based hormone replacement therapy is prescribed to women at their menopause to remodel their adipose depot. Foetal or neonatal exposure to phytoestrogens may induce obesity in later stages of life. Well-known phytoestrogen genistein, commonly found in soy-based foods, affects adipose tissue deposition in a dose-dependent and gender-specific manner [46].
Neonatal exposure of DES to female mice led to weight gain in adulthood. However, this effect can be sex-biased. While some EDCs may act directly via cellular steroid receptors by inducing estrogen synthesis, other EDCs may act indirectly. It is established that adipose tissue is a site of estrogen synthesis. The adipocyte cytoplasm contains the enzyme cytochrome P450 aromatase, which plays a vital role in converting estrogen from androgen. It is now reported that several EDCs can impair intracellular aromatase activity [47]. This action may raise intracellular estrogen levels in adipocytes and lead to obesity irrespective of the sexes [48]. It is reported that TBT can directly reduce the activity of the aromatase enzyme in adipose tissue at high doses, leading to reduced estradiol levels and down-regulation of the ER target genes. TBT also has an inhibitory effect on 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2, which leads to reduced inactivation of cortisol. It is believed that increased glucocorticoid levels could influence adipocyte differentiation and regulation of metabolism [40].
Some obesogens, especially the persistent organic pollutants (POPs), act via the ligand-activated transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). AhR activates xenobiotic-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450s. They can promote adipogenesis indirectly by changing PPARγ expression.
In some recent studies, researchers found that they are not linked to activation of any nuclear hormone receptors; instead, they followed some novel mechanisms, which make their mechanism of action more complex. Those include epigenetic modifications, impairment of thermogenesis and dysbiosis in gut microbiota. Some of these mechanisms will be discussed in the following sections. Some recent studies correlated COVID-19 pandemic to the obesogenic exposures, that is also being discussed in this chapter.
Epigenetics is defined as the study of heritable changes in phenotype resulting from environmentally influenced modifications of genome. Epigenetic modification can alter gene expression during development and cellular differentiation in response to environmental factors such as chemical contaminants. These modifications include DNA methylation at cytosine residues of 5′ to guanine sites (CpG sites), chemically modifying histone proteins and noncoding RNAs interference [49]. DNA methylation was considered a key mechanism responsible for adult diseases with developmental origins [50]. DNA methylation changes are responsible for the transgenerational effects of exogenous exposed individuals to chemicals and nutrition deficits [51]. For instance, the obesogen pesticide TBT induced changes in DNA methylation and histone modification invitro. Various reports have documented the environmental chemicals, including obesogens, led to an epigenetic modification in vivo and obesogen phenotype even in unexposed generations. TBT exposure in 3 T3-L1 mice preadipocytes invitro resulted in increased adipocyte differentiation along with decreased DNA methylation levels. Increased differentiation level towards the adipogenic lineage was observed in adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) isolated from TBT exposed mice perinatally but at the cost of decreased osteogenesis. ADSCs exposed to TBT were associated with increased adipogenesis marker genes, such as PPARγ target gene Fapb4, where methylation level decreased in the promoter region. However, PPARγ mRNA levels were increased, but DNA methylation at its promoter region had no effects [43]. A possible reason for this lack of epigenetic regulation might be that EDC exposure during differentiation process causes DNA histone demethylation. Ultimately, PPARγ, which is under the control of H3K27me3, causes the gene to be promptly up-regulated. Importantly, prenatal exposure to TBT has been recently shown to cause the transgenerational inheritance of adiposity. It remains to be determined whether these transgenerational effects are related to permanent changes in DNA methylation profiles or other epigenetic processes.
Recent advances found in understanding adipocyte function was the presence of thermogenic brown adipose tissue (BAT) in adult human beings in a dispersed manner, not as found in concentrated discrete depots in human infants. Another discovery of white adipose tissue can also be induced to produce thermogenic fat called beige or brite fat. Increased mitochondria production is responsible for differentiation of both bona fide brown adipocytes and beiging of white adipocytes. This thermogenesis relies on the capacity to dissipate energy in the form of heat through uncoupling of cellular oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis via Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) or sometimes through shivering. Some of the evidence has documented how some obesogens impede the production and function of thermogenic adipocytes. For instance, perinatal exposures to DDT in mice have long term-effects on thermogenesis regulation in their female offspring. When female offspring reached up to 6 months of age, they showed reduced energy expenditure & ultimately decreased thermogenesis capacity. However, no change in their physical activity was observed. Thermogenesis impairment was due to the decreased expression of PPAR-γ co-activator 1α (Ppargc1a), a master regulator for thermogenesis related genes and type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (DiO2) (the enzyme that catalyzes thyroid hormone T4 to convert into T3 which stimulates BAT thermogenesis) [52]. Secondly, Shoucri and his colleagues [49] found that TBT or rexinoids have inhibited adipocytes’ production. Other EDCs increase thermogenesis by changing mRNA and protein levels of UCP-1. Adult mice exposed to PFOA and PFOS through diet (containing 0.02% w/w) for ten days exhibited BAT mitochondria activation for increased oxidative capacity and protein levels of UCP-1, resulting in decreased depots size of adipose tissue. PFOA exposure (80–40 μM) during in-vitro experiments activates UCP1 similarly as fatty acids. These examples indicate how obesogens influence obesity by impairing thermogenesis during the in-vitro and in vivo study. This intriguing area of obesogen epidemic and their mechanism remains to be elucidated. Through their Horizon 2020 programme, the European Union has funded several grants to establish new assays to assess EDCs effects on metabolic-end points and identify those chemicals that affect thermogenesis [53].
The gut microbiome is defined as “the totality of microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi, and their collective genetic material present in the gastrointestinal tract” by molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg. Obesogen exposure could lead to obesity by altering the gut microbiome, a relatively novel mechanism which leads to obesity. It is well understood that obesity is correlated with gut microbiome composition [54]. Some experimental data shows that the transplant of gut microbe from obese mice can induce obesity in lean mice [55]. Conversely, the gut microbiome transplant from lean donors improved the metabolic disorder condition in obese mice [56]. It is evident from several experimental data that many obesogens induce the gut microbiome dysbiosis in zebrafish [57], mice [58] and human [59]. In mice, gut microbial dysbiosis was associated with increased fat accumulation or impaired lipid metabolism after exposure to triphenyl phosphate. Tributyltin exposure induces gut microbiome dysbiosis with increased body weight gain and dyslipidemia in mice [58]. Though, it is not yet apparent whether this metabolic disruption is a result of the gut microbiota dysbiosis or not.
Additionally, some microbial metabolites have also been reported as AhR agonists and antagonists [60, 61], as we are already aware that activating AhR inhibits adipogenesis. In contrast, inhibition of the activity leads to obesity and fatty liver disease. Two basic dietary emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose and P-80, were reported to initiate intestinal inflammation and gut microbiota dysbiosis, which led to metabolic disorder and increased body weight in mice [62]. These pieces of evidence suggest that inducing obesity via gut microbiota dysbiosis is possibly a potent mechanism for the obesogens to follow. However, to get more clues, this field needs to be studied further extensively.
The current outbreak of novel coronavirus has emerged as a worldwide pandemic in the past year, which is related to the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003 and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012 [63]. Interestingly, a study in 2003 found a positive correlation between air pollution and extreme SARS in the Chinese population. Patients with SARS from regions with a high air pollution index (API) were twice as likely as those from regions with low APIs to die from SARS [64]. A finding based on US population found that long-term exposure to air pollution resulted in a 6% rise in cardiopulmonary mortality risk. Some of these pollutants are potent obesogenic [65].
Human studies have even shown nitrogen dioxide (NO2), one of the components of air pollution, is correlated with higher fasting serum lipids among obese individuals, indicating that obesity can worsen the effects of air pollution [66]. Animal studies have also shown that air pollution particles’ sensitivity early in life will contribute to increased visceral obesity, insulin tolerance, and inflammation, signaling NO2’s function as an endocrine disruptor [67]. Since COVID-19 is similar to SARS in causing respiratory disease, exposure to NO2 can increase the mortality rate of patients with COVID-19. However, future studies are needed to validate this relationship.
One of the most intriguing results in EDCs field came when a series of reports were published by Skinner and colleagues showing EDCs, including DDT and MTX, induce transgenerational obesogenic effects. During F1 generation, prenatally exposed individuals with anti-androgenic fungicide vinclozolin or estrogenic pesticide MTX were associated with disease in various organs in their F4 generation [68]. Similarly, when pregnant mice (FO generation) were exposed to environmentally relevant doses (nM) of TBT through drinking water, then effects on obesity were observed in F1-F3 descendants of exposed animals [69]. Notably, in a similar experiment, the pharmacological obesogen, Rosiglitazone, which can activate PPARγ, could not produce the same transgenerational obesity effects suggesting that different pathways in addition to PPARγ were required to generate transgenerational phenotype [69].
In addition to TBT effects on obesity, Skinner lab has shown several environmental chemicals such as plasticizer (BPA, DEHP, DBP) [70], pesticides MTX [71], a mixed hydrocarbon mixture (jet fuel JP-8) [72] and the widely used pesticide DDT [73], induced transgenerational obesity in a rat model as observed in F3/F4 offspring of ancestral prenatal or perinatal obesogen exposed-FO individuals [71, 72, 73]. Although molecular mechanisms underlying transgenerational inheritance of obesity are currently controversial, researchers belonging to the EDC field believe that these obesogen effects are inherited in an epigenetic manner. This point has got stronger resistance in the genetics sphere [74].
Epidemiological studies are of considerable significance for the association of disease effects with exposure to obesogens. Few cohort-based studies are available to date on the effect of obesogens in human populations. Since a considerable amount of evidence indicate that prenatal exposures predispose patients to obesity, epidemiological research concentrates on obesogenic measurements throughout pregnancy. Increase in child adiposity in multiple birth cohorts was associated with prenatal exposure to PFAS. At the same time, sexual dimorphism was sometimes linked with it [75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. A metapopulation analysis, including ten cohorts, suggests a 25% and 0.1 unit increase in weight and BMI, respectively, per ng/ml of PFOA concentration in maternal blood [80].
A research found that rising concentrations of maternal urinary phthalate during gestation doubled the risk of the offspring becoming overweight or obese [81]. Cohort research on the impact of prenatal BPA exposure has also been correlated with increased waist circumference, BMI, and risk of obesity [82]. Studies of prenatal exposure to phthalates and bisphenols have not shown a consistent association with measures of childhood adiposity compared to studies of prenatal exposure to PFAS [83]. Two studies on the American population showed an association between serum concentrations of PFAS and weight gain irrespective of sexes [84]. PFAS, particularly perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), were linked with alteration in metabolic rate [85].
Few studies have explored the longitudinal impacts on postnatal growth of prenatal exposure to other chemicals. Evidence risen over the past five years indicates that exposure to phthalates leads to adult weight gain, with most research conducted in women. Some studies by the Women’s Health initiative reported a strong correlation between urine concentrations of phthalate metabolites and weight gain [86]. Again, it is to be considered that the effect of a single chemical mostly reflects the epidemiological studies conducted. However, naturally, obesogens ploy cumulative effect as mixtures. The WAT is the depot of obesogens in the human body. More studies should be designed to estimate the accumulative effect of mixtures in future.
In vitro models have several advantages over other model systems. Taking human cells lines for the study can be of great significance considering the physiological relevance. For screening new chemicals for potential obesogenic properties, in vitro studies are generally conducted before animal models. Several cell lines are used to study the obesogenic impacts of several compounds. Among the in vitro models, mouse embryo pre adipocyte 3 T3-L1 has been used extensively to check the effects of obesogens like TBT [87], BPA [88], BPS [89], genistein [90], phthalate [91], nonylphenol [92] and so on. Other cell lines include C2C12 (mice muscle cells) [93], HELA (human cervical cancer cells) [93], HEK293C (human embryonic kidney cells) [94], HepG2 (human liver carcinoma cells) [95], hASCs (human adipose-derived stem cells) [96], C57BL/6 (mice bone marrow stromal cells) [97], hESCs (human embryonic-derived stem cells) [98] etc.
Though animal models are not recommended to study certain chemicals’ obesogenic potential, they do not mimic the human physiological systems. Still, in vivo model systems have certain advantages over in vitro systems as whole-body kinetics and systemic effects can be studied using animal models. Complex linked pathways involving multiple organs, including adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, muscle, brain, etc., regulate metabolism and weight. In understanding the role of chronic inflammation and hormone interference, in vivo experiment is particularly relevant. The most widely used animal model for the study of obesogens is rodents. Multiple obesogens including TBT [69], BPA [99], triphenyltin [100], DEHP [101], DES [102], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, DDT, and nicotine, have been defined as murine models. Mice are identical biologically and anatomically to humans and share many common diseases. It is incredibly useful for diseases with an inflammatory condition, such as obesity, as animal models can mimic complex inflammatory responses. A transgenic model like obese or lean bodied mice can also be created by manipulating required genes. Other commonly used in vivo models include rats [103], zebrafish [104] and drosophila [105]. Many insights into possible obesogens and various modes of action were provided using in vivo models to investigate endocrine disruption. They may not replicate human physiology, as discussed earlier. Mice exposed to a specified amount of one particular molecule over weeks sometimes does not reflect a chronic variable exposure in humans to multiple chemicals over the years. In detecting obesogens and discerning mechanisms of action, animal models play an essential role. However, they should be combined to draw the most reliable conclusions with knowledge from in vitro studies and epidemiological studies.
The obesity epidemic first continues in the US and afterwards expands worldwide; therefore, it becomes a dire need to understand the predisposition and related disorders’ mechanisms. It becomes of utmost importance to study the extent to which the obesogen exposure influences obesity in humans and establishes the risk factors related to obesity. The risk factors include oxidative stress, inflammation, disrupted circadian rhythms, mitochondrial dysfunction and dietary composition. These interactions may be critical in the effects of obesogen exposure. Evidence documented in the obesogen research area shows that their effect mainly depends on the level and timing of exposure, especially critical windows of exposure during fetal development. Hence, it is crucial to reduce or avoid exposure to obesogens, specifically during pregnancy. However, there is no technique to determine if the individuals have been exposed to any obesogens during their development. It will be a “Holy grail” to identify biomarkers of exposure in obesogen research and establish links among obesogen exposure and other factors related to obesity. The obesogen hypothesis opened a new field into obesity by linking EDCs research with developmental disease origin. The obesogen hypothesis is still in the dearth of research. It requires more studies in the mechanism, developmental time windows and diet interaction. The effects of obesogens are related to epigenetics.
However, we still need more research to understand the mechanism and how the effects get transmitted to forthcoming generations. For instance, how does the obesogen exposure of pregnant Fo female mice lead to obesity in upcoming F3 and F4 unexposed males? There is an extreme lack of data on how obesogen exposure programs adipose tissue dysfunctional that could readily store but not mobilize fat. The obesogen sphere is almost 15 years old only. Much has been studied related to potential effects of EDCs and obesogens. The most substantial evidence for chemical obesogens existence may be the variety of pharmaceuticals that have the side effects of making patients obese. Several international and national workshops have been held to understand the potential role of EDCs in obesity and related metabolic disorders [53]. Thus, various policies and strategies should investigate the magnitude of environmental obesogenic pollutants on the obesity epidemic and the regulatory actions required on such chemicals to improve public health.
The majority of evidence that indicates the role of EDCs in driving obesity provides a mechanistic explanation of the obesity epidemic and a management strategy. The role of exogenous chemicals in growing rates of obesity through gene expression regulation (such as PPARs), hormone changes, and inflammation is supported by ample evidence. While overeating, combined with lack of exercise, is undoubtedly a significant contributor to the increase in obesity that can be addressed by decreased calorie intake and increased exercise, it may be that reducing exposure to obesogenic EDCs may also contribute to reducing obesity in the population, especially during the early stages of life. More knowledge of obesogenic pathways will improve prophylactic and therapeutic strategies. The extensive exposure of the human population to so many EDCs with obesogenic action needs evaluation. In vitro models are useful screening devices for detecting and testing obesogenic mechanisms, notably, changes in gene expression or molecular pathways. Improvements to these models will improve human extrapolation in vitro to in vivo as well. However, animal models remain a valuable and typically physiologically precise method for studying obesogenic inter-organ pathways, including hormone interference and inflammation. More epidemiological studies should be made to confirm in vitro and in vivo animal models and provide unparalleled insight into human obesogen exposures and effects. Integrating the data collected from all three of these model systems would result in better-informed choices of compounds that can be used to replace obesogens in food production, packaging, etc. It will, essentially, reduce the economic burden of obesity.
All authors thank Banaras Hindu University, India, for providing necessary resources and support to write the present chapter with the support from University Grant Commission (UGC)-Junior Research Fellowship to AM, PG and AS. This work received no external funding from any agency.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
All authors listed have made a substantial contribution to this chapter. Moreover, special thanks to PG for writing some sections and proofreading the whole manuscript. Thanks to RKS for reviewing the manuscript before the final submission.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. He worked as assistant Professor of Genetic, biostatistics and animal biotechnology at INAT since 2013.",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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