Significance of the average scores’ differences of the children from each age group.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5358",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Contamination - Current Consequences and Further Solutions",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Current Consequences and Further Solutions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This edited book, Soil Contamination - Current Consequences and Further Solutions, is intended to provide an overview on the different environmental consequences of our anthropogenic activities, which has introduced a large number of xenobiotics that the soil cannot, or can only slower, decompose or degrade. We hope that this book will continue to meet the expectations and needs of all interested in diverse fields with expertise in soil science, health, toxicology, and other disciplines who contribute and share their findings to take this area forward for future investigations.",isbn:"978-953-51-2816-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2815-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4131-0",doi:"10.5772/62589",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"soil-contamination-current-consequences-and-further-solutions",numberOfPages:356,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e4d136df9f1658ae17f3ba7b3c992460",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",publishedDate:"December 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5358.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40902,numberOfWosCitations:59,numberOfCrossrefCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:189,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 29th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 25th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14764/images/system/14764.jpg",biography:"Marcelo L. Larramendy, Ph.D., serves as Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum (National University of La Plata, Argentina). Appointed Senior Researcher of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council of Argentina. Former Member of the Executive Committee of the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis. Author of more than 450 contributions, including scientific publications, research communications and conferences worldwide. Recipient of several national and international awards. Prof. Larramendy is a regular Lecturer at the international A. Hollaender Courses organized by the IAEMS and former guest scientist at NIH (USA) and the University of Helsinki, (Finland). He is an expert in Genetic Toxicology and is, or has been, referee for more than 20 international scientific journals. Member of the International Panel of Experts at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, WHO, Lyon, France) in 2015 for the evaluation of DDT, 2,4-D and Lindane. Presently, Prof. Dr. Larramendy is Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Genotoxicology at the UNLP.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"20",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14863/images/system/14863.jpg",biography:"Sonia Soloneski has a Ph.D. in Natural Sciences and is Assistant Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum of La Plata, National University of La Plata, Argentina. She is a member of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina in the Genetic Toxicology field, the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis (ALAMCTA), the Argentinean Society of Toxicology (ATA), the Argentinean Society of Biology (SAB) and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). She has authored more than 380 contributions in the field, including scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and research communications. She has served as a review member for more than 30 scientific international journals. She has been a plenary speaker in scientific conferences and a member of scientific committees. She is a specialist in issues related to Genetic Toxicology, Mutagenesis, and Ecotoxicology.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"880",title:"Ecosystem",slug:"environmental-sciences-soil-science-ecosystem"}],chapters:[{id:"51788",title:"Edge of Field Technology to Eliminate Nutrient Transport from Croplands: Specific Focus on Denitrification Bioreactors",doi:"10.5772/64602",slug:"edge-of-field-technology-to-eliminate-nutrient-transport-from-croplands-specific-focus-on-denitrific",totalDownloads:1633,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tile drainage effluent from agriculture fields is beneficial to production agriculture; however, nitrate and phosphate transport from production fields to surface water resources is an environmental concern. The David M. Barton Agriculture Research Center (Cape Girardeau County, Missouri, USA) has a 40 ha controlled subsurface tile drainage/irrigation technology with associated denitrification bioreactor. Nitrate-bearing effluents from the controlled subsurface tile drainage/irrigation technology under a corn (Zea mays L.)-soybean (Glycine max L) rotation is sufficient to be an environmental concern. Nitrate-bearing effluent passage through the denitrification bioreactor typically promotes sufficient nitrate reduction (denitrification) that the bioreactor effluent water is less than 10 mg NO3-N/L. Phosphorus, ammonium-N, and sulfate-S concentrations are not appreciably influenced by denitrification bioreactor passage.",signatures:"Michael Aide, Indi Braden and Sven Svenson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51788",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51788",authors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],corrections:null},{id:"51691",title:"Contamination of Soils and Substrates in Horticulture",doi:"10.5772/64567",slug:"contamination-of-soils-and-substrates-in-horticulture",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Contamination of the soil environment mostly is identified with industry, especially mining and road transport. Unfortunately, also in the commercial horticulture, there are numerous problems concerning the contamination of soils and substrates. Sources of contamination can be fertilizers and waste materials polluted by heavy metals, particularly by cadmium. In the greenhouses where traditional methods of cultivation are used, the soil pollution due to the application of excessively high doses of fertilizers constitutes an environmental hazard. Much faster similar effect occurs in greenhouses where an open system of fertigation is used. In addition to mineral impurities, organic compounds emitted by the plant or that are formed during decomposition of organic matter are the problem. This phenomenon is called allelopathy. In practice, it concerns the monoculture and perennial crops and especially is observed in nurseries, orchards, plantations of berries and asparagus. For this reason, in the later section, the soil sickness, replantation problem and toxicity of mulches in green areas are also discussed.",signatures:"Wlodzimierz Breś and Barbara Politycka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51691",authors:[{id:"186184",title:"Prof.",name:"Wlodzimierz",surname:"Bres",slug:"wlodzimierz-bres",fullName:"Wlodzimierz Bres"},{id:"193279",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Politycka",slug:"barbara-politycka",fullName:"Barbara Politycka"}],corrections:null},{id:"52028",title:"Treated Municipal Wastes: Are they Contaminating or Enriching the Soil?",doi:"10.5772/64962",slug:"treated-municipal-wastes-are-they-contaminating-or-enriching-the-soil-",totalDownloads:1759,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Treated municipal wastes could be a mixture of treated sewage biosolids and green wastes (Kala compost) that can be applied for agricultural production. It can improve soil fertility and plant growth. However, long-term application of treated sewage biosolids could result in heavy metal accumulation and some health problems. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of different fertilizers, especially Kala compost, on the soil fertility and plant productivity. An open field was divided into nine plots and received either treated municipal wastes (Kala compost) or inorganic fertilizer, or a mixture of both fertilizers. The field was irrigated by drip system, and commercial cucumber, tomato, cabbage, lettuce, carrot, and potato were grown in each plot. Soil and plant were monitored continuously and samples were taken at different stages of the study. No symptoms of physical or chemical problems were observed in the open field and measured soil samples. Moreover, the soil had sufficient amount of different nutrients for plant growth and all measured micronutrients (heavy metals) were within the safe limit and below the allowable safe limit of the international standards. Good growth was observed in all grown crops and no symptoms of element toxicity were observed. Chemical analysis for fruit samples did not show any accumulation of heavy metals and all measured elements were within the safe limit for human consumption. It can be concluded that treated municipal wastes (Kala compost) were good media for plant growth that can enrich the soil with different elements needed for higher yield. However, more monitoring is needed with treated biosolid application and good management could be the key to avoid any adverse effect of any contaminant.",signatures:"Ahmed Al-Busaidi and Mushtaque Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52028",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52028",authors:[{id:"186164",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Al-Busaidi",slug:"ahmed-al-busaidi",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Busaidi"},{id:"193988",title:"Dr.",name:"Mushtaque",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mushtaque-ahmed",fullName:"Mushtaque Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"51941",title:"Copper Contamination in Mediterranean Agricultural Soils: Soil Quality Standards and Adequate Soil Management Practices for Horticultural Crops",doi:"10.5772/64771",slug:"copper-contamination-in-mediterranean-agricultural-soils-soil-quality-standards-and-adequate-soil-ma",totalDownloads:1813,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter increases the knowledge on the management of Cu-contaminated Mediterranean agricultural soils, by analysing the current soil quality standards for different Mediterranean regions and proposing new criteria for their establishment based on the influence of soil properties and type of crop. We evaluate the effect of Cu and its interaction with soil properties on biomass production of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), by establishing the effective concentrations EC50 and EC10 (effective concentrations of Cu in soil that reduces biomass production by 50 and 10%, respectively), and its absorption, translocation and accumulation in the different parts of the plant. Two different biomass assays were carried out in seven types of Mediterranean agricultural soils (four from Europe and three from Australia) contaminated with different Cu concentrations. When lettuce was grown, similar toxic effects and accumulation values were obtained for both of the agricultural areas under analysis. In both cases, the maximum threshold value was obtained for the soil having the highest pH and clay content, independently of the soil type. When comparing both crops in the European Mediterranean soils, toxicity values calculated for tomato were higher, and translocation of Cu to the fruit was constantly low, independently of the Cu dose. Moreover, tomato showed an important phytoremediation potential, extracting Cu from not only low–medium but also from highly (>1700 mg/kg) Cu-contaminated basic agricultural soils, and having low translocation rates to fruits. The analysis of the influence of soil properties on the effect of Cu on plant biomass production led to similar conclusions in both assays. SOM, clay content and CEC are the most relevant properties affecting the dynamic of Cu in soil. Considering this, for the type of crops and soils considered, the effect of Cu on plant biomass production was the most relevant of those analysed, and pH, clay content, SOM and CEC the most relevant soil properties. Therefore, these aspects should be considered when establishing adequate soil quality standards and proposing adequate soil management practices.",signatures:"Daniel Sacristán and Ester Carbó",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51941",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51941",authors:[{id:"186105",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Sacristán",slug:"daniel-sacristan",fullName:"Daniel Sacristán"},{id:"194070",title:"Dr.",name:"Ester",surname:"Carbó",slug:"ester-carbo",fullName:"Ester Carbó"}],corrections:null},{id:"52008",title:"The Molecular‐Based Methods Used for Studying Bacterial Diversity in Soils Contaminated with PAHs (The Review)",doi:"10.5772/64772",slug:"the-molecular-based-methods-used-for-studying-bacterial-diversity-in-soils-contaminated-with-pahs-th",totalDownloads:2499,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil contamination could adversely affect microbial diversity, and perhaps also above‐ and below‐ground ecosystem functioning. It is important to study microbial diversity not only for basic scientific research, but also to understand the link between diversity and community structure and function in the pollution site. The study of microbial diversity and their function in contaminated soil creates a serious problem because they observed significant limitations in methodology and taxonomy of this group. Methodology for the determination of bacterial diversity does not include their function in the soil and other environment areas. Microbes are known for their catabolic activity in bioremediation, but changes in microbial communities are still unpredictable. The bioremediation of a pollutant and its rate depend on the environmental conditions, number and type of the microorganisms, nature and chemical structure of the chemical compound being degraded. However, molecular methods have been used to study soil bacterial communities. While many anthropogenic activities, such as city development, agriculture, and use of pollution, can potentially affect soil microbial diversity, it is unknown how changes in microbial diversity can influence below‐ground and above‐ground ecosystems. There are problems associated with studying bacterial diversity in soil. These arise not only from methodological limitations, but also from a lack of taxonomic knowledge. Methods to measure microbial diversity in soil can be categorized into two groups: biochemical‐based techniques and molecular‐based techniques. But more common for studying microbial diversity in soil contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are the molecular methods.",signatures:"Anna Gałązka and Jarosław Grządziel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52008",authors:[{id:"186856",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Gałązka",slug:"anna-galazka",fullName:"Anna Gałązka"},{id:"194049",title:"MSc.",name:"Jarosław",surname:"Grządziel",slug:"jaroslaw-grzadziel",fullName:"Jarosław Grządziel"}],corrections:null},{id:"52211",title:"Cyanobacterial Toxins Emerging Contaminants in Soils: A Review of Sources, Fate and Impacts on Ecosystems, Plants and Animal and Human Health",doi:"10.5772/64940",slug:"cyanobacterial-toxins-emerging-contaminants-in-soils-a-review-of-sources-fate-and-impacts-on-ecosyst",totalDownloads:4321,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last few decades, there has been a growing interest in the occurrence of cyanotoxins and their potential toxicity in the aquatic environment. However, the used of dried toxic cyanobacteria cells as fertilizer or the used of surface water contaminated with cyanotoxins for agricultural crops irrigation can be source of soil contamination. In addition, surface waters presenting dense toxic blooms of cyanobacteria and used for agricultural practices are not controlled and are often used without prior treatment. Once in soil, cyanotoxins may be transported again to water bodies by leaching, runoff and drainage processes or can be accumulated in soils and, therefore, may cause contamination of vegetation by absorption from soils or by surface pollution of plants. In addition to possible effects on human health, elevated levels of cyanotoxins in soils can negatively affect plant vigour, animal health, microbial processes and overall soil health. Consequently, the focus of this chapter of soil contamination is cyanotoxins as contaminants of emerging concern in the soil, identifying sources of contamination, determining their fate and effects in the soil, and understanding their bioaccumulation in agricultural plants used for feed and food and consequences on animal and human health.",signatures:"Noureddine Bouaïcha and Sylvain Corbel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52211",authors:[{id:"186021",title:"Dr.",name:"Noureddine",surname:"Bouaïcha",slug:"noureddine-bouaicha",fullName:"Noureddine Bouaïcha"},{id:"186034",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvain",surname:"Corbel",slug:"sylvain-corbel",fullName:"Sylvain Corbel"}],corrections:null},{id:"51999",title:"Soil Contamination in Forest and Industrial Regions of Bulgaria",doi:"10.5772/64716",slug:"soil-contamination-in-forest-and-industrial-regions-of-bulgaria",totalDownloads:1479,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Based on systematic data from 1988 to 2015, the main sources of soil contamination in forest and industrial areas of Bulgaria were presented. The processes of soil acidification and eutrophication as well as accumulation of heavy metals in forest and industrial soils were analysed. The content of heavy metals in soils, pasture grasses and medicinal plants from two National Parks—Central Balkan and Pirin, as well as from two Natural Parks—Bulgarka and Strandzha was also reported. Data on heavy metals accumulation in leaves of tree species in some industrial areas of the country were presented as well. Soil and plant contamination with heavy metals were estimated according to the applied criteria of ICP Forests.",signatures:"Nikolina Tzvetkova, Ludmila Malinova, Mariana Doncheva, Dilyanka\nBezlova, Krassimira Petkova, Diana Karatoteva and Ralitza Venkova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51999",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51999",authors:[{id:"186518",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolina",surname:"Tzvetkova",slug:"nikolina-tzvetkova",fullName:"Nikolina Tzvetkova"},{id:"194086",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludmila",surname:"Malinova",slug:"ludmila-malinova",fullName:"Ludmila Malinova"},{id:"194087",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",surname:"Doncheva",slug:"mariana-doncheva",fullName:"Mariana Doncheva"},{id:"194090",title:"Dr.",name:"Dilyanka",surname:"Bezlova",slug:"dilyanka-bezlova",fullName:"Dilyanka Bezlova"},{id:"194091",title:"Dr.",name:"Krassimira",surname:"Petkova",slug:"krassimira-petkova",fullName:"Krassimira Petkova"},{id:"194092",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",surname:"Karatoteva",slug:"diana-karatoteva",fullName:"Diana Karatoteva"},{id:"194093",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralitza",surname:"Venkova",slug:"ralitza-venkova",fullName:"Ralitza Venkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"51877",title:"Soil Salinization and Mitigation Measures in Land Reclamation Regions",doi:"10.5772/64720",slug:"soil-salinization-and-mitigation-measures-in-land-reclamation-regions",totalDownloads:1730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil salinization and underground structure erosion usually occur in land reclamation regions, especially under semi‐humid climate that annual evaporation is larger than annual rainfall in Northern China. Based on investigations into the status and trends of land reclamation soil along the Bohai Rim, China, this chapter summarizes the evolution of groundwater system and soil environment and analyzes the main reasons contributing to these problems. Physical and mathematical models are established to simulate the mechanism of water‐salt migration in land reclamation regions. Results show that evapotranspiration and groundwater discharge during wet seasons are the main driving forces of status of soil salinization. It was pointed out that the key to soil salinity control in the reclamation region was by utilizing rainwater and flood resources to build a long‐term leaching mechanism. Meanwhile, in order to rebuild and maintain a healthy and stable ecosystem in the reclaimed areas, it is necessary to design the structure of soil layers in advance, enhance the salt leaching process and plant vegetation according to the local conditions.",signatures:"Shiguo Xu, Yi Xu, Yanzhao Fu and Qi Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51877",authors:[{id:"186789",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanzhao",surname:"Fu",slug:"yanzhao-fu",fullName:"Yanzhao Fu"},{id:"186796",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiguo",surname:"Xu",slug:"shiguo-xu",fullName:"Shiguo Xu"},{id:"186838",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Xu",slug:"yi-xu",fullName:"Yi Xu"},{id:"186839",title:"MSc.",name:"Qi",surname:"Wang",slug:"qi-wang",fullName:"Qi Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"53087",title:"Simulation of Phosphorus Transport in Soil Under Municipal Wastewater Application Using Hydrus-1D",doi:"10.5772/66214",slug:"simulation-of-phosphorus-transport-in-soil-under-municipal-wastewater-application-using-hydrus-1d",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Today, wastewater irrigation is one of the best options to reduce the stress on limited availability of fresh water and to meet the nutrient requirements of crops. In the present study, the simulation accuracy and performance of the HYDRUS-1D model to predict phosphorus leaching have been evaluated and compared to lysimeter data. More specifically, the effects of irrigation using four types of water (wastewater, effluent, mixture of freshwater and effluent, and freshwater) on three types of soil (sandy loam, loam, and clay loam) have been investigated both experimentally and numerically. Barley was planted as a common agricultural crop. The leachates from lysimeters have been collected and sampled at the beginning, middle, and end of the growing season. These samples have then been analyzed for phosphorous. The results show that the trend of change in nutrient concentration (P) was a function of plant requirement. Maximum process of leaching occurred concurrent with minimum plant requirement. The average phosphorus leaching into the root depths turns out to be insignificant, as it amounts to only 0.65–1.65%. This reassuring result means that wastewater with high concentrations of phosphorus compounds (up to 5–10.3 PO4-P mgl−1) can just be treated through an intermittent application to the land surface. Overall, a good agreement between experimental- and numerical-model results is obtained, wherefore the model overestimates the mean phosphate leaching during the growing season of the crop slightly. On the basis of these results, soil with loamy texture was considered to be the most suitable type for irrigation with wastewater and effluent. The results of this research indicate that with a proper management program in regard to the types of soil to be used, crops to be cultivated, water quality, and timing maneuver, the negative impacts of low quality water on soil/plant/groundwater systems can be minimized.",signatures:"Ali Erfani Agah, Patrick Meire and Eric de Deckere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53087",authors:[{id:"191059",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Erfani",surname:"Agah",slug:"ali-erfani-agah",fullName:"Ali Erfani Agah"}],corrections:null},{id:"51875",title:"Mycoremediation of Atrazine in a Contaminated Clay-Loam Soil and its Adsorption-Desorption Kinetic Parameters",doi:"10.5772/64743",slug:"mycoremediation-of-atrazine-in-a-contaminated-clay-loam-soil-and-its-adsorption-desorption-kinetic-p",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Clean-up of contaminated soils with atrazine is an ecological responsibility. The objectives of this study are to evaluate atrazine degradation in a clay-loam soil microcosm using fungal enzyme extracts from Trametes maxima and its co-culture with Paecilomyces carneus and to determine the kinetic parameters of the adsorption-desorption of atrazine in soil. Fungal co-culture extract (T. maxima-P. carneus) and monoculture (T. maxima) were able to degrade 100% of atrazine. However, we observed variation in atrazine degradation over the course of the evaluated time period, which suggests that an adsorption-desorption process is occurring in the soil. Adsorption-desorption kinetic parameters of the Freundlich model revealed that the studied soil has a significant capacity to adsorb atrazine (KF = 8.2148; r2 = 0.992 and P-value < 0.0001), while according to the desorption parameters (KF = 5.4992; r2 = 0.245 and P-value = 0.036) and hysteresis index (H = 0.573), the soil does not desorb atrazine at the same rate. Fungal enzyme extracts from a monoculture and co culture of T. maxima were able to degrade atrazine in a short time period (< 12 h). The ability of the contaminated soils to adsorb and desorb atrazine should be taken into account in mycoremediation systems.",signatures:"Wilberth Chan Cupul and Refugio Rodríguez Vázquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51875",authors:[{id:"185956",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilberth",surname:"Chan Cupul",slug:"wilberth-chan-cupul",fullName:"Wilberth Chan Cupul"},{id:"194101",title:"Dr.",name:"Refugio",surname:"Rodríguez Vázquez",slug:"refugio-rodriguez-vazquez",fullName:"Refugio Rodríguez Vázquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"52284",title:"Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria's (PGPRS) Enzyme Dynamics in Soil Remediation",doi:"10.5772/65267",slug:"plant-growth-promoting-rhizobacteria-s-pgprs-enzyme-dynamics-in-soil-remediation",totalDownloads:2082,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil is the basis of agriculture and consists of organic matters, minerals, water, and several gasses. All plants require soil both as an anchor to attach and as water and nutrient source. Unfortunately, lifestyles of humans, industrial progress, chemicals used in agriculture contaminate soil and cause soil pollution. A pollutant may be natural or human‐made in origin such as petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, heavy metals, and solvents. Since the quality of the soil affects the growth and product yield of plants, soil pollution is a crucial problem needs to be addressed urgently. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are microorganisms living in soil, on the plants roots, or inside the plant. PGPRs synthesize chemicals to stimulate plant growth and promote nutrient uptake, help degrading soil pollutants and fending off pathogens. While some pollutants can be degraded by enzymes produced by bacteria and fungi, degradation of heavy metals requires alternative methods. In this chapter, three enzymes produced by PGPRs are reviewed briefly. Aminocyclopropane‐1‐carboxylate (ACC) deaminase is responsible of lowering the ethylene levels of plants during stress conditions, whereas nitrogenase is responsible for N2 reduction to NH3. Moreover, phytase enables the degradation of phytate which is a main storage form of phosphate in plants.",signatures:"Metin Turan, Bülent Topcuoğlu, Nurgül Kıtır, Ülker Alkaya, Filiz\nErçelik, Emrah Nikerel and Adem Güneş",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52284",authors:[{id:"140612",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Turan",slug:"metin-turan",fullName:"Metin Turan"},{id:"186637",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurgül",surname:"Kıtır",slug:"nurgul-kitir",fullName:"Nurgül Kıtır"},{id:"186638",title:"Dr.",name:"Emrah",surname:"Nikerel",slug:"emrah-nikerel",fullName:"Emrah Nikerel"},{id:"194133",title:"Prof.",name:"Bülent",surname:"Topcuoğlu",slug:"bulent-topcuoglu",fullName:"Bülent Topcuoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52571",title:"Dual Soil Decontamination Procedures",doi:"10.5772/65335",slug:"dual-soil-decontamination-procedures",totalDownloads:2064,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pollutants actually existing in various types of soil, ranging from rural, agricultural soils to urban or factory soils, belong to a wide range of chemical compounds, both organic and inorganic. The modern decontamination methods were each specifically designed for a particular pollutant. Reagents and procedure conditions targeted only one particular contaminant, more rarely several pollutants, all usually belonging to the same family (e.g., several heavy metals or polychloro-p-dibenzodioxins and polychloro-p-dibenzofurans). Most reviews on the subject presented soil decontamination processes under the same auspices: specific process with specific reagent for a specific pollutant. Unfortunately, soils are often cross-contaminated with various types of pollutants, which make the decontamination procedure much more complicated: indeed, for each contaminant, a certain procedure must be carried out. This transforms the whole decontamination process in a multi-step procedure, enhancing the costs. Therefore, any method that could realize a simultaneous decontamination for at least two different types of pollutants would be extremely advantageous. In the recent years, such methods made an interesting appearance in the environmental science and engineering literature. We wish to review these dual decontamination methodologies that deal simultaneously with at least one organic and one inorganic contaminant in the same soil matrix.",signatures:"Yoshiharu Mitoma, Alina M. Simion and Cristian Simion",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52571",authors:[{id:"186359",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiharu",surname:"Mitoma",slug:"yoshiharu-mitoma",fullName:"Yoshiharu Mitoma"}],corrections:null},{id:"52054",title:"Radioactive Contamination of the Soil: Assessments of Pollutants Mobility with Implication to Remediation Strategies",doi:"10.5772/64735",slug:"radioactive-contamination-of-the-soil-assessments-of-pollutants-mobility-with-implication-to-remedia",totalDownloads:8601,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Accidental releases, nuclear weapons testing, and inadequate practices of radioactive waste disposal are the principal human activities responsible for radioactive contamination as a new and global form of soil degradation. Understanding the radionuclide distribution, mobility and bioavailability, as well as the changes caused by the variation of environmental conditions, is essential for soil rehabilitation. This chapter aims to highlight the importance of evaluating radionuclide distribution, for the selection of proper in situ or ex situ remediation strategy. Attention was focused onto remediation methods based on radioactive pollutants redistribution, for enhanced separation (chemical extraction) or containment (in situ immobilization). When the excavation and off-site leaching treatments are uneconomic, impractical, or unnecessary, in situ stabilization by the addition of appropriate reactive materials is an alternative approach. The optimization of factors in control of chemical leaching methods, selection of cost-effective immobilization agents, especially among suitable wastes and by-products, and verification of long-term effects of remediating actions are the major challenges for future investigation in this field. Furthermore, the improvement and standardization of the methods for radionuclide speciation are necessary to enable comparison between studies and monitoring of the effects achieved by the soil treatments.",signatures:"Ivana Smičiklas and Marija Šljivić-Ivanović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52054",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52054",authors:[{id:"186699",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marija",surname:"Sljivic-Ivanovic",slug:"marija-sljivic-ivanovic",fullName:"Marija Sljivic-Ivanovic"},{id:"186801",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Smičiklas",slug:"ivana-smiciklas",fullName:"Ivana Smičiklas"}],corrections:null},{id:"51905",title:"Environmental Role of Earthworm (Lumbricidae) in Formation of Soil Buffering Capacity Against Copper Contamination in Remediated Soil, Steppe Zone of Ukraine",doi:"10.5772/64722",slug:"environmental-role-of-earthworm-lumbricidae-in-formation-of-soil-buffering-capacity-against-copper-c",totalDownloads:1563,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study allowed effect of earthworm casting activities on soil buffering against copper compounds within the territory remediated after coal mining (Western Donbass, Ukraine). Assay of copper immobilization/mobilization was performed in earthworm casts (excretions) and artificial remediated soil. Efficiency of immobilization in the casts (humus-free and humic variants) was more (23 and 43%, respectively) than efficiency of immobilization in the initial soil: loess-like loam and chernozem (19.9 and 40.1%, respectively). Thus, earthworm ecoservice activity changed positively environmental conditions of remediated soil and naturalization of artificial edaphotopes within remediated lands in steppe zone. Environmental quality of remediated soil enriched in earthworm casts was confirmed to be improved.",signatures:"Loza Iryna, Kul’bachko Yurii, Didur Oleg and Kryuchkova Angelina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51905",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51905",authors:[{id:"186804",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Iryna",surname:"Loza",slug:"iryna-loza",fullName:"Iryna Loza"},{id:"186805",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuriy",surname:"Kulbachko",slug:"yuriy-kulbachko",fullName:"Yuriy Kulbachko"},{id:"186807",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Didur",slug:"oleg-didur",fullName:"Oleg Didur"},{id:"186808",title:"MSc.",name:"Angelina",surname:"Kryuchkova",slug:"angelina-kryuchkova",fullName:"Angelina Kryuchkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"52032",title:"The Electrokinetic Treatment of Polluted Soil by Hydrocarbon: From Laboratory to Field",doi:"10.5772/64631",slug:"the-electrokinetic-treatment-of-polluted-soil-by-hydrocarbon-from-laboratory-to-field",totalDownloads:1712,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil contaminated with hydrocarbons (HC) in all over the world is a recurring problem arising from distribution, storage and illegal connections. A wide range of methods are used in all the world like remediation with biological and physicochemical treatments, however, for the purpose of reducing time and increasing the scope of new technologies that have proven its viability in experimental laboratory tests later tested implemented on field are necessary. One of the main advantages of electroremediation processes (ER) is the relatively short implementation time as well as its ease of removing contaminants in highly heterogeneous soils with low permeability. In this chapter, the ER process is described starting from the laboratory scale, determining the supporting electrolyte used, through the choice of material of the electrodes as well as its configuration; finally pilot‐scale implementation and fieldwork.",signatures:"Maribel Pérez‐Corona, Zsuzsanna Plank and Erika Bustos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52032",authors:[{id:"169733",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika",surname:"Bustos",slug:"erika-bustos",fullName:"Erika Bustos"}],corrections:null},{id:"52121",title:"Ex Situ Surfactant-Enhanced Bioremediation of NAPL-Impacted Vadose Zone",doi:"10.5772/64695",slug:"ex-situ-surfactant-enhanced-bioremediation-of-napl-impacted-vadose-zone",totalDownloads:1680,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work presents a review of surfactant-enhanced bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in the soil with a focus on ex situ method. Conventional strategies of disposal methods in secure landfill and incineration have become cost prohibitive and environmentally risky and do not restore the contaminated soil, whereas chemical and physical methods have shown very limited success and can also be expensive.Traditional bioremediation pertaining to remedial technology of hydrophobic organic contaminants in soil has empirically demonstrated limited success due to their low aqueous solubility. Addition of single synthetic surfactant or biosurfactant, or in combination, has the potential to increase their mass transfer phase, hence their bioavailability. Surfactant-enhanced biodegradation represents a promising cost-effective alternative to complete mineralization of hydrophobic organic contaminants in soil. In this work, the potential of surfactants on the remediation of contaminated soil in an ex situ approach is reviewed with considerations given to the practical aspects of field components. Surfactant-enhanced biodegradation represents a promising cost-effective alternative to complete mineralization of hydrophobic organic contaminants in soil. In this work, the potential of surfactants on the remediation of contaminated soil in an ex situ approach is reviewed with considerations given to the practical aspects of field components.",signatures:"Roger Saint-Fort",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52121",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52121",authors:[{id:"186071",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",surname:"Saint-Fort",slug:"roger-saint-fort",fullName:"Roger Saint-Fort"}],corrections:null},{id:"51942",title:"Approaches for Removal of PAHs in Soils: Bioaugmentation, Biostimulation and Bioattenuation",doi:"10.5772/64682",slug:"approaches-for-removal-of-pahs-in-soils-bioaugmentation-biostimulation-and-bioattenuation",totalDownloads:2074,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)‐contaminated soils have been a concern during last decades; consequently, physicochemical and biological technologies have emerged and evolved with the aim of remediating them. Particularly, biological technologies are considered promising since they are low cost, safe and environmentally friendly. However, their results so far have been diverse and scattered. This chapter includes a review of the current status on bioaugmentation, biostimulation and bioattenuation techniques, which have been applied in PAHs‐contaminated agricultural soils during the last decades. Successes and failures in PAHs remediation applied at microcosm and field levels are exhibited. Furthermore, the effects of microbial inoculum, the soil organic matter and the particle size of the aggregates on the PAHs’ availability and on the subsequent microbial biodegradation are reviewed. Finally, agricultural management systems are considered in the prediction of the behaviour and the end‐point of some contaminants, as well as in the success of applying a biological technique.",signatures:"María S. Vásquez‐Murrieta, Oscar J. Hernández‐Hernández, Juan A.\nCruz‐Maya, Juan C. Cancino‐Díaz and Janet Jan‐Roblero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51942",authors:[{id:"181148",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan C.",surname:"Cancino-Diaz",slug:"juan-c.-cancino-diaz",fullName:"Juan C. Cancino-Diaz"},{id:"184949",title:"Dr.",name:"Janet",surname:"Jan-Roblero",slug:"janet-jan-roblero",fullName:"Janet Jan-Roblero"},{id:"186305",title:"MSc.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Hernández-Hernández",slug:"oscar-hernandez-hernandez",fullName:"Oscar Hernández-Hernández"},{id:"186307",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Vásquez-Murrieta",slug:"maria-vasquez-murrieta",fullName:"María Vásquez-Murrieta"},{id:"186308",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cruz-Maya",slug:"juan-cruz-maya",fullName:"Juan Cruz-Maya"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"923",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54a8eb808c05a5fe01c676e7047d4576",slug:"herbicides-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/923.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5184",title:"Environmental Health Risk",subtitle:"Hazardous Factors to Living Species",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa20266ad595ce73a9396f4ab0f8112e",slug:"environmental-health-risk-hazardous-factors-to-living-species",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5179",title:"Organic Fertilizers",subtitle:"From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93748f3bd6a9c0240d71ffd350d624b1",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5179.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4637",title:"Toxicity and Hazard of Agrochemicals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6aff74df1ea32df7f1e20e29c8363ff5",slug:"toxicity-and-hazard-of-agrochemicals",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4637.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5362",title:"Toxicology",subtitle:"New Aspects to This Scientific Conundrum",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2061f273c8b3134dffbcb5256969ecab",slug:"toxicology-new-aspects-to-this-scientific-conundrum",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5170",title:"Green Nanotechnology",subtitle:"Overview and Further Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d4dc551be023ba3525e6126076af90",slug:"green-nanotechnology-overview-and-further-prospects",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5170.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4606",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",subtitle:"Current and Further Implications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1502287827685f0b71235bd45fe35ae4",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4606.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5101",title:"Invertebrates",subtitle:"Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebef5298af7d87ad3c9c7f5fe808fa2c",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5101.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. 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In recent years, a new field of neuropsychology of individual differences has actively developed in child neuropsychology. Its aim is to record (register) the age norms of neuropsychic functioning, the sensational periods and the dynamics of the formation of the higher psychic functions within the broad framework of typical child development. The pre-school period is sensational to many of the higher psychic functions, which explains the author’s interest in it. The rapid rates of genetically determined neurophysiological changes in children are the cause of the heterochronic nature of mental development and its individual variations. The main regularity of the period is the emergence of a wide range of new psychic qualities (intellectual, sensorimotor, linguistic and behavioral) resulting from the complex interaction of biological factors and the social requirements of the environment. Individual rates and partial deficits of neuropsychic development in childhood are one of the main goals of diagnostics as they form the group of children at academic risk.
Indications of delay in pre-literacy skills (both verbal and non-verbal) are predictors of the likely development of specific learning disabilities (specific dyslexia), one of the most prevalent school-age syndromes with increasing incidence rates. The question of his etiology and neuropsychological determinants is still open. The most common manifestations of dyslexia are associated with a disorder in phonological processes, as it is assumed that pre-school phonological skills predict future reading skills [1, 2, 3]. At the same time, a number of authors [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11] maintain the thesis of the leading influence on the difficulties in reading the violations in visual processes (visual search and scanning tasks, selective visual attention, visuospatial attention and visual memory). There are also those who highlight the role of motor difficulties on the academic problems of children [12, 13]. Separate developments examine the symptoms of dyslexia as a result of complex sensorimotor disorders in combination with phonological deficits [14, 15, 16]. Data from longitudinal neurobiology studies of children with typical and atypical reading support the thesis of non-typical brain maturation, the features of which refer to the preliterate stage [17]. Some authors [18] pay special attention to persistent silent reading disabilities in primary school pupils, linking them to the complex influence of deficiencies in lexical-grammatical operations, difficulties in non-verbal visual perceptions and limited volume of iconic memory.
We maintain the view [19] that dyslexia is more accurately conceptualized as a complex interaction of different risk and protective factors, and each of these factors can vary across different individuals with dyslexia. It may be that inefficient auditory and phonological neural systems cause reading difficulties in one individual with dyslexia, but another individual may struggle as a result of predominant visual-orthographic integration problems. Literary analysis of the problem summarizes the following facts of the current research: the core neurobiological cause of dyslexia is still not fully understood; at-risk pre-readers display reliable left temporo-parietal and occipito-temporal differences and early connectivity problems fit with a multifactorial theory of dyslexia [20].
The prognostic value of neuropsychological diagnostics in childhood allows the early application of therapeutic strategies tailored to the nature and mechanisms of developmental deficits. Since non-verbal forms of visual gnosis have the earliest debut in childhood development, the dynamics of their formation can be seen as one of the neurophysiological prerequisites for school readiness. This is most relevant to the functioning of complex gnostic operations associated with the identification of visual stimuli in difficult conditions. Their ontogenetic aspects are poorly developed from a neuropsychological point of view, which explains the need for a careful analysis of their condition during the pre-school period.
Visual gnosis is a high mental function with very rapid development in early and pre-school age. It is one of the most sensitive indicators in the assessment of child development, and the deficits in its formation lead to specific problems in learning [21, 22]. The operation of visual gnosis has traditionally been associated with cortical associative posterior visual areas and in particular with the operation of both visual streams, vertical and dorsal. They start from the primary visual cortex (V1) and are a continuation of parvocellular (P-type cells) and magnocellular (M-type cells) pathways that bind ganglion cells of the retina with the striate cortex [23]. The ventral tract reaches the temporal-occipital zone, also called “What?” zone, and the dorsal is directed toward the parietal-temporal zone, labeled as “Where?” zone. The dorsal stream serves the analysis of visual motion and visual control of action. The ventral stream is involved in the perception of the visual world and the recognition of objects. In recent years, neuroimaging data identify the prefrontal cortex as a place to integrate visual information processed by the dorsal and ventral flow. This is supported by visual object recognition studies using degraded visual stimuli [24].
Neuropsychological studies traditionally suggest that visual object perception involves several processing stages. Most classical models distinguish between visual identification in the perception stage, which processes presented objects, and the memory stage, which verifies the resulting perceptual representations against representations stored in memory. The perception stage involves part-based analysis and analysis of global forms (feature extraction, segmentation and shape analysis). The memory stage perceptual information is matched to each form stored in memory, which includes memory about the form of an object, its semantic properties and its name [25]. The authors note that subtle perceptual deficits can produce naming problems, even when there is good access to associated semantic knowledge. Contemporary neuroimaging studies indicate that involvement of the right medial occipito-temporal region in the perceptual stage is consistent with the established role of this region in visual object recognition. On the other hand, the memory stage was characterized by the involvement of the posterior part of the rostral medial frontal cortex. It is assumed that this part of the frontal cortex is likely to be relevant in the monitoring process for the confirmation of recognition [24]. Depending on the nature of the stimuli and the cognitive tasks, visual recognition is performed with the participation of various types of memory related to the activity of various neural systems [26]. When recognizing known objects, the modality-specific cortex fields are mainly involved, whereas in difficult-to-recognize stimuli, processes rely on long-term memory information and are implemented with the participation of executive functions.
To explain deficiencies in dyslexia, Levashov [27] develops a model of visual perception. According to the model, with each eye fixation on a particular stimulus, the visual system decides three basic tasks sequentially: builds a map of areas of attention; analyzes familiar objects in them; visually decodes the visible scene; and makes spatial analysis of the objects. The right- and left-hemispheres process differently each input image by sharing results only when solving specific and complex tasks. Processes of attention during performance are related to the dorsal part of the parietal cortex, which suggests that it manages the parameter of so-called “caution.”
Visual analysis in difficult conditions (recognition of imposed shapes and incomplete images) is only possible in a time-shared hemisphere interaction from left to right, where the same object is analyzed first on the left and then on the right hemisphere. Levashov suggests the following possible scheme of this interaction in the resolution of visual tasks:
The visually received image is processed by the left-hemisphere mechanisms for schematic recognition (classification). In cases of insufficiently known objects, inter-hemispheric associative links and corresponding structures from the right hemisphere are activated. Engaging a certain area of memory naturally narrows the search area among the engrams in long-term viewing memory.
The view is moved so that the projection of the analyzed plot falls into the right hemisphere in which the visual working memory is concentrated and neural structures (engrams) of each object class are stored. The input image is matched with the activated animations and leads to the categorization of the object. In complex and weakly known objects, recognition is done by moving the view to other informative points from them.
Through studies with event-related potentials in identifying hierarchical visual stimuli [28], two types of recognition are distinguished—local and global. Local-level recognition is related to the activity of the inferior temporal and prefrontal cortex of the right hemisphere and leads to an assessment of the sensory qualities of the stimuli. At the global-level recognition, the activity of the parietal cortex of the right hemisphere is guided by the inclusion of mechanisms of early sensory selection. Global perception is supposed to be related to the operation of the dorsal visual system and the spatial analysis of the objects. In contrast, perception on a local level (ventral visual system) is directed to the analysis of the elements and properties of the objects. According to some authors [29] of the initial stages of visual perception, the processes are not sufficiently lateralized. They become such at the higher levels of visual analysis when stimulus processing acquires asymmetric organization.
In recent years, the role of feedback on the functioning of cognitive processes has been increasingly discussed. The data show feedback between secondary and primary vision fields and demonstrate the modulation action of the top-down mechanism [30, 31]. Reverse connections are assumed to stimulate the activity and spatio-temporal dynamics of large groups of neurons associated with the integration of visual information.
Ontogenetic research has made a major contribution to the study of visual perception. They define the stages of its formation, taking into account the mechanism of heterochronic maturation of brain structures. The data show that the transition from 5 to 6 to 7–8 years of age should be seen as a period of intense maturation of the fields related to visual information analysis. At the same time, complicated forms of visual gnosis (identifying images in difficult conditions) are not sufficiently developed due to the later inclusion of regulatory brain mechanisms.
Event-related potential studies of children with a typical development show significant differences in the system of perception of visual information before and after age 5 [32, 33]. It is found that at earlier stages the visual perception processes have diffuse characters, since similar reactive and configuration event-related potentials are recorded in all caudal regions. This explains the difficulties of the children in tasks to integrate signs and reproduce the overall images of objects [34]. After 5 years of age, a process of structuring and lateralization of visual perception processes begins. This is evidenced by differences in reactivity to individual components of event-related potentials in the projection and associative visual areas of the cortex. The data show an increasing specialization of post-center associative departments in the processing of complex visual stimuli, which improves analysis and discrimination of features when forms and building standards for complex images are compared.
In the period of 5–6 years, changes in the structural organization of neuronal ensembles in the caudal cerebral regions result in a qualitatively new functional organization of visual perception [35]. In children aged 6–7 years, in the realization of visual gnosis are included structures of the frontal partition, which is the beginning of its intellectualization. The identification of difficult-to-verbalize stimuli is associated with greater reactivity of structures from the temporal and occipital parts. When recognizing stimuli with a simple verbal formulation, the reactivity is shifted to the frontal lobe.
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is a high regulatory center and plays an important role in manipulating visual information. The insufficient maturity of the dorsolateral mechanisms during this period explains the weak reactivity of the negative wave, reflecting the cognitive component of visual recognition. The limited involvement of the prefrontal cortex in the analysis of incomplete images suggests a poor development of the regulatory component of perception during pre-school age. New research suggests that the complex of P200-N250 waves in the visual cortex, which is considered to be key in recognizing signs, shows a significant increase in the caudal and precentral cortical divisions after 7–8 years of age [36, 37]. In adults, it is most expressed in the post-temporal parts, which are part of the ventral visual system and play a major role in recognizing fragmented images.
Neurophysiological studies in complicated perceptual conditions of children show a leading activity of the occipital segments and a lack of significant increase in event-related potentials in the post-temporal regions [38, 39]. It is also stressed that at the age of 5–6 years, components of event-related potentials in the prefrontal cortex are not recorded. According to some authors [35], the low efficiency of fragmented image identification in this period is due to both the immaturity of the prefrontal cortex and the deficiencies in the functioning of the visual system. The low level of recognition under conditions of perceptual deficit is explained by the underdevelopment of regulatory mechanisms and insufficient involvement of the ventral visual system. In the period of 7–8 years, the role of the ventral visual system increases; this corresponds to the morphological data for significant transformations in the neuronal organization of the posterior temporal areas [39]. There is currently no unified opinion on the mechanisms of recognizing incomplete images in children. According to neurophysiological data in the period of pre-school and early school age in their brain organization there are both similarities and differences. Similarities refer to prefrontal cortex involvement in early stages of the analysis of complex visual stimuli. The differences reflect the underdevelopment of the regulatory components of visual recognition in the pre-school period, shown by the large number of mistakes in children aged 5–6 [34].
Testing through event-related potentials for perceiving fragmented shapes in children aged 5–6 years separates two subgroups: A subgroup with a small number of errors and a B subgroup with a large number of errors [26]. In the second subgroup, a delayed development of two systems was recorded: the ventrolateral visual system and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex responsible for regulatory functions and in particular for inhibitory control. Inhibitory control determines the successful recognition of the figures, whereas its absence explains the impulsive responses of children with low scores. The conclusion is that the morpho-functional maturity of the neuron systems processing sensory information and the state of regulatory functions determine children’s individual abilities to visual recognition and their readiness for school education.
The image identification in conditions of sign shortness assesses the functioning of the right-hemisphere mechanisms and the implementation of a holistic perceptive strategy and is one of the most complex gnostic tasks. Difficulties in building hypotheses by children explain the cases of refusal to name individual figures and the presence of perseverations (use of a single word for different images).
The analysis of the existing data sets the period of 4–6 years as sensitive for the development of brain mechanisms for perceptive processing and for the formation of complex forms of visual gnosis. The specifics in the functioning of the gnostic operations in children with typical development in pre-school age have an important diagnostic and prognostic significance since the evocation of normative data allows for the separation of subgroups with different levels of perceptual functions and the differentiation of children at risk of learning difficulties. This is in line with the thesis [40] that any neuropsychological study in childhood pursues two purposes: the diagnosis of the condition of the function and the formulation of the treatment methods and approaches.
Assessment of the condition of complex forms of non-verbal visual gnosis in children with typical development at pre-school age and differentiation of subgroups with different levels of functioning of perceptive processes.
For the study of visual gnosis under difficult conditions, the neuropsychological probe “Recognition of incomplete images” was used. The sample is based on the holistic principle of sensory integration and is widely used [26, 41]. In a manner of implementation, it is close to the image recognition test with a decreasing degree of fragmentation [42, 37].
As mentioned above, task execution activates the occipito-temporal part of the right hemisphere (ventral visual system) and prefrontal cortex. The results of recognizing objects in conditions of shortness of signs provide information on the state and dynamics of the functioning of these regions. Neural processes responsible for mental “filling--in” the missing information in visual incentives, some authors [37] mean by the term “perception of closing”. The phenomenon is a combination of areas known as the lateral-occipital complex (LOC) that is linked to a wide network of dorsal and frontal regions. Studies with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) confirm the leading role of the lateral-occipital complex in detecting hidden objects [43].
The sample we use contains 12 black and white incomplete images of objects (lamp, sword, spoon, anchor, pliers, kettle, teapot, needle, key, guitar, scissors and ring). Some of them are presented below (Figures 1–4).
Lamp.
Anchor.
Teapot.
Scissors.
The investigation is individual and the answers are put in a separate protocol. Children look consistently at each of the stimuli and name it. All answers are noted regardless of their nature (correct or incorrect).
Assessment criteria:
correct naming of an object—5 points,
replacement of the name with a functional description of the object—4 points,
wrong answers due to perceptual similarity—perceptively close (for instance instead of “pliers”—“scissors” and “spoon”—“shovel”)—3 points,
wrong answers due to association with one element of the image—fragmentary (for instance instead of “ring”—headphones”; “key”—“path”)—2 points,
wrong answers without perceptual similarity—perceptively distant (“kettle”—“chicken,” “elephant”; “scissors”—“spoon”)—1 point,
without answer (does not name)—0 points.
The features of the functional system of visual perception are determined by indicators such as accuracy, completeness, volume and time for perception. In our case accuracy of perception is measured by using two parameters: number of correct answers and typology of the incorrect answers.
A total of 365 typically developing children without diagnosis of visual disorders took part in the research. All children attend state nursery schools and have Bulgarian as the mother tongue. They form three age groups: 4-year-olds (116 children); 5-year-olds (128 children); and 6-year-olds (121 children). Besides the age factor, the children were separated according to the size of settlement they live in (demographic criterion)—195 children from the capital, 90 living in a big city and 80—in a small town. The proportion according to gender is 173 males and 192 females.
The results are operated with a tri-factor dispersion analysis.
The values of the F-criteria and the confidence probability (P) indicate that the two independent factors, age (F = 15.75; p < 0.000) and the location (settlement), (F = 4.89; p < 0.008) have a statistically significant impact on the dependent variable for recognizing incomplete images. There is also a significant impact of the paired interaction, Age*Settlement (F = 3.93; p < 0.003) and Age*Gender (F = 3.7; p < 0.026).
The profile of the age factor shows a graduate growth in the score for the test, most prominent for the 5-year-olds. The biggest differences are the average scores for children aged 4 and 5 (Figure 5), which emphasize the importance of the fifth year for the dynamics of the neuropsychic development.
Effect of age factor on the results of recognizing incomplete images.
Duncan’s test establishes statistically significant differences between any two means (Table 1).
Ages | {1}–32.313 | {2}–36.890 | {3}–39.467 |
---|---|---|---|
4 years | |||
5 years | |||
6 years |
Significance of the average scores’ differences of the children from each age group.
The influence and profile of the demographic factor on the development of the gnosis functions become obvious from the higher summarized score of the children from the big city (Figure 6). The average score of the children in the capital is lower, and the lowest is that of children from a small town. There is a statistical significant difference only between the average results of children from a large and a small town. The difference between the average points of children from a big city and capital is close to significance (p = 0.055), and among the children from a capital city and a small town the differences are not credible (Table 2).
Effect of settlement factor on the results of recognizing incomplete images.
Settlement | {1}–36.412 | {2}–37.900 | {3}–34.263 |
---|---|---|---|
Capital | 0.185263 | 0.055564 | |
Big city | 0.185263 | ||
Small town | 0.055564 |
Significance of the average scores’ differences of the children from the three types of settlements.
Attention is paid to the interaction of age and gender factors. The data show identical average scores for girls and boys at 4 years of age, as well as similar ones for children at 5 years of age. Significant gender differences are only recorded in 6-year-olds. Duncan’s test demonstrates the influence of both factors through specific differences between pairs of means (Table 3). Between groups of boys and girls at the age of 4 and 5, credible differences are not observed. The presence of credible differences between those aged 6 years (p ≤ 0.022) is due to the higher mean values than girls.
Ages | Gender | {1}–32.621 | {2}–32.000 | {3}–36.649 | {4}–37.086 | {5}–41.129 | {6}–37.750 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 | Girls | 0.674 | 0.006 | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.001 | |
4 | Boys | 0.674 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
5 | Girls | 0.767 | 0.004 | 0.486 | |||
5 | Boys | 0.767 | 0.009 | 0.653 | |||
6 | Girls | 0.022 | |||||
6 | Boys | 0.486 | 0.653 |
Significance of the average scores’ differences of the children of different gender and different ages.
Table 4 represents the percentage distribution of the correct answers and of the types of wrong answers (perceptively close, fragmented, perceptively distant and without answers) of the children from each age group. The data allow a more in-depth qualitative analysis of the condition and dynamics of complex forms of non-verbal visual gnosis in children with typical development from pre-school age.
Ages | True answers | Perceptively close | Fragmented | Perceptively distant | Without answers |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 years | 28% | 21% | 10% | 23% | 18% |
5 years | 36% | 21% | 13% | 17% | 13% |
6 years | 46% | 21% | 9% | 11% | 13% |
Distribution of the type of answers for incomplete images for all age group children.
The statistical analysis shows a leading influence on the development of complex forms of non-verbal visual gnosis of age and settlement (demographic) factors. The state of perceptive skills under difficult conditions is characterized by a positive age dynamics and a progressive increase in properly recognized figures. This is confirmed by the results of Duncan’s test (Table 1) for the presence of meaningful differences between two age groups of children: 4- and 5-year-olds (p ≤ 0.000019), 4- and 6-year-olds (p ≤ 0, 000011) and 5- and 6-year-olds (p ≤ 0.013385). The data support the thesis of improving the right-brain holistic strategy of stimulus processing and the increasing involvement of prefrontal cortex in the processes of visual perception.
The significant increase in correct responses in children at 5 years shows the particular place of this period in the general neuropsychic development. In terms of visual gnosis, the period is characterized by increasing specialization of the post-central associative regions, improving the performance of the ventral visual system in conditions of deficiency of signs [34, 35] and gradual inclusion of the regulatory mechanisms of the prefrontal cortex. We assume that the age range of 4–6 years can be considered as sensitive for the development of complex perceptive functions and the cases of delay in their formation as prognostic markers for future learning difficulties.
The proven influence of the demographic background on the development of non-verbal visual gnosis confirms the thesis of the specific interaction of biological and social factors within the framework of the neuropsychic functioning. Data show the highest average results for children from a big city, followed by a capital and a small town. According to statistical analysis (Table 2), there are significant differences only between the results of children from a big city and a small town (p < 0.001722).
The interactions of the biological factors, age and gender, have a particular place in the development of complex forms of visual gnosis (Table 3). The statistical analysis does not show significant differences in recognizing incomplete images between girls and boys at the age of 4 and 5 years. These are only evident in children at 6 years of age. The observed differences are explained by the higher mean values of the girls—a fact that is indicative оf gender influence on the neuropsychic development of these children. It can be assumed that in girls the ventral visual system and the neural complexes of the prefrontal cortex develop faster, the signs of which become obvious at the end of the pre-school period and explain the better functioning of perceptual and controlling functions.
The qualitative analysis of the results is based on the responses of the children differentiated in several types: correct answers, wrong answers based on perceptive similarities (perceptually close), wrong answers due to one element recognition (fragmentary), wrong answers without perceptive similarities (perceptively distant) or no answers. It is assumed [41] that when recognizing unfinished images, the child must remember the elements and connect them to those memory engrams that contain similar signs. In cases of the complete match between them, the object is recognized correctly. In the case of partial correspondence errors are observed on the basis of close or distant similarity. When the child does not count all, but only the individual signs of the image, the errors are of a fragmentary type. If there is no answer, the reasons are two: missing engrams in memory or an inability to generate an adequate perceptive hypothesis. Errors of perceptual similarity are defined as lighter and fragmented and perceptually distant as heavier.
After a study of a large child population, Ahutina and Pylaeva [41] conclude that perceptually close errors have left-brain mechanisms and are due to weaknesses in the analytical processing of visual information. Fragmented types of wrong answers are explained by right-brain deficits of holistic processing, because on one or two fragments the child draws the conclusion of the whole image. Perceptively distant wrong answers are associated with right-brain or bilateral weakness.
Here are examples illustrating the different types of wrong answers in our survey.
Wrong answers based on perceptual similarity: saber—“knife”; spoon— “shovel,” “broom”; water can—“shower”; pliers—“scissors.”
Wrong fragmentary-type responses: anchor—“arrow,” “hanger”; kettle—“bird,” “pig”; needle—“hand,” “figure,” “pinch.”
Perceptively distant wrong answers: sword—“octopus,” “spoon,” “trunk”; spoon—“man,” “rod,” “umbrella”; scissors—“magnifying glass,” “needle”; ring—“headphones,” “banana,” “heart,” “river.”
The quantitative distribution of all responses in the 4–6 years of age period provides valuable information on the ontogenesis of cortical mechanisms in perceptual processing under difficult conditions (Table 4). Data show that children at 4 years only recognize truly 28% of the images, with similar results of perceptively close (21%) and perceptively distant (23%) responses. In 18% of cases, there was a lack of response. The results support the thesis of incomplete functioning of the ventral visual system, hampering the holistic processing of stimuli and underdevelopment of prefrontal areas, resulting in a large number of impulsive responses.
Significantly higher results in children at 5 years confirm the presence of evident age dynamics in the development of gnosis functions. Against the backdrop of an increased proportion of correct recognized figures (36%), the proportion of perceptually distant answers (17%) and lack of response (13%) decreased. Perceptually close responses remain the same (21%). A significant improvement in perceptual abilities is the reason why the fifth year is considered critical for neuropsychic development.
Similarly to the 5-year-olds, the distribution of the types of responses remains in children at 6 years: the number of faithfully recognized figures (46%) increased and perceptibly reduced distant answers (11%). The ratio of perceptually close errors remains unchanged (21%). The data support the thesis [38] that the transition from 5 to 6 to 6–7 years is a time of intensive maturation of the systems, providing visual information analysis and significant changes in the organization of the neural ensembles in the caudal cortex. Despite the positive changes, the number of faithfully recognized figures in children at 6 years does not exceed half of all answers—a fact that is supported by data [35] of insufficient maturity of the prefrontal cortex and the cortical sections of the visual system (in particular the ventral visual system) during 4–6 years.
The summarized results clearly outline the age dynamics of visual perceptions under difficult conditions. If the number of faithful and perceptively distant answers prevails in children at 4 years of age, the number of correct and perceptively close answers prevails over the age of 5 and 6 years. The ratio of responses to perceptual closeness does not change over the three age sub-periods, while perceptibly distant reductions are significantly reduced from 4 to 6 years of age. The results could also be explained by the abovementioned data on the diffused nature of visual perceptual processes before the age of 5.
The impact of the demographic factor on the distribution of responses is as follows: in the capital, perceptually distant answers and cases of lack of response are leading; in the big city the perceived errors and lack of responsiveness predominate; in the small town the leading place occupies the replaced by a perceptively close and perceptively distant similarity. Existing analyzes [41] give reason to assume that the mistakes in the capital are mainly due to right-brain difficulties, in the big city, it is the left-brain difficulties, and in the small town, the mistakes are related to both types of difficulties. This is supported by the better functioning of holistic right-hemispheric mechanisms and higher outcomes of children from a big city.
The additionally outlined age norms for the accomplishment of the sample to recognize unfinished images show interesting tendencies of prognostic nature. They are determined by the children’s individual results and lead to the separation of three subgroups: leading group, medium group and behind group. Their distribution in the direction of 4- to 5- and 6-year-old children is as follows: leading group: 30–28–27%; medium group: 45–46–47%; and behind group: 25–26–26%. It is noteworthy that the state of subgroups during the various stages of pre-school age is practically unchanged. We believe that this fact has important prognostic significance and allows an early diagnosis of deficits in complex forms of visual gnosis.
Particular attention is paid to the results of the 6-year-old children who are about to go to school. Exported data show that one-fourth of them fall behind a group characterized by the incomplete processing of the right-brain ventral visual system and insufficient involvement of control functions of the prefrontal regions. The engrames of objects in long-term memory are not sufficiently built up, making it difficult to form proper perceptive hypotheses. We assume that children in this group will face obvious difficulties in recognizing and differentiating graphical characters (alphanumeric, numeric and geometric), allowing them to be identified as a risk group for specific learning disorders (dyslexia).
The unsatisfactory development of the complex forms of visual perception could be viewed as a predictor for future reading difficulties and proves the diagnostic and prognostic validity of the sample to recognize incomplete images for the pre-school age period.
The analysis of the represented data shows that for the age period 4–6 there is a process of dynamic maturation of the right-brain structures of the ventral visual system and their connections to the structures of the prefrontal cortex, leading to gradual improvement of the children’s abilities for visual discrimination of objects in difficult circumstances (incomplete images). Impact on the development of complex forms of non-verbal visual gnosis has the combination of age, demographic and gender factors, among which a special place is the age of 5 years. The positive dynamics of the mechanisms of holistic processing of complex non-verbal stimuli started in the pre-school period, but their formation continued in the next stages. Particular attention is paid to the fact that over the 6-year period most of the children with typical development continue to show great difficulty in recognizing incomplete images. They enroll at school with underdeveloped perceptual and control functions, which is why the group should be considered as risky for the development of dyslexic symptoms.
The neuropsychological probe “Recognition of incomplete images” is a sensitized option for the diagnosis of non-verbal visual gnosis in childhood. It has a high prognostic value and allows an early detection of cases of delayed development within the broad childhood norm. The application of the task (in isolation or in combination with others) supplemented by a competent quantitative and qualitative analysis responds to the leading tendencies in modern child neuropsychology and allows the timely identification of children at risk of learning difficulties.
Author declares no conflict of interests.
Minerals exploration is vital in many countries to increase the income of their people and their economy relies upon discovering minerals. The minerals or ores mined have different variety according to its important in the economy. Geophysical passive method such as gravity and self-potential play an important role in discovering these minerals or ores [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The gravity method based on measuring the variations in the Earth’s gravitational field resulting from the density differences between the subsurface rocks while the self-potential method depended on the electrical potential that develops on the earth’s surface due to flow of the natural electrical current on the subsurface [6, 7]. The interpretation of gravity and self-potential data falls on the main two categories as follows: the first category depends on three-dimensional and two-dimensional data elucidation [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13], the second category is depending using the simple geometric-shaped model such as spheres, cylinders, and sheets which are playing a vital role in interpreting the subsurface structures to reach the priors information that help in more investigations [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. In addition, methods depend on the global optimization algorithms such as genetic algorithm [21, 22, 23, 24], particle swarm [25, 26], simulated annealing [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32], flower pollination [33], memory-based hybrid dragonfly [34], differential evolution [35, 36].
Here, a combined formula for both gravity and self-potential [37] is applied to construct this chapter. Moreover, this formula is used to calculate the buried model parameters, for example in case of self-potential data, the parameters are the electric dipole moment or the amplitude coefficient (
Firstly, the gravity anomaly formula due to simple geometric shapes is [15, 16, 18]
Secondly, the self-potential anomaly formula for the same simple geometric models is [14]
In Refs. [1, 37], Eqs. (1) and (2) were used to join together to produce a combined gravity or self-potential formula for the simple geometric structures such as a semi-infinite vertical cylinder, a dike, a horizontal cylinder, and a sphere (Figure 1) as follows:
A sketch diagram for the simple geometric bodies as follows: a sphere model (top panel), a horizontal cylinder model (middle panel), and a semi-infinite vertical cylinder model (bottom panel).
where
Essa [37] developed this approach, which was relied on solving the problem of finding the depth from the measured data by solving a nonlinear form
Werner deconvolution was proposed by Werner in 1953 [38]. This approach is used to estimate mainly the origin location and the depth of the buried structures. Werner proposed to transform the equation of unknown parameters into a rational function. Eq. (3) can be rewritten in linear form follow:
where
Eq. (5) is linear form in the four variables
The particle swarm was suggested by [39] and has many various applications, for example, in geophysics [40, 41, 42]. For more detail in this approach, you find it many published literature [43, 44]. The model parameters values of the unknowns are relied upon the objective function, so that every problem can be resolved. In this approach, the particles represent the parameter which we are invert. In the beginning, each particle has a location and velocity. After that each particle changes its location (
where
The five source parameters (
where
To test the ability of each suggested approach in assessing the buried model parameters for the simple geometric shapes such as spheres, cylinders, and sheets. Two synthetic examples are suggested for these interpretation. First one is belonging to use the gravity data and second is applying the self-potential data.
A gravity anomaly of a horizontal cylinder model is generated using the following parameters
A gravity model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
First step: using the least-squares approach to interpret the gravity anomaly yielding from the above mentioned parameters for different s-values for the three suggested shape bodies, i.e.,
Numerical results using the least-squares approach for a gravity model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
Numerical results using the particle swarm approach for a gravity model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
Moreover, a 10% random noise added to the synthetic gravity data mentioned above (Figure 2) to test the efficiency of the suggested approaches in interpreting the gravity data. Also, the three approaches are used for this data as mentioned in Table 1 (the least-squares approach results), Figure 3 (Werner deconvolution results), and Table 2 (the particle swarm results). Finally, the estimated parameters are in all case are in good agreement with the true parameters.
Werner deconvolution solutions for a gravity model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
A self-potential anomaly of a horizontal cylinder model is generated using the following parameters
A self-potential model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
Numerical results using the least-squares approach for a self-potential model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
Werner deconvolution solutions for a self-potential model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (K = 200 mV×m,
Numerical results using the particle swarm approach for a self-potential model due to horizontal cylinder without and with a 10% of random noise (
The three suggested approaches have been organized to inspect the gravity and self-potential anomalies due to three simple bodies of various structures, e.g., sheets, cylinders, and spheres. Two mineral field examples from India and Turkey have been interpreted to study the reliability of the suggested approaches. The relevant model parameters (
Figure 6 shows a gravity anomaly was collected over a manganese deposit near Nagpur, India [45]. This gravity profile has a length of 333 m and digitized with an interval of 27 m. This gravity anomaly is subjected to the three interpretation approaches as discussed earlier. Firstly, the interpreted results due to applying the least-squares approach are shown in Table 5 for various s-values. Besides, the use of Werner deconvolution approach, the interpretive results obtained are
A gravity anomaly due to a manganese ore body, India.
Numerical results using the least-squares approach for a manganese field example, India.
Numerical results using the particle swarm approach for a manganese field example, India.
Figure 7 demonstrates a self-potential anomaly over a Weiss copper ore body in the Ergani copper district, Turkey [46]. The Weiss self-potential anomaly profile has a length of 144 m and digitized with an interval of 7.7 m. This anomaly has subjected to the three interpretation approaches as discussed earlier. Firstly, the interpreted results due to applying the least-squares approach are shown in Table 7 for various s-values. Also, the applying of the Werner deconvolution approach, the interpretive results obtained are
A self-potential anomaly due to a Weiss copper ore body, Turkey.
Numerical results using the least-squares approach for a Weiss copper field example, Turkey.
Numerical results using the particle swarm approach for a Weiss copper field example, Turkey.
The three geophysical approaches (the least-squares approach, Werner deconvolution approach, and the particle swarm approach) discussed here to interpret gravity or self-potential data using a combined formula for the simple geometric models (spheres, cylinders, and dikes) are stable and give a good results. The stability of these approaches has been confirmed and tested applying two synthetic examples with a 10% and without random noise and two field data for mineral explorations. The estimated parameters in all cases demonstrated the importance of these approaches in interpreting the gravity or self-potential data.
The authors would like to thank and express appreciation to Ms. Dolores Kuzelj, Author Service Manager, for her assistance and cooperation in this issue.
There is no conflict of interest.
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Satué, A. Hernández and A. Muñoz",authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]},{id:"55356",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68617",title:"Neutrophils in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Target for Discovering New Therapies Based on Natural Products",slug:"neutrophils-in-rheumatoid-arthritis-a-target-for-discovering-new-therapies-based-on-natural-products",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder with an important inflammatory component in joints. Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in inflamed joints, and play an essential role in the initiation and progression of RA. Neutrophil effector mechanisms include the release of proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), and granules containing degradative enzymes, which can cause further damage to the tissue and amplify the neutrophil response. Therefore, the modulation of neutrophil migration and functions is a potential target for pharmacological intervention in arthritis. The pharmacologic treatment options for RA are diverse. The current treatments are mostly symptomatic and have side effects, high costs, and an increased risk of malignancies. Because of these limitations, there is a growing interest in the use of natural products as therapies or adjunct therapies. Herbal products have attracted considerable interest over the past decade because of their multiple beneficial effects such as their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory properties. This chapter focuses on the role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of arthritis and the action of substances from natural products as putative antirheumatic therapies.",book:{id:"5834",slug:"role-of-neutrophils-in-disease-pathogenesis",title:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis",fullTitle:"Role of Neutrophils in Disease Pathogenesis"},signatures:"Elaine Cruz Rosas, Luana Barbosa Correa and Maria das Graças\nHenriques",authors:[{id:"64332",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Das Graças",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",slug:"maria-das-gracas-henriques",fullName:"Maria Das Graças Henriques"},{id:"197932",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",middleName:"Cruz",surname:"Rosas",slug:"elaine-rosas",fullName:"Elaine Rosas"},{id:"199677",title:"MSc.",name:"Luana",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",slug:"luana-correa",fullName:"Luana Correa"}]},{id:"46041",doi:"10.5772/57335",title:"An Insight into the Abnormal Fibrin Clots — Its Pathophysiological Roles",slug:"an-insight-into-the-abnormal-fibrin-clots-its-pathophysiological-roles",totalDownloads:3892,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3836",slug:"fibrinolysis-and-thrombolysis",title:"Fibrinolysis and Thrombolysis",fullTitle:"Fibrinolysis and Thrombolysis"},signatures:"Payel Bhattacharjee and Debasish Bhattacharyya",authors:[{id:"88185",title:"Prof.",name:"Debasish",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"debasish-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Debasish Bhattacharyya"},{id:"170045",title:"Ms.",name:"Payel",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharjee",slug:"payel-bhattacharjee",fullName:"Payel Bhattacharjee"}]},{id:"39110",doi:"10.5772/48250",title:"Laboratory Reference Intervals in Africa",slug:"laboratory-reference-intervals-in-africa",totalDownloads:4489,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2607",slug:"blood-cell-an-overview-of-studies-in-hematology",title:"Blood Cell",fullTitle:"Blood Cell - An Overview of Studies in Hematology"},signatures:"Clement E. Zeh, Collins O. Odhiambo and Lisa A. Mills",authors:[{id:"141066",title:"Dr",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Zeh",slug:"clement-zeh",fullName:"Clement Zeh"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66797",title:"Blood Transfusion Reactions",slug:"blood-transfusion-reactions",totalDownloads:2617,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Blood transfusion reaction/adverse transfusion reactions could be fatal/severe or mild, immediate or delayed, immunological or nonimmunological, and infectious or noninfectious, and attention is paid particularly to the incidence, possible causes and pathophysiology, clinical features, and management of each type with the aim of improving awareness and raising consciousness towards improving blood safety and judicious use of blood so as to forestall these blood transfusion reactions as much as possible. This chapter serves as a synopsis to adverse blood reactions, which are very common but apparently more often under-recognized and/or under-reported particularly in developing countries. This should sharpen the consciousness of all health practitioners involved in blood transfusion services towards taking measures at preventing transfusion reactions right from donor selection up to the infusion of blood into the recipients.",book:{id:"6905",slug:"blood-groups",title:"Blood Groups",fullTitle:"Blood Groups"},signatures:"John Ayodele Olaniyi",authors:[{id:"202764",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Olaniyi",slug:"john-olaniyi",fullName:"John Olaniyi"}]},{id:"49387",title:"Thalassemia — From Genotype to Phenotype",slug:"thalassemia-from-genotype-to-phenotype",totalDownloads:4877,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Thalassemia encompasses serious diseases with complex pathophysiology that is difficult to explain since it is considered a group of defects with similar clinical effects, still not a single disorder.",book:{id:"4729",slug:"inherited-hemoglobin-disorders",title:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders",fullTitle:"Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders"},signatures:"Ghada Y. El-Kamah and Khalda S. Amr",authors:[{id:"58735",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"El-Kamah",slug:"ghada-el-kamah",fullName:"Ghada El-Kamah"},{id:"176872",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalda",middleName:null,surname:"Amr",slug:"khalda-amr",fullName:"Khalda Amr"}]},{id:"51831",title:"Disorders Mimicking Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Difficulties in its Diagnosis",slug:"disorders-mimicking-myelodysplastic-syndrome-and-difficulties-in-its-diagnosis",totalDownloads:4511,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Myelodysplastic morphology of blood cells can be encountered not only in myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) but also in nonclonal disorders like viral, bacterial, parasitic infections, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia, dysgranulopoietic neutropenia, congenital neutropenia, cases with microdeletion 22q11.2, malignant lymphoma, after administration of granulocyte colony stimulating factor, chemotherapy, steroids, smoking, alcohol, posttransplantation, copper deficiency also, together with or without cytopenia. Absence of cytogenetic abnormality in 50–70% of cases with MDS, some overlapping morphological and/or pathophysiological features make it challenging to differentiate between MDS and other diseases/disorders like aplastic anemia, refractory ITP, copper deficiency. Transient genetic abnormalities including monosomy 7 in megaloblastic anemia; increased immature myeloid cells in bone marrow of cases with copper, vitamin B12, or folic acid deficiency in the setting of cytopenia and dysmorphism may also lead to the misdiagnosis of MDS. On the other hand, there are also cases of transient MDS. In this chapter, a literature is be presented to draw attention of the readers on the disorders that mimic MDS. Additionally, our personal experiences are also be shared. Awareness of disorders mimicking MDS may prevent over- or underdiagnosis of MDS.",book:{id:"5276",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Lale Olcay and Sevgi Yetgin",authors:[{id:"184156",title:"Prof.",name:"Lale",middleName:null,surname:"Olcay",slug:"lale-olcay",fullName:"Lale Olcay"}]},{id:"64871",title:"Diagnosis and Classification of Myelodysplastic Syndrome",slug:"diagnosis-and-classification-of-myelodysplastic-syndrome",totalDownloads:3212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a clonal hematopoietic stem cell disorder characterized by morphological dysplastic changes in one or more of the major hematopoietic cell lines. MDS can present with varying degrees of single or multiple cytopenias including neutropenia, anemia and thrombocytopenia. Presentation of MDS can range from asymptomatic to life threatening. MDS diagnosis and classification present important challenges, particularly in the distinction from benign conditions. French-American-British (FAB) classification proposed a classification based on easily obtainable laboratory information and was recommended in early and as modified by guidelines of new classification of World Health Organization (WHO). The strategy of diagnostic laboratory in MDS depends on morphological changes and is based on existence of dysplastic changes in the peripheral blood and bone marrow including peripheral blood smear, bone marrow aspirate smear and bone marrow trephine biopsy. The correct morphological interpretation and the use of cytogenetics, immunophenotyping, immunohistochemistry and molecular analysis will give valuable information on diagnosis and prognosis.",book:{id:"7138",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes"},signatures:"Gamal Abdul Hamid, Abdul Wahab Al-Nehmi and Safa Shukry",authors:[{id:"36487",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",slug:"gamal-abdul-hamid",fullName:"Gamal Abdul Hamid"},{id:"273724",title:"Dr.",name:"Safa",middleName:null,surname:"Shukry",slug:"safa-shukry",fullName:"Safa Shukry"},{id:"277511",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulwahab",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Nehmi",slug:"abdulwahab-al-nehmi",fullName:"Abdulwahab Al-Nehmi"}]},{id:"70780",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of β-Thalassemia and HbE",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-thalassemia-and-hbe",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"β-Thalassemia and HbE, each, is a syndrome resulted from quantitative and qualitative defects of β-globin chain, respectively. In addition to history retrieve and physical examination, diagnosis of these disorders requires laboratory information. Laboratory tests that are conventionally performed to diagnose the β-thalassemia and HbE are classified into two groups, based on the purposes, including the screening tests and confirmatory tests. The screening tests are aimed to screen for carriers of the β-thalassemia and HbE, while confirmatory tests are the tests performed to definitely diagnose these disorders. This chapter will explain all of these tests, the information of which will be useful for those who are working and interested in the β-thalassemia and HbE.",book:{id:"8450",slug:"beta-thalassemia",title:"Beta Thalassemia",fullTitle:"Beta Thalassemia"},signatures:"Thanusak Tatu",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"183",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82161",title:"Blood Groups More than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances: Susceptibility to Some Diseases",slug:"blood-groups-more-than-inheritance-of-antigenic-substances-susceptibility-to-some-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104593",abstract:"Blood group antigens represent polymorphic traits inherited among individuals and populations. The objective of this chapter is to review articles that have reported; the association between blood group antigens and susceptibility to some diseases. Findings showed that O blood group had a greater frequency of severe infections such as E coli, cholera and blood group A was associated with incidence of smallpox and some bacterial infections. These are principally based on presence or absence of “H-like” and “A and B-like” antigens markers. Antigens A, B and H are connected to N-glycans of vWF and reduces the half-life of the protein (10 hours) for group O while non-O groups, 25 hours. The loss of A, B, and H antigens as malignancy progresses was linked to potential metastasis. Similarly, some tumors have A or A-like antigens this explains the propensity of group A to develop tumors. Blood type incompatibility between mother and foetus sensitizes the mother to develop alloantibodies that could potentially cause death of the foetus in utero, a condition known hydrops. Reviewed articles have reported close link between blood group antigens and susceptibility diseases. More studies are required to rationalize the mechanism associated to this.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Williams Bitty Azachi and Kuschak Mathias Dakop"},{id:"80344",title:"RH Groups",slug:"rh-groups",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102421",abstract:"In 1939, a mother gave birth to a stillborn baby and underwent blood transfusion with ABO-matched blood from her husband. This resulted in a hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR). Levine and Stetson postulated that a novel antigen was present in the baby and father, which was absent in the mother. Therefore, the mother’s immune system recognized this antigen and produced antibodies against it. This condition has been known as the hemolytic disease of the newborn for a long period of time. Since the antenatal management of the fetus has been developed, the term has been modified to hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). This case led to the discovery of the antibody against the first antigen of the RH blood group system, the D antigen. To date, 56 antigens have been recognized within the RH blood group system. The five main antigens are D, C, c, E, and e. As observed in the above-mentioned case, the antibodies against these antigens are implicated in HTR and HDFN.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Amr J. Halawani"},{id:"80254",title:"Neutrophil-Specific Antigens: Immunobiology, Genetics and Roles in Clinical Disorders",slug:"neutrophil-specific-antigens-immunobiology-genetics-and-roles-in-clinical-disorders",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102431",abstract:"Neutrophils are the most abundant nucleated cells in blood circulation and play important roles in the innate and adaptive immune responses. Neutrophil-specific antigens, only expressed on neutrophils, are glycoproteins originally identified in studies on neonatal neutropenia due to fetal-maternal incompatibility and autoimmune neutropenia of infancy. The most investigated neutrophil–specific antigens are the NA and NB antigens that their incompatibilities also cause transfusion-induced febrile reactions and acute lung injury, a potentially fatal reaction, and in bone marrow transplantation, causing graft rejection. NA antigens are members of the immunoglobulin superfamily and are low-affinity Fc-receptors FcγRIIIb (CD16b). Fc receptors connect the F(ab), the antigen-binding fragment of the antibody molecules, to neutrophils and lead them to recognize and phagocytize the targeted antigens. The NB (CD177) antigen belongs to the urokinase-type Plasminogen Activator Receptor Superfamily (uPAR, CD59, Ly6), but its specific functions have not been fully determined. It is known, however, that NB antigen binds proteinase-3 (PR3 to the neutrophil membrane), a serine protease. In clinical studies, it was also demonstrated that NB expression is highly elevated in Polycythemia Vera and is unexpectedly expressed in some cancer tissues. Neutrophil-specific antigens are examples of antigens that have important biological and clinical activities beyond antigenicity.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Parviz Lalezari and Behnaz Bayat"},{id:"80716",title:"The ABO Blood Group System and Plasmodium falciparum (Pf ) Infection in Three Ethnic Groups Living in the Stable and Seasonal Malaria Transmission Areas of Burkina Faso (BF)",slug:"the-abo-blood-group-system-and-plasmodium-falciparum-pf-infection-in-three-ethnic-groups-living-in-t",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102475",abstract:"Genetic factors, including red blood cell polymorphisms, influence the severity of disease due to infection with Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). Studies show that these genetic factors associated with malaria susceptibility or resistance vary geographically, ethnically, and racially. We performed cross-sectional surveys in population living in rural villages from three ethnic groups. The blood group (BG) was determined genetically using two polymorphisms (rs8176719 and rs8176746). Out of 548 participants, 29.7% were Mossi, 38.2% were Fulani, and 32.1% were Rimaibe. The distribution of BG was, respectively, A: 25.5%, B: 26.6%, AB: 7.3%, and O: 40.5%. BG O was not only the common blood type overall, but was higher in Fulani (52.6%) than others. Fulani was associated with a reduced risk of infection and lower parasite densities than sympatric populations. The subjects with non-O blood were less susceptible to malaria infection. An association between ethnicity and malaria infection during the high transmission season as well as an association between the non-O blood group and malaria infections according to ethnicity was found. This was also true when ethnic groups were considered separately. Our results have demonstrated that the Fulani are not only less susceptible to Pf malaria infection, but when infected have lower parasite densities. Individuals with non-O blood are at lower risk of infection.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Edith Christiane Bougouma, Alphonse Ouedraogo and Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima"},{id:"80474",title:"ABO Blood Group and Thromboembolic Diseases",slug:"abo-blood-group-and-thromboembolic-diseases",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102757",abstract:"Thromboembolic diseases are usually inherited in the family. The tendency to repeat in an individual is a phenomenon that allows it to be studied. The inheritance and recurrence of thromboembolic diseases, of course, have individual risk factors for this occurrence. In the past, the ABO blood group was only needed for transfusion and organ transplant therapy. Over time, scientists think that blood type is a risk factor for certain diseases, including thromboembolism. Many studies divide between type O and non-O blood groups, both of which are distinguished by the presence of antigens on the cell surface and antibodies in the plasma of individuals. Type O does not have A, B antigens but has antibodies against A, B antigens, and vice versa for the non-O type. Many studies have shown that the non-O blood group has a risk factor for thromboembolic diseases, commonly due to higher levels of von Willebrand factor (VWF) and factor VIII (FVIII). These thromboembolic events can occur in arteries or venous. Thromboembolic manifestations are often associated with cardiovascular diseases for arterial thrombosis; and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) for venous thromboembolism (VTE).",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Yetti Hernaningsih"},{id:"78997",title:"ABO Blood Groups and Risk of Glioma",slug:"abo-blood-groups-and-risk-of-glioma",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100566",abstract:"Gliomas are one of the most common primary brain tumors and the etiology of gliomas remains unknown in most cases. The aim of this case–control study was to investigate possible association between incidence in relation to glioma and certain blood groups. This study included 100 histopathologically verified cases of glioma and 200 age and sex-matched controls without malignant diseases that were admitted to the same hospital. The results revealed that the patients with group AB were at 3.5-fold increased risk of developing glioma compared to the patients with other ABO blood groups. In this particular study, there was more male patients with glioma with the blood group AB. However, mechanisms that explain the relationship between the blood groups ABO and a cancer risk are unclear. Several hypotheses have been proposed, including the one with a modulatory role of blood group ABO antigens. In addition, the blood group ABO system regulates the level of circulating proinflammatory and adhesion molecules which play a significant role in the tumorigenesis process. Additionally, the recent discovery that includes the von Willebrand factor (vWF) as an important modulator of angiogenesis and apoptosis provides one plausible explanation as regards the role of the blood group ABO in the tumorigenesis process. To our knowledge, this is the first study that examined the relationship of blood group in patients diagnosed with glioma among the Serbian population. Moreover, for the first time our study results suggested that blood group AB increased the risk of glioma. The results of this study suggested that the blood group AB could be one of hereditary factors which had an influence on the occurrence of glioma. The further research is needed on a larger sample, to confirm these findings and the possible mechanisms by which the ABO system contributes to the pathology of glioma.",book:{id:"10728",title:"Blood Groups - More Than Inheritance of Antigenic Substances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10728.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Azanjac Arsic"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. 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Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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