Recommended treatment doses of leprosy.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7749",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Memristors - Circuits and Applications of Memristor Devices",title:"Memristors",subtitle:"Circuits and Applications of Memristor Devices",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This Edited Volume Memristors - Circuits and Applications of Memristor Devices is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of Engineering. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in the physical sciences, engineering, and technology research areas. All chapters are complete in itself but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on physical sciences, engineering, and technology,and open new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-78984-074-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-073-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-525-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77562",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"memristors-circuits-and-applications-of-memristor-devices",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"00f6cb499cb527fdca83568f8f1c8f9d",bookSignature:"Alex James",publishedDate:"May 27th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7749.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6855,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"6992",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"James",slug:"alex-james",fullName:"Alex James",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6992/images/system/6992.jpg",biography:"A.P. James received his Ph.D. degree from the Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. He is known for his contributions to memristive networks, neuromorphic computing, and image processing. Currently, he is a Full Professor in AI and Electronics at IIITMK. He is a mentor to several tech start-ups and co-founded companies in machine learning and computer vision hardware. He was an editorial member of Information Fusion (2010–2015), Elsevier, and is an associate editor for HCIS (2015–present), Springer; IEEE Access (2017–present); IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence (2017–present); and IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems 1 (2018–present). He is also a senior member of IEEE, a life member of ACM and senior fellow of HEA.",institutionString:"Nazarbayev University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"739",title:"Electronic Circuits",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-electronic-circuits"}],chapters:[{id:"71686",title:"Introductory Chapter: Challenges in Neuro-Memristive Circuit Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91969",slug:"introductory-chapter-challenges-in-neuro-memristive-circuit-design",totalDownloads:595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alex James",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71686",authors:[{id:"6992",title:"Prof.",name:"Alex",surname:"James",slug:"alex-james",fullName:"Alex James"}],corrections:null},{id:"66439",title:"Memristor Synapses for Neuromorphic Computing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85301",slug:"memristor-synapses-for-neuromorphic-computing",totalDownloads:1957,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Neuromorphic computing, which imitates the principle behind biological synapses with a high degree of parallelism, has recently emerged as a promising candidate for novel and sustainable computing technologies. The first step toward realizing a massively parallel neuromorphic system is to develop an artificial synapse capable of emulating synapse functionality, such as analog modulation, with ultralow power consumption and robust controllability. We begin this chapter with a simple description of neuromorphic systems and memristor synapses. Further, we introduce and evaluate the state-of-the-art neuromorphic hardware technology in terms of novel functional materials and device architectures toward the implementation of fully neuromorphic computers, which have been extensively explored in recent years. Finally, we briefly describe artificial neural networks based on memristor synapse in forms of crossbar arrays.",signatures:"Sanghyeon Choi, Seonggil Ham and Gunuk Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66439",authors:[{id:"278833",title:"Prof.",name:"Gunuk",surname:"Wang",slug:"gunuk-wang",fullName:"Gunuk Wang"},{id:"278834",title:"Mr.",name:"Sanghyeon",surname:"Choi",slug:"sanghyeon-choi",fullName:"Sanghyeon Choi"},{id:"278836",title:"Mr.",name:"Seong-Gil",surname:"Ham",slug:"seong-gil-ham",fullName:"Seong-Gil Ham"},{id:"278837",title:"Mr.",name:"Jung-Hwan",surname:"Kwak",slug:"jung-hwan-kwak",fullName:"Jung-Hwan Kwak"}],corrections:null},{id:"66818",title:"Coexistence of Bipolar and Unipolar Memristor Switching Behavior",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85176",slug:"coexistence-of-bipolar-and-unipolar-memristor-switching-behavior",totalDownloads:1110,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The memristor has been theoretically investigated as one of the fundamental electrical elements by Pr. Leon Chua in 1971. Meanwhile, its electrical characteristics are not yet fully understood. The nonlinear characteristics and the ability to examine large-scale amounts of storing data of this device reveal an interesting development in emerging electronic systems. Research on memristor modeling based on SPICE tools has grown rapidly. This leads us to study the behavior of such devices. Our aim is to simulate different types of memristor behavior. The adjustment of the model is based on the implementation of several parameters, which enables the switching of this device. In this chapter, we prove the flexibility and the correlation of memristor model with different memristive characterization data, by applying different voltage bias, sinusoidal and with a repetitive sweeping. Moreover, we demonstrate the memristor behavior as four types of switching. This includes bipolar switching, unipolar switching, bipolar switching with forgetting effect, and a reversible process between bipolar and unipolar switching. In order to validate this study, we compare our simulation results with experimental data and we prove a good agreement. The SPICE model used in our simulations shows a special advantage for its flexibility and simplicity.",signatures:"Sami Ghedira, Faten Ouaja Rziga, Khaoula Mbarek and Kamel Besbes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66818",authors:[{id:"275825",title:"Dr.",name:"Faten",surname:"Rziga Ouaja",slug:"faten-rziga-ouaja",fullName:"Faten Rziga Ouaja"}],corrections:null},{id:"65828",title:"Memristive Grid for Maze Solving",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84678",slug:"memristive-grid-for-maze-solving",totalDownloads:925,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Memcomputing represents a novel form of neuro-oriented signal processing that uses the memristor as a key element. In this chapter, a memristive grid is developed in order to achieve the specific task of solving mazes. This is done by resorting to the dynamic behavior of the memristance in order to find the shortest path that determines trajectory from entrance to exit. The structure of the maze is mapped onto the memristive grid, which is formed by memristors that are defined by fully analytical charge-controlled functions. The dependance on the electric charge permits to analyze the variation of the branch memristance of the grid as a function of time. As a result of the dynamic behavior of the developed memristor model, the shortest path is formed by those memristive branches exhibiting the fastest memristance change. Special attention is given to achieve a realistic implementation of the fuses of the grid, which are formed by an anti-series connection of memristors and CMOS circuitry. HSPICE is used in combination with MATLAB to establish the simulation flow of the memristive grid. Besides, the memristor model is recast in VERILOG-A, a high-level hardware description language for analog circuits.",signatures:"Arturo Sarmiento-Reyes and Yojanes Rodríguez Velásquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65828",authors:[{id:"134262",title:"Prof.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Sarmiento Reyes",slug:"arturo-sarmiento-reyes",fullName:"Arturo Sarmiento Reyes"}],corrections:null},{id:"67304",title:"Mathematical Analysis of Memristor CNN",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86446",slug:"mathematical-analysis-of-memristor-cnn",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter we present mathematical study of memristor systems. More precisely, we apply local activity theory in order to determine the edge of chaos regime in reaction-diffusion memristor cellular nanoscale networks (RD-MCNN) and in memristor hysteresis CNN (M-HCNN). First we give an overview of mathematical models of memristors, CNN and complexity. Then we consider the above mentioned two models and we develop constructive algorithm for determination of edge of chaos in them. Based on these algorithms numerical simulations are provided. Two applications of M-HCNN model in image processing are presented.",signatures:"Angela Slavova and Ronald Tetzlaff",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67304",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67304",authors:[{id:"256817",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",surname:"Slavova",slug:"angela-slavova",fullName:"Angela Slavova"},{id:"257912",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronald",surname:"Tetzlaff",slug:"ronald-tetzlaff",fullName:"Ronald Tetzlaff"}],corrections:null},{id:"67385",title:"Memristor Behavior under Dark and Violet Illumination in Thin Films of ZnO/ZnO-Al Multilayers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86557",slug:"memristor-behavior-under-dark-and-violet-illumination-in-thin-films-of-zno-zno-al-multilayers",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"ZnO/ZnO-Al thin films were grown aiming the development of a memristor. Electrical voltage sweeps were imposed to induce dopant migration and to achieve several resistance states. A memristor behavior was observed, presenting adaptation to external electrical stimulus. Voltage sweeps occurred under the influence of violet light and in the dark, alternately, and the influence of the photon incidence on the current intensity was noticed. Throughout the alternating cycles between light and dark, less resistance was observed under illumination, but the migration of Al and O ions caused the formation of Al2O3 and ZnO oxides, resulting in a gradual increase in resistance. With constant voltage, the device presented continuous modification of resistance and sensitivity to the violet light with generation of free carriers. These results bring new opportunities for using memristors as violet light sensors as well as new insights for light-controlled memristor development.",signatures:"Adolfo Henrique Nunes Melo, Raiane Sodre de Araujo, Eduardo Valença and Marcelo Andrade Macêdo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67385",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67385",authors:[{id:"291237",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Macedo",slug:"marcelo-macedo",fullName:"Marcelo Macedo"},{id:"298316",title:"MSc.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Melo",slug:"adolfo-melo",fullName:"Adolfo Melo"},{id:"298317",title:"Mr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Valença",slug:"eduardo-valenca",fullName:"Eduardo Valença"},{id:"298318",title:"Ms.",name:"Raiane",surname:"Araujo",slug:"raiane-araujo",fullName:"Raiane Araujo"}],corrections:null},{id:"67339",title:"Application of Probe Nanotechnologies for Memristor Structures Formation and Characterization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86555",slug:"application-of-probe-nanotechnologies-for-memristor-structures-formation-and-characterization",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the results of experimental studies of the formation and investigation of the memristors by probe nanotechnologies. This chapter also perspectives and possibilities of application of local anodic oxidation and scratching probe nanolithography for the manufacture of memristors based on titanium oxide structures, nanocrystalline ZnO thin film, and vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. Memristive properties of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes, titanium oxide, and ZnO nanostructures were investigated by scanning probe microscopy methods. It is shown that nanocrystalline ZnO films manifest a stable memristor effect slightly dependent on its morphology. Titanium oxide nanoscale structures of different thicknesses obtained by local anodic oxidation demonstrate a memristive effect without the need to perform any additional electroforming operations. This experimentally confirmed the memristive switching of a two-electrode structure based on a vertically aligned carbon nanotube. 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The treatment landscape for advanced kidney cancer has evolved since the introduction of VEGF inhibitors. Currently, therapies for metastatic renal cell carcinoma include mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors, new multikinase inhibitors (Cabozantinib, Lenvatinib, Tivozanib), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-directed therapy, cytokines, vaccines, and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) (e.g. Nivolumab, Opdivo®). VEGF tyrosine kinase inhibitor monotherapy had been the standard therapy, and its use is evolving in the front-line setting with ICIs; cabozantinib provides superior progression-free survival versus sunitinib in intermediate- and poor-risk patients, by International Metastatic RCC Database Consortium criteria.
\r\n\r\n\tRecently, combination strategies involving contemporary immunotherapy have emerged as key opportunities to further shift the treatment landscape. Numerous combinations with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors are compared to Sunitinib as the first-line treatment of mRCC. Thus, combination therapies involving ICIs could be the next standard of care and management in kidney cancer. With the expanding application of ICIs in advanced kidney cancer, the bar has been raised in evaluating ongoing combination strategies in this field. In this book, we will introduce and discuss a variety of systemic therapies including clinical trials adopted in advanced kidney cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa0ad98177ddb1d5d2dc2ba4c1a64141",bookSignature:"Prof. Jindong Chen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10341.jpg",keywords:"Kidney Carcinoma, Kidney Neoplasm, Cancer Chemotherapy, Immunotherapy, Target Therapy, Robot Surgery, Biomarkers, Combination Strategies, Transplantation, Metastasis, Treatment, Renal Cell Carcinoma",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Chen earned his PhD in Karolinska Institute, Sweden. He served as Research Scientist at Van Andel Research Institute, USA; Senior Scientist at National Cancer Centre Singapore and NUS-Duke University Graduate School. He identified two cancer-related genes, NORE1 and LSAMP by positional cloning strategy, and was awarded in the 94th and in the 100th AACR annual meeting.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"158564",title:"Prof.",name:"Jindong",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jindong-chen",fullName:"Jindong Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158564/images/system/158564.jpg",biography:"Jindong Chen, Ph.D., AACR active member, Research Associate Professor, Laboratory Co-director, Department of Urology, University of Rochester Medical Center, New York, USA. He obtained his Ph.D. in Karolinska Institute, Sweden. Then, he served as Research Scientist at Van Andel Research Institute, USA; Senior Scientist at National Cancer Centre Singapore and NUS-Duke University Graduate School.\r\nHe has worked on colorectal carcinoma, breast cancer, and kidney cancer for more than 20 years. He identified two cancer-related genes, NORE1 and LSAMP by positional cloning strategy, and was awarded in the 94th AACR annual meeting. Afterward, he has successfully developed several FLCN and HRPT2 conditional knockout mouse models and was again awarded in the 100th AACR annual Meeting for generating a tumor-developing FLCN knockout mouse model. 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Globalization is a multi-facet phenomenon which leads to disappearance of the borders between economic, social, cultural and political relations and shapes a modern relation and communication between nations (within countries and among countries)
Due to the significance of this phenomenon in the life, it has been the focus of the attention of scholars so that most scholars consider globalization as a factor for development, welfare and integration among nations which lead to the distribution of global benefits among people. Despite this perspective, some theorists consider it a discriminative force which makes the poor, poorer and the rich, richer. In their views, many people of developed and advanced counties would benefit of globalization while developing and undeveloped countries would drop behind developed countries due to lack of facilities to compete in this area.
So based on this, the proponents of globalization consider it as a positive phenomenon in all respects and the opponents consider it as the destructive factor of regional and national cultures due to overcoming the capitalism and the increase in economic and political dimensions. Because of this, the consequences of globalization on different aspects of human life and different matters lead to dissolution of interpretations.
The aim of this chapter is to examine the relation of globalization and innovation. So first the concept of globalization and its origin are reviewed and then for better investigation of this relation, the effect of globalization on different aspects of innovation would be analyzed. The authors believe that globalization reduces innovation following the reduction of variety in different aspects of the society including economic, social, political and cultural dimensions and inclination toward integration and unification and it has negative effect on innovation.
The term "globalization" has not a clear meaning and different definitions are provided to it under the influence of ideological backgrounds of researchers. Some consider globalization the same as communication revolution, other has considered it as a form of post-modernism and some other has regarded it as a new form of states without border. The optimistic view toward this phenomenon has considered it as a factor for growth, peace and friendship and the proximity of nations, also abundance of blessings and the pessimistic view equals it to crisis poverty and the disappearance of weak communities and unequal competition (Alvani, 2004).
Abushouk (2006) has classified the provided definitions for globalization into five groups considering the points which have been confirmed it them:
The first definition considers globalization synonymous with internationalization assuming that globalization leads to closer relation between nations within the framework of flowing of trade and investment and easier and faster communications (Hirst and Thompson, 1996).
However this definition has been criticized by some scholars such as Jan Art Scholte. He believes that cross-border relation between nations has existed long before the term "globalization" entered in international relation dictionary. Based on it, such definition does not provide a convincing meaning of globalization.
The second definition considers globalization as de-terrorization and liberalization and describes it as an integration process of international economy and reduction of legal limitation of import and export of goods, services, cash and financial tools. In this view, globalization refers to a movement in nations which leads to liberalization of negotiations between them and other nations and creates a borderless space for economic and financial affairs (Sander, 1996).
On the other hand, critics of this definition reject the general identity of these two terms (globalization and liberalization) and argue that this integration process for connecting the nations has appeared long before, especially at the time when imperial powers of Europe preserved their control on third- world countries (Abushouk, 2006).
Third definition assumes globalization as universalization; the proponents of this definition consider globalization as the process of spreading the topics, experiences and values all over the worlds and between people living in the earth (Abushouk, 2006; Alvani, 2004). In other words, the universalization informs of the combination of cultures and the experiences of people. In confirmation of samples globalization is referred to as the spreading of TV, automobile and etc. and the same trends of life and government of organizations. However some critics have criticized this definition. They argue that the transcontinental spreading of religions and trades have been long before globalization. So that the term "Universality" is proper for describing the spread of experiences and values and it should be confined to new global activities which have emerged from second half of the 20th century (Abushouk, 2006).
The forth definition regards globalization as synonymous with westernization and modernization and considers it as the dynamic factor which mentions the development of modernized social structure (capitalism, rationalism, industrialization, bureaucracy) and destructs non-westernized nations\' identities and cultures. As an evidence for globalization Hollywood culture and McDonald fast food restaurant can be mentioned.
The critics of this definition describe the spread of such western values under concepts such as colonization, westernization and modernization. In this area there is no need to create the term "globalization" for describing western ideas and values in third world countries (Khor, 1996).
The fifth definition is offered by Jan Art Scholte. He defines globalization as deterritorilization. In this definition the geographical borders disappear and lose their significance. The social space is not defined within the traditional borders and geographical borders change and they would become super-territorial.
The above-mentioned definitions are among the most common definitions of globalization, each of which view globalization from a particular perspective. Although all of them suggest that a governing and organizing method would be created in form of comprehensive globalization which includes all powers which direct the world toward global village, reduce the distances, make convergence in cultures and reduce political borders. As Mazrouei (2002) asserts globalization is "Villagization of the World".
Historically, globalization is not a new phenomenon but its changes can be investigated in terms of scale, speed and cognition (Kinnvall, 2004). Within scale framework, economic, political and social relation between nations have become more than before. Globalization has experienced a kind of temporal and spatial compression in terms of speed which had not experienced it before. Within the framework of cognition it considers the globe as a smaller space where every phenomenon and event has some consequences on economic, social and political life (Kinnvall, 2004).
This means de-territorialization of time and space which affects our lives (Kinnvall, 2004). Anyway, the term globalization has been offered and coined by Reiser and Davise in 1994 and it becomes a catchword for most scholars from all parts of the world after collapse of Soviet Union and the end of cold war in late 20th century (Abushouk, 2006). In the 1970s, this term developed as "Global Village" which reflected the progress of technology which has made the international exchanges and trade easier and faster.
The publication of
Different views have been offered about globalization. Farazmand (2001) in his paper entitled "Globalization, The State and Public Administration, A Theoretical Analysis with Policy Implication for Development States" has provided four theoretical perspectives for globalization. The first perspective is an optimistic one; the optimistic proponents of globalization speak of its advantages. While the critics and opponents refer to its negative consequences, the destructive effects that can influence the life of majority of people. For example, the proponents assert that the growth of transnational collaboration develops global capitalism in which the states are considered indifferent or improper and they create a de-territorialized world whose characteristic is mutual dependency, general order and governance of market. Thomas Friedman, the proponent of globalization, regards it as "herd" which directs all matters with its unique method and nothing can stop it (Farazmand, 2001). In his view, this phenomenon is not a choice but a fact. Farazmand (2001) refers to this fact that resistance toward globalization would charge huge costs. He believes that states can resist it but they would incur huge costs.
The second view is a critical one and in contrast with globalization. The opponents of globalization warn against the consequences and the negative effects of this phenomenon on national economy, human values, the benefits of democratic communities, national government and especially on third world countries (Farazmand, 2001). This group of opponents of globalization focuses on the vanishing and destruction of civil power, financial crisis in developing countries; governance crisis and economic problem (see Mele, 1996; Cox, 1993; Brecher and Costello, 1994; Kregel, 1998).
The third view refers to the fact that globalization would make the nations and states stay in their governing position. According to this view, globalization is an unavoidable fact and it is improper to fear it. Some socialists (such as Hirst and Thompson, 1996; Zysman, 1996) who believe in this idea, consider the negative consequences and effects of globalization less significance and argue that globalization would not decrease the power of nations. In fact, states would be more powerful in local and international areas (Farazmand, 2001).
However, Farazmand believes that the fourth view about globalization provides deeper analysis of this phenomenon. According to this view, even realists-pragmatists agree with the idea that globalization has important and considerable effects on the identity and characteristics of nations and states. Those theorists, who support this view, argue that globalization has positive/ negative effects on the economy of states and nations through changing world economy and with domination of transnational companies that has organizational, political and financial power (Farazmand, 1994).
This phenomenon can be examined from different perspectives considering different views toward globalization and different views toward globalization phenomenon.
It is worth noting that globalization is not a one-dimensional phenomenon. It has different dimensions and it can be divided into several complicated and interrelated dimensions (Hsiao and Wan, 2007; And United Nations, 2000). These dimensions have been examined from different aspects in several researches.
For example, Andreas Theophanous, 2011 has referred to four dimensions of globalization in his paper: 1. Economic, 2. Political. 3. Social and 4. Cultural. These four dimensions include different factors such as communications, transportation, technology, population mobility and life style.
Furthermore, he asserts that the consequence of each factor might be related to more than one dimension. For example, we make use of a particular dimension, in the first view, it might have economic applications, and meanwhile the technology affects the production, employment and the use of standard and life style (Theophanous, 2011). Robert Kcohance and Joseph Nye (2000) have also distinguished four dimensions of globalization that are economic, military, cultural and social (Taylor, 2005). In this chapter, these four dimensions have been considered and examined in detail.
In definition of globalization, economic perspective is of great importance and is dominant in contrast to political, scientific, cultural and social dimensions (Krasner, 1976). The reason is the evolution of this dimension of globalization rather than other dimensions and time priority. This is why globalization is viewed mostly from economic point of view. The origin of economy globalization and its development is Breton Woods conference in 1944. However, the economy crisis of the 1970s facilitated globalization through creation of new drivers in neoliberal economic ideology and increase of Regan and Thatcher powers. On the other hand, advances in technology that reduced the transportation and communication costs reinforced this trend (Tiemstra, 2007). One of the other significant factors in development of economic globalization is the role of multinational companies and the emergence of networks of companies (Crevoisier, 1999) which act independent of particular geographical areas or state\'s policies (Ollapally, 1993).
Globalization is composed of two sub- processes from economic dimension (Oppenhein, 2003): the first one is the merging of distinct and isolated parts of global system which includes the spread of active forces and capital all over the world. Free trade agreements are the main part of this process due to the fact that they make legislation which facilitates the flow of work and capital. The second process is development of communication including telecommunication, internet etc. which facilitate the flow of labor and capital.
The agreement on free trade is the main part of this process due to the fact that they make some regulations which facilitate the flow of labor and capital. The second process is the development of communications including telecommunication, internet etc. that all facilitate the intra-national and international relations. Multifaceted trade agreements such as The Genera Tariff And Trade GATT negotiation have led to the formation and construction of World Trade Organization, The North American Free Trade Area and recently, Free Trade Area of Americas, all are part of globalization process (Farazmand, 1999a, b, 2005).
In economic dimension, one of the fundamental goals of globalization is the destruction of economic borders and removal of legal barriers and creation of free market system in a way that make the capitals flow freely. The other point in economic dimension of globalization is the removal of custom duties\' barriers and globalization of competitions. Fukuyama and Hantington are among the proponents of globalization. They consider globalization as a process that leads to evolution and generalization of modern capitalism (Mir, Mohammadi, 2002).
Globalization as a political phenomenon means that the construction of political plays is not determined within distinct and independent units (independent organized structures and hierarchy of states). Therefore, that globalization is the process of political structuration. Political globalization is the reconstruction of political experiences and institutionalized structures for coordinating and removing the deficiencies of state (Cerny, 1997).
In political dimension, the state as the welfare provider has been removed from most communities under the influence of globalization and because of the reduction of state\'s collaboration in economic section. New groups and leaders have emerged for creating welfare and security. Such leaders are challenging for states and governments (Kinnvall, 2004).
On the other hand, according to some of theorists, globalization reduces the control of states and governments of their nations. So social liberation, democracy, civil attitudes and political culture are promoted (Bollen, 1979, 1983; Bollen And Jackman, 1985; Cutright, 1963; Cutright And Wiley, 1969; Hannan And Carroll, 1981; Jackman, 1973; Lipsert, 1959; Imai, 2002). Despite this, some theorists believe that regardless of cultural or regional differences between states (national economies integration within global market) globalization is a catalyzer for political liberalization of states. However, this idea is rejected by some thinkers of international policy due to the general effect of economy globalization of policy (Dupont, 1996; Fukuyama, 1989, 1995; Huntington, 1991; Jones, 1995; Kauhkan, 1993). This can be seen in the reduction of globalization effect in Asian countries (due to their unique political culture). However, one cannot ignore the great effects of globalization in political area within global level. The distribution of cosmopolitism relation, the growth of political culture, the transformation of traditional power of societies to competitive powerful power, the increase in citizen rights and awareness within civil society and institutionalization of liberty in selection within the political development models are a great part of globalization effect in political zone at global level which are mentioned in political dimension in globalization.
Social dimension of globalization is related to the globalization effect on the life and work of individuals, their families and communities. This dimension is related with the effect of globalization on employment, work condition, income and social support. The social dimension beyond labor world refers to security, culture, identity and the coherence of families and communities (Gunter and Hoeven, 2004).
Historically, this dimension of globalization is alongside with neoliberal ideology. The changes in the policies facilitated in late 1970s within liberalization framework. The movement from Keynesian economy to monetarist macroeconomic in developed countries which was followed through structural adaptation in developing countries in 1980s and 1990s, their aim was privatization and the increase of global competition which is a tool for making stable and promote civil society. However, in most countries, due to removing of occupational security from middle classes and below, it has reverse effect because of severe social stress (Kinnvall, 2004). Furthermore, the main effect of globalization that has worried most people all over the world is the possibility of increase in unemployment rate because of joining to organizations like World Trade Organization.
The effect of globalization of cultural dimension is different and globalization of culture had different reactions. However, the specification and identity of these reactions depend on those societies where it has occurred, in a way that the reaction of western and modern societies has been different from that of developing countries and especially Muslim countries. Two factors have been effective in this phenomenon: first: the economic and financial effect of globalization and modernity, the emergence of modern consumption goods, the effect of mass media (TV, Satellite, Film and internet…) has been effective. Second one is western values including scientific argumentation, secularism, individualism, freedom of speech, political pluralism, ruling of law, equalization of women and minorities (Lieber And Weisberg, 2002; Howard, 2002). Theorists have different view toward the influence of globalization on culture. Proponents believe that although globalization leads to integration and removal of cultural barriers, it is an important step toward more stable world and better life for individuals (Rothkoph, 1997). However, others consider globalization of culture improper due to fear from universal power and the continuance of multinational collaborations with international institutions such as International Monetary Fund (IMF) (Lieber and Weisberg, 2002).
According to these views, the idea of globalization is controversial form cultural point of view (Vaira, 2004). More specifically, the views toward globalization of culture are based on two theories of convergence and divergence (Pin Goh, 2009). However, the review of related literature shows three flow of globalization that is indicative of social, cultural and political: Polarization, And Hybridization Homogenization (Holton 2000). Homogenization argues that globalization leads to cultural convergence, most discussions such as John Tomlinson’s Cultural Imperialism (1991), Reinhold Wagnleitner’s ‘Coca-Colonization’ (1994) And George Ritzer’s \'Mcdonaldization’ (2001) considers global culture as indicative of capitalism culture, necessarily, the culture which is inclined toward local cultures. Such culture penetrates in global economy. Furthermore, the emergence of transnational elites who are trained with western values and are committed to homeland values, helps in the construction of a dominant culture that is inspired from capitalism values (Hsiao and Wan, 2007).
The proponents of convergence theory assume that as the modernity level increases, the level of structural integration of modernized communities increases, too. On the other hand, the main changes that occur in structural uniformity of culture in modernized communities might lead to similar consequences, innovation, industrialization and modernization affect through converging the effects of technology on all aspects of social life and labor (Webber, 1969).
Ploralization theory offers an opposite view against this. Localities react differently due to external powers of the world due to various cultural and historical heritages. Some communities, particularly Muslim communities, resist westernized or American culture. Based on this, the feature of today\'s world is ethno-nationalism and the conflict between cultures (Tusicisny, 2004). There is cultural dichotomy between western and non- western life styles, east and west, east and Islamic Confucian Axis (Hsiao and Wan, 2007).
Ploralization theorists such as Adler and Bartholomew, 1992; Yuki and Falbe, 1990 argue that the cultural variation and resistance toward western norms assert that pluralism theory provide an interesting and more attractive picture of global culture development. They argue that it is simplistic to assume that behaviors, preferences and tests from all over the world are converging (Akkah, 1991) because cultures are changing and conform differently.
On the other hand, the third group of theorists that are known as hybridization believes that the previous outstanding theories do not include the complicated and multifaceted global culture. They argue that cultures adapt from one another and combine some elements from different sources within their own particular cultural experiences (Pin Goh, 2009).
Hybridization theory asserts that cultures have some elements and components specific to themselves (Kraidy, 2005). New terms such as globalization and hybridization are created for expressing the dynamic relation and link between globalization and localization (Hsiao and Wan, 2007). These are main dimensions that are of great importance in the examination of the effect of globalization. On the other hand, they are helpful in determining the main discussion of this chapter which is the examination of the effect of globalization on innovation; this will be focused in what follows.
What has been mentioned so far is for better determination of globalization process and the examination of its consequences in different cultural, social, political and economic dimensions. Nevertheless, the main topic of this paper is the consequences and effects of globalization on innovation and regardless of the positive and negative effects in different aspects, how globalization affects innovation. As it was mentioned previously, the researchers have offered different explanations and analysis about globalization and its consequences. Each of these scholars and theorists has tried to examine different dimensions of this phenomenon. Despite most of them, the overall effect of globalization is to move toward convergence and integration. As an example, Aldous Huxleyin his book,
Such theories reflect the orientation of globalization toward integration. However, such integration can have different influences from different dimensions. Economically, the world is being transformed to a unique economic creature very quickly, an undeniable creature within which all components and parts are dependent to one another.
From political and social perspectives, the results of globalization is the construction of transnational society which if it is done on all aspects, the political and cultural role of states is reduced and the transnational rules and values would govern the economic, political, cultural and social structures. Furthermore from cultural point of view, it leads to universal culture beyond local and national borders, the common and shared culture within the framework of which local cultures are defined and if this culture has the ability to collaborate in such culture, it would stay stable (Turki, 1383). Based on this, most of scholars regard globalization as the unification of all cultures and extension of westernized civilization\'s patterns that is in fact a cultural imperialism (Davoodi, 2009).
Considering these consequences of globalization, the main discussion of this paper is that globalization reduces innovation and it has a negative effect on innovation through removing the variation. In order to discuss this effectiveness, we should assert that of main consequences of globalization is the movement toward convergence and integration in all political, economic, social and cultural dimensions. It is obvious that the consequence of such phenomenon is disappearance of variety in these dimensions. In economic dimension, globalization is an economic phenomenon whose feature is the spread of capitalism and market mechanism all over the world. Since different countries have different social and political systems and their economies are in different level of growth and development, the obligations and necessities of economy globalization (liberation of trade and capital flow), the execution of social regulations (those emerged from global organizations like world trade organization, …) have different effects on nations (Gengshen, 2001). Such discussion in globalization embeds this idea that the prerequisites of globalization destruct variation in all dimensions and due to fact that variation has positive effects on improving innovation and creativity and is considered a source of innovation, globalization phenomenon destructs innovation through destruction of variation and with inclination toward convergence and integration. For example in economy, some critics of globalization believe that the growth and development of market globalization reduces variation and necessitates the policy of support (The Economist, 1994, 1995, 1998; Waxman, 1998; Baughn And Buchanan, 2001; Kull, 2001; Francois And Vanypersele, 2002).
Klein (2000) has mentioned such concern in globalization and asserts that market- oriented globalization doesn\'t necessitate variation. For better elaboration of this topic, he refers to the growth of sport industry (Nike), the entertainment and child tools (Disney and Mattel) and software industry (Microsoft).
In culture dimension, the negative effects of globalization have been considered in eradicating variety. The critics of globalization assert that globalization is somehow imposition of western culture on non- western world. This theory that is mentioned within cultural imperialism follows the idea that although cultural globalization appears as trans-historical and transnational or as a supreme global power, it is nothing more than the issuance of goods, values and priorities of western life style.
What is spread in global level of culture are believes and constructs and generally identities which are offered by western culture industries. These theorists speak about the construction of cultural dominance on other cultures within the framework of globalization that endangers the cultural identity, believes, values and even the language of most countries using communicative and technological tools (Gol Mohammadi, 1381).
David Held (2000) regards culture globalization as a form of imperialism that is followed by western countries. Furthermore, he asserts, "cultural imperialism is a goof method and procedure for understanding culture globalization. The dominant culture of western countries disappears through the main trend of homogenization of local cultures disappear and this is an applicable matter for economic benefits of western countries".
Fukuyama is among scholars of globalization who reject the idea that globalization leads to convergence, removes tradition from cultures and destructs cultural variation (national and local). However, he asserts that although globalization creates convergence in some grounds, there are other deeper components in the culture of countries that make convergence a difficult task. He believes that the communities preserve their individual characteristics in spite of economic collaborations.
Nkosinathi Sotshangane (2002) speaks of cultural variation as an undeniable and important fact in "Global Village". While the rich value of it is ignored and most countries have some deficiencies in realizing the cultural values, most people have experienced the negative effects of globalization. In a way that from late 20 century, there have been some protest movements against globalization and its effect on the economic, cultural, political, technological and religious order (Sotshangane, 2002).
Such measures and perspectives make some negative effects of globalization more important. For example, UNESCO has provided a broader definition to pay much attention to variation in culture and show its significance. After world conference 1983, culture was defined as the collection of material, intellectual, cultural and emotional characteristics and features of a society or social group to focus the attention on culture variation and its significance so that this definition includes the ways for living together, value system, traditions and believes in addition to art, literature and life style (UNESCO, 2002). In 2001, in Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, cultural variation was defined as "the source of exchange, innovation and creativity" and its positive side was confirmed (CHAN-TIBERGIEN, 2006).
Globalization is one of the topics which have been considered by different theorists and researchers and different contradictory views have been provided considering its significance and influence on different aspects of human life (economic, social, political and cultural).
On one hand, the proponents of globalization try to focus more on the benefits of this phenomenon and emphasize on economic and social development of communities and regards it a positive matter. In contrast, the opponents of globalization believe that globalization is good for developed and advanced countries and communities and it has negative consequences in other communities (developing countries). However, some believe that beyond the identity of societies and communities, globalization has different consequences for topics and phenomena. For example, the effect of globalization of the development of technology, science can be positive or negative. In this chapter, the authors try to examine the effect of globalization on innovation. They believe that globalization has some negative consequences on innovation through destruction of variety and with inclination toward convergence in all areas and eliminates variety.
Due to the fact that convergence and orientation toward integration occur in all dimensions including economic, social, political and cultural dimensions, in other words, moving in one dimension affects other dimensions, so it can be concluded that the negative effect of globalization on innovation occur in all dimensions.
Leprosy is an ancient, granulomatous and chronic infection that caused by
Diagnosis is made by clinical examination; however, it must be supported with laboratory to determine the classification and the treatment of the disease.
In leprosy, Multi Drug Therapy (MDT) has been recommended since 1982 as the standard treatment. With MDT, relapse and the number of the new leprosy cases decreased. However, it is still important and necessary to closely monitorize the patients to prevent and eliminate the leprosy.
According to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), there are 5.35 million leprosy patients in 1985, and this figure has declined to 210,758 in 2015 [1, 2]. The most probable cause of this decline in prevalence is the increasing public awareness, trainings made regarding diagnosis and treatment after the worldwide determination of leprosy as a public health problem [3]. When the prevalence of leprosy is determined, the data of registered patients receiving MDT every year are used. While the state of the disease on the world is determined, aside from prevalence, new patient detection rates and grade-2 disabilities (G2D) definitions and new cases with visible deformities are also used by WHO [2].
In reducing of the prevalence of leprosy over a period of several years, in particular, reducing the treatment with dapsone for many years (4–10) to up to 1 year with MDT was effective [4, 5]. In contrast with the decline in prevalence, the new patient detection rate continued to increase until 2001. After 2001, the number of new diagnoses in parallel with the decrease in prevalence due to the early diagnosis and the success of MDT has decreased [5]. The healthcare infrastructure, which plays a very important role in detecting and controlling the disease, and the accessibility of health services directly affect these rates [6].
At the end of 2015, the prevalence was calculated to be 0.29 (174,608 cases) per 100,000 population, and the rate of new cases was calculated to be 3.2 (210,758 cases) per 100,000 population, according to the number of patients receiving MDT in collected data by WHO from 138 countries [2]. Although the programs against leprosy are being prepared worldwide, currently, 14 countries, each reporting more than 1000 new patients per year, are generating 95% of newly diagnosed patients worldwide. In 2015, India alone accounts for 60% (127,326) of newly diagnosed patients, 13% of Brazil (26,395) and 8% of Indonesia. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, the United Republic of Tanzania, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Philippines totally have a new patient detection rate of 14%. Although the rates vary in different countries, on average, 38.8% of the patients reported worldwide are woman and 8.9% of them are children. It is rare to have leprosy in infancy due to long incubation period [7].
The rate of G2D, which indicates identification of early signs and symptoms of leprosy and the response to treatment, is around 6.7% worldwide (1409 cases), indicating a delay in the detection of cases where this rate is still high [2]. The aim of the Global leprosy 2016–2020 is to reduce G2D ratio to less than 1 per 1 billion worldwide; and to withdraw the G2D ratio to zero in children [8].
Despite the fact that leprosy is a very old disease, we still have a limited knowledge of contamination routes and reservoirs. Contamination usually occurs after prolonged contact with the nasal and oral secretions of lepromatous leprosy (LL) patients infected and untreated with
Bacillus
Although
Since there is no serological or biological method that may detect
In a case control study, when compared to the control group, those who had social contact and when compared to living in the same aquifer, those who are core households have a higher risk [33, 34].
According to many specialist age is a risk factor and children below 14 years old who is in contact with MB patients as a householder are found to be at greater risk than adults [35, 36, 37]. In addition, a study showing that bimodal distribution of risk for age has been shown that the risk increase ages 5–15 years and over 30 years.
Although there are a number of studies showing no significant difference between men and women, there is also a study reported that men are at greater risk [34, 35, 36].
Compared to the general population, sharing the same house with a leprosy patient increases the risk. Contact with MB leprosy patients is more risky when compared to contact with patients with PB single lesion leprosy, while the risk of contact with MB patients is similar to contact with PB leprosy patients with 2–5 lesions [34, 36, 38]. If there are two or more patients in the same house, the risk of contamination doubles [11].
For individuals in contact with the general population and leprosy patients, BCG vaccination administration at repeated doses provides protection against the leprosy [39, 40, 41]. Those who live in the same household and do not vaccinated with BCG vaccine are at greater risk [42].
Studies have been carried out for years to clarify whether there is a relationship between leprosy and genetics. Although not fully adequate, there are conclusions that support this idea. Moet et al. reported that genetic association is a risk factor predisposing to leprosy, regardless of physical distance [34]. Mire et al. found that the chromosome 6q25 locus was associated with leprosy susceptibility; Siddiqui et al. showed that the 10p13 locus was associated with PB leprosy [43]. There are also studies showing that HLA DR2 and non-HLA (SLC11A1, formerly NRAMP1 and TNF alpha) genes are also associated with leprosy [44, 45]. Genomic studies are important in combating leprosy in terms of having potential for improvement in treatment and vaccination. On the other hand, the presence of IL-17F (7488 t > C) single nucleotide polymorphism and the presence of IL-4 gene 4-590 T/C polymorphism are associated with decreased predisposition to leprosy [46, 47].
Reproduction of
In 2001, by dissolving the genome sequence of
Leprosy exhibits a broad spectrum of clinical and histopathological findings based on the cellular immune response of the host. In 1966, Ridley and Jopling classified leprosy according to clinical and histopathologic features [54, 55]. According to this classification system there is a tuberculous form (TT) consisting of a strong immune response and a small number of microorganisms at one end and a weak immunologic response and a lepromatous form (LL) overloading of microorganisms at the other end and three types of borderline leprosy; borderline tuberculoid leprosy (BT), mid-borderline (BB), borderline lepromatous leprosy (BL) between these two end. Conceptually, tuberculoid leprosy (TT) and lepromatous leprosy (LL) are clinically stable, while borderline forms may shift to stronger or weaker immunity.
In 1997, the WHO created a classification to provide leprosy treatment based on the number of lesions present, regardless of the size, localization, and histopathological features of the lesions, without laboratory support in endemic areas [56]. According to these, leprosy is divided to 3 subgroup: single lesion leprosy, PB, 2–5 lesions and MB, more than 5 lesions. According to the WHO classification, BT may be considered in the PB, BB and BL may be considered in the MB spectrum.
Clinical findings of leprosy are primarily due to skin and nervous system involvement. There are five common types of peripheral nerve changes:
Enlargement of peripheral nerves: Peripheral nerves are more frequently affected by superficial placement. Unique findings such as anesthesia or hypoesthesia may develop as well as sensitivity and enlargement [55, 57]. Ulnar nerve in the elbow, median and superficial radial cutaneous nerve in the wrist, large common auricular nerve in the neck, and common peroneal nerve enlargement in the popliteal fossa can be detected by palpation [57].
Presence of sensory defects such as anesthesia and hypoesthesia in skin lesions.
Sensory and motor function losses may occur depending on the location of nerves that are involved. General neurological examination was performed and neurological changes such as drop foot, flexion contracture 4–5 of the fingers, muscular atrophy, facial paralysis, and lagophthalmia may be detected [57].
Depending on the influence of thin, unmyelinated Type C fibers responsible for the transmission of senses such as light touch, pain, hot, and cold; the sensory loss in the glove-stocking pattern may be observed first in the hot-cold discrimination.
Anaphylaxis of palmoplantar area may be observed by the effected sympathetic nerve fibers.
Clinical forms of leprosy are determined according to clinical, bacteriological, immunological and histopathological criteria. According to that, leprosy has five clinical types:
It is a form of strong immune response that can be followed by spontaneous healing. Primary skin lesions are hairless, faintly elevated and endure, erythematous, squamous, annular plaques, which can be accompanied by neural involvements such as sharp anesthesia and hyperesthesia. The number of lesions is often solitary and does not exceed 10 cm in size. It can be seen as hypopigmented lesions in which partial pigment loss is observed, especially in dark-skinned individuals [54, 58]. Lesions should be examined thoroughly in terms of alopecia. Even if the enlargement and tenderness of the peripheral nerves near the cutaneous lesion are not detected, the lesion itself is typically hyperesthesia and anhidrotic [58].
Although the immune response is sufficient to limit the disease, it is insufficient for spontaneous recovery [59]. Patients in this form may have a TT upgrade or borderline leprosy downgrade according to the change in the immunological response. Primary skin lesions are sharply defined, multiple, asymmetric, annular plaques and papules [54]. Lesions are less indurated and eleve, less erythematous, scarless, or slightly squamous than TT. The lesions can be seen in size to cover the entire limb. The lesions can be seen in size to cover the entire extremity. Loss of sense is observed in all lesions and nerve involvement (enlargement and paralysis) is usually asymmetry.
Immunologically, the two extremities are the midpoint of the spectrum [59]. The severity of cutaneous findings and neurological changes depend on which end of the patient is closer to. Primer skin lesions are generally asymmetric, alopecic, annular, sharply defined and broad platelets with the appearance of “Swiss cheese” where clinically normal skin islets are found.
The immune system is weak enough to stop bacterial proliferation but sufficient to suppress inflammation that causes tissue damage [59]. Clinical findings are considerably diverse. Lepromatous lepra-like weak-edged and tuberculoid lepra-like sharp-edged plaques providing a classical dimorphic annular appearance are seen in only one of three patients [54]. Large plaques with sharp or weak edges and normal papules and nodules on which normal skin islands are visible can also be observed. The number of lesions varies from solitary to multiple. While the annular plaque lesions show asymmetrical placement, the nodules localized symmetrically. Neurological involvement is common and severe sensorimotor damage can be observed.
Extensive disease is seen due to the inadequate cellular immune response. Classical lesions are characterized by multiple, diffuse, often symmetric, sharply defined papules, plaques and nodules. Involvement areas are usually the face, the hip and the lower extremity (Figure 1). The infiltration of the forehead skin leads to generation of lion face, which is a characteristic facial appearance (Figure 2). Hair loss is widespread, especially in the eyebrows (madarosis) and lashes [60].
Lower extremity involvement.
Characteristic facial appearance (lion face).
Corneal dryness, abrasion and ulceration are very common in patients with leprosy due to the secretory irregularity and corneal insensitivity. A careful eye examination should be performed in every leprosy patient to prevent serious complications that can result in blindness.
Depending on the perforation and collapse of the nasal septum, saddle nose and rhinitis-like findings can be observed. Snoring due to nodule occurrence in vocal cords and larynx involvement, and gynecomastia, impotence and infertility as a result of decrease in blood testosterone level due to testicular involvement in male patients may be seen [61].
Venous insufficiency due to endothelial involvement of the valves of deep venous vessels may lead to stasis dermatitis and venous ulcers.
In the advanced disease phase, multiorgan involvement (liver, spleen, peripheral lymph nodes, bone marrow) can be observed.
Immunological reactions are inflammatory conditions that clinicians and patients may encounter before, during, or months or years after treatment [62]. Approximately 30–50% of patients are involved. There are two types of reactions that are linked to different immunological mechanisms that are not fully understood: Type 1 and type 2 [63]. These immunological reactions may mimic the drug reaction, the clinician should pay attention to that they are not drug reactions and that treatment should not be interrupted. In both types of reactions, general weakness, fatigue and fever can be observed. Other clinical findings differ according to the developing reaction.
Although reduction and absence of sensory perception distinguish leprosy lesions from other diseases, this finding may not always be detectable. With the reason that a wide variety of cutaneous lesions are present, leprosy can be confused with many diseases. In suspected patients, the exact diagnosis is made by skin biopsy.
Hypopigmented lesions may mimic pityriasis alba, pityriasis versicolor, mycosis fungoides and sarcoidosis [66].
Figured erythematous plaques may be confused with fungal infections, annular psoriasis, sarcoidosis, mycosis fungoides, lichen planus, systemic lupus erythematosus [66].
Infiltrated plaques and nodules generate definitive diagnosis with cutaneous leiomyoma, sarcoidosis, syphilis, keloid, cutaneous lymphoma, granuloma annulare [66].
In addition, definitive diagnosis of type 1 reaction includes acute lupus erythematosus, drug reactions, cellulitis; the definitive diagnosis of the type 2 reaction should be considered to include other conditions that may cause vasculitis and panniculitis.
For diagnosis, leprosy must first come to mind. Although diagnosis is made substantially by clinic examination, diagnosis must be supported by laboratory for classification and treatment. Microbiological and pathological tests should be performed after history and clinical evaluation [67]. WHO recommends that individuals with one of the two cardinal findings in endemic regions are considered to be leprosy [68].
Lesions compatible with leprosy with sensory loss (with or without nerve thickening).
Positive skin smear.
Hypoesthesia skin lesion is the most important diagnostic factor because it is not expected in another skin disease other than leprosy. After evaluation of skin lesions, peripheral nerves should be palpated for thickening, and nerve examination of lesions and distal extremities should be performed [69]. Conjunctiva and corneal examination should also be made.
Skin smear, a rapid diagnostic method, requires experience. The skin compressed between the thumb and index finger is cut with lancet with a width of 5 mm and a depth of 3 mm. The collected dermal fluid is spread on the lame. Tissue fluid should not be bloody. The most preferred regions are the earlobe, elbow and knee extensor faces. It may require three to six repetitions. The result is generally negative in less bacillar and TT. Nasal sampling is not recommended, especially because of fragility in LL cases. A 4 mm punch biopsy is the ideal method for sampling. The biopsy should be taken from the most erythematous, contagious and expanding area. Nerve biopsy may be required to support diagnosis, especially in cases of pure nerve involvement [67].
In vitro
One of the molecular diagnostic methods, PCR, is the detection of
The main pathologic feature is a granulomatous reaction. Epithelioid cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasmocytes and rarely neutrophil and mast cells are observed. Different granulomatous reactions occur according to the immune response of the host. While epithelial cells are mostly observed in TT and BT cases, foamy macrophages are observed mostly in LL and BL cases.
About 0.1 ml of lepromin antigen is administrated intradermally on to the forearm. The test is interpreted twice, first 24–48 hours and then 21 days. The first reaction is indicative of susceptibility, but may cross-react with other mycobacteria. The second reaction is resistance indicator to bacillus. Nodule >5 mm is considered positive. The most important point for the lepromin test is that it is not a diagnostic test, it should be used for classification and prognostic purposes.
MDT is the key point of disease control. Dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine are the first line drugs. Because of the increased drug resistance due to monotherapy and the ineffectiveness of each one on
WHO recommended treatment regimens | NHDP recommended treatment regimens | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agent | Dose | Duration | Agent | Dose | Duration | |
Adult | Dapsone | 100 mg/daily | 6 months | Dapsone | 100 mg/daily | 12 months |
Rifampicin | 600 mg/a month | Rifampicin | 600 mg/daily | |||
Childᵜ | Dapsone | 50 mg /daily | Dapsone | 1 mg/ kg/daily | ||
Rifampicin | 450 mg/a month | Rifampicin | 10–20 mg/kg/daily (not >600) | |||
Adult | Dapsone | 100 mg/daily | 12 months | Dapsone | 100 mg /daily | 24 months |
Rifampicin | 600 mg/a month | Rifampicin | 600 mg/daily | |||
Clofazimine | 50 mg/daily and 300 mg/a month | Clofazimine | 50 mg /daily | |||
Childᵟ | Dapsone | 50 mg/ daily | Dapsone | 1 mg/kg/daily | ||
Rifampicin | 450 mg/a month | Rifampicin | 10–20 mg/kg/daily (not >600) | |||
Clofazimine | 50 mg/daily and 150 mg/a month | Clofazimine | 1 mg/kg/daily |
Recommended treatment doses of leprosy.
Adjust dose appropriately for child less than 10 years. For example, dapsone 25 mg daily and rifampicin 300 mg given once a month under supervision.
Adjust dose appropriately for child less than 10 years. For example, dapsone 25 mg daily, rifampicin 300 mg given once a month under supervision, clofazimine, 50 mg given twice a week, and clofazimine 100 mg given once a month under supervision.
Minocycline, clarithromycin and ofloxacin can be used as second-line drugs in MDT, where first-line drugs cannot be tolerated. Minocycline 100 mg/Daily can be used instead of dapsone and clofazimine, ofloxacin 400 mg/day instead of clofazimine, clarithromycin 500 mg/daily can be used where dapsone, clofazimine or rifampin cannot be tolerated [82].
WHO recommends that cases with a skin smear test +, or those without a definite diagnosis, are definitely treated with MB-MDT. Furthermore, attention should be paid to the fact that MB leprosy cases should not be treated with PB-MDT [81].
On the other hand, the National Hansen’s Disease Programs (NHDP)—in the USA—involves different regimen. Treatment is recommended 12 months for PB leprosy and 24 months for MB leprosy. Furthermore, unlike the current regimen of WHO, rifampin is used daily rather than monthly [82]. Recommended doses are presented in Table 1.
Moxifloxacin, pefloxacin, sparfloxacin, levofloxacin, and rifapentine that is a rifampin derivate are other agents with demonstrated efficacy [83, 84]. Clinical trials are needed in the long term.
Another treatment regimen studied is Uniform-MDT. It is the use for 6 months of dapsone, rifampin and clofazimine for patients with both PB and MB. However, the need for using additional clofazimine in PB patients and whether the treatment will be sufficient in MB patients are important questions present. This treatment is believed to set zero the risk of abduction of MB leprosy patients who received insufficient treatment by introducing a PB group [85]. In a study in which MB leprosy relapse was assessed in particular, relapse was found to be well below the targeted 5-year relapse rate of 5% [86]. Existing studies promises hope although further studies are needed [87, 88].
Supportive therapies such as parol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), can be administered if there are no neuritis findings such as pain, function, or sensory loss. If nerve involvement is present, prednol 0.5–1 mg/kg/day peros is the first choice treatment. When the reaction is relieved, the dose is slowly reduced so that it remains above the dose of 0.25 mg/kg/day for at least 3–6 months. In ongoing process, dose reduction is continued with careful follow-up of nerve functions [89]. Cyclosporin is another option when steroids are not usable [90, 91]. In a study in which azothioprine was assessed, efficacy in type 1 reaction was not demonstrated [92].
The incidence of type 2 reaction has decreased after addition of clofazimine to MDT with anti-inflammatory effect [93]. If there is no findings of neuritis, supportive treatment care such as NSAID (aspirin, indomethacin) and paracetamol may be administered. Prednol (0.5–1 mg/kg/day) is the first choice if neuritis is present. Once the reaction is decreased, the dose should discontinued by reducing the dose in time. However, frequently the reaction relapse during dose reduction. In this case, thalidomide, clofazimine and pentoxifylline can be used as adjuvants. WHO recommends to start by using clofazimine 3 * 100 mg (300 mg/day) and then reduces to 100 mg/day. It should not be used for type 2 reaction as a single agent and for more than 12 months. Reaction can be rapidly controlled by using thalidomide 300–400 mg/day. Dosage may be reduced to 100 mg/day for extended periods of usage. Since it is teratogenic, attention must be paid to the use in women who has childbearing potential [81]. Pentoxifylline is used as 3 * 400 mg. In a study that compares the efficacy of clofazimine and pentoxifylline, pentoxifylline effectively reduced the initial severity, while clofazimine showed a slow but sustained effect [94]. Resistant erythema nodosum leprosum cases that treated successfully with methotrexate, infliximab and etanercept have been reported [95, 96, 97].
WHO aims to follow the patients up monthly by 28-day drug supply. In regions where monthly follow-up is difficult, it is recommended that more than a monthly dose be given and train family members or nearby people for observation purposes [81]. On the other hand, the NHDP recommends first follow-up on 1st month and then with 3 months periods. Reaction therapy should be followed up closely. Disease progression is largely due to incompatibility to treatment. Complete information about possible reactions, complications, drug side effects should be provided and the patient and his/her relatives compliance to treatment should be ensured. At each follow-up, laboratory tests for drug toxicity are recommended with full clinical evaluation including nerve examination. While complete blood, urea, creatinine, AST, ALT follow up is adequate, it is advisable to check glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase level for once for dapsone usage before treatment, if possible. A yearly skin smear or biopsy is recommended to follow the bacteria burden. After treatment, it is advisable to follow up at least 5 years of PB cases and 10 years of MB cases [82, 98].
Existence of persister strain, insufficient/inappropriate treatment, monotherapy, drug resistance, high BI at diagnosis, number of lesions and lepromin negativity are factors that increase relapse risk. The risk of relapse after MDT has decreased considerably. In a study of 3248 patients followed for 16 years, cumulative relapse rates after MDT were 1.78% [99]. The relapse rate was 6.1/1000 person years in one of the last current studies in which 2177 patients are followed up [100]. To reduce the risk of relapse, individualization of treatment duration is recommended in individuals predicted to be at high risk for relapse [101].
Drug resistance is the result of leprosy-resistant transmission (primary resistance) or mutation-induced secondary resistance which develops under treatment [102].
With MDT, in 1985, with 5.1 million leprosy cases falling to 3.1 million in 1991, WHO aimed to eliminate leprosy worldwide in 2000. Elimination target was 1/10,000. Countries like India and Brazil have been under the target even though the target has been reached substantially around the world. Although Brazil is one of the last countries to reach the goal today, endemic areas like Chhattisgarh, Pará and Madura are still far behind the target. On the other hand, in spite of successful elimination program, WHO declared in 2013 that leprosy control is faltered due to the plateau of the incidence of leprosy until 2005, the new diagnosis of leprosy cases with G2D remain constant between 2010 and 2013, and the number of new cases in children is not decreasing. In addition, late-diagnosis-related disability-ending stigmatization of leprosy patients continued. Epidemiological data showed that the prevalence-based elimination program could not stopped the spreading. The meeting was held in Brazil in 2015 and the strategy was changed. A strategy based on incidence instead of prevalence was identified. Early diagnosis and prompt inclusion of all patients to treatment were aimed [30, 106, 107].
Living in the same house with a leprosy person increases the risk of spreading by 2–10 fold. Most of the new cases constitute subclinical infection cases in contact and no diagnosed cases. For this reason, for eliminating leprosy, it is very important to detect new cases with effective contact monitoring. The development of diagnostic tests that can detect subclinical infection and separate exposure to and infection with
In fact, BCG, which is tuberculosis specific, is the only vaccine used for leprosy protection. The level of protection, as well as the protection against leprosy is evidenced, varies between 20% and 90% in the literature. Protection level of the vaccine, when vaccinated in first decade, was higher in women and lower socioeconomic individuals [109]. With age, the level of protection decreases [110]. Although it has been shown that revaccination of leprosy patients and contacts with them have been shown to reinforce the protection, this approach is still not common and there is a need for studies evaluating efficacy [39, 111].
Protection of post-contact chemoprophylaxis (PEP) has been shown in clinical trials in a range of 35–57% in patients with asymptomatic contact. Although it is not included in WHO’s official recommendations, PEP evaluations rapidly continue with a single dose of rifampin (SDR). One study has shown that the protection of PEP with BCG combination is better in distant-contact individuals [112]. With the cooperation of Novartis agency and Netherlands Leprosy Relief (NLR), Leprosy Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (LPEP) program has been established. A large-scale study was started to investigate the applicability of the use of SDR as a PEP by the program and the impact on the number of new diagnosed cases. It is expected that the first data will be obtained in 2019 [113].
Permanent nerve damage is a part of the natural process of the disease, and the risk is also quite increased with leprosy reactions. Reducing the stigmatization of leprosy patients and providing mental well-being is possible by preventing nerve damage. Delay in recognition of leprosy and leprosy reactions, and therefore of delay in treatment is the most important factor on permanent nerve damage. Follow-ups should be done in leprosy centers whenever possible. It is important to ensure compliance with treatment and follow-up. Patients should be educated on issues such as care of existing wounds, proper shoe selection, self-examination of hands and feet. Another important point is that the leprosy does not come to mind because of the rare occurrence in some areas and the patients are followed up with false diagnoses. The implementation of information programs for healthcare professionals is also important in this context [114, 115, 116].
In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel throughout the world to present our publications and support our Authors and Academic Editors. We attend international symposia, conferences, workshops and book fairs as well as business meetings with science, academic and publishing professionals. Take a look at the current events.
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03 - 12 June 2022
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24 - 27 August 2022, Beijing, China
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19 - 23 October 2022, Frankfurt, Germany
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Guadalajara International Book Fair
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Hobbelen and Martijn Wisse",authors:null},{id:"6206",doi:"10.5772/6696",title:"Guidance Laws for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles",slug:"guidance_laws_for_autonomous_underwater_vehicles",totalDownloads:6724,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:84,abstract:null,book:{id:"3700",slug:"underwater_vehicles",title:"Underwater Vehicles",fullTitle:"Underwater Vehicles"},signatures:"Morten Breivik and Thor I. Fossen",authors:null},{id:"379",doi:"10.5772/5015",title:"Robot Kinematics: Forward and Inverse Kinematics",slug:"robot_kinematics__forward_and_inverse_kinematics",totalDownloads:51776,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"6110",slug:"industrial_robotics_theory_modelling_and_control",title:"Industrial Robotics",fullTitle:"Industrial Robotics: Theory, Modelling and Control"},signatures:"Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"379",title:"Robot Kinematics: Forward and Inverse Kinematics",slug:"robot_kinematics__forward_and_inverse_kinematics",totalDownloads:51774,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:null,book:{id:"6110",slug:"industrial_robotics_theory_modelling_and_control",title:"Industrial Robotics",fullTitle:"Industrial Robotics: Theory, Modelling and Control"},signatures:"Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul",authors:null},{id:"56737",title:"UAV for Landmine Detection Using SDR-Based GPR Technology",slug:"uav-for-landmine-detection-using-sdr-based-gpr-technology",totalDownloads:3443,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"This chapter presents an approach for explosive-landmine detection on-board an autonomous aerial drone. The chapter describes the design, implementation and integration of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a software defined radio (SDR) platform into the aerial drone. The chapter?s goal is first to tackle in detail the development of a custom-designed lightweight GPR by approaching interplay between hardware and software radio on an SDR platform. The SDR-based GPR system results on a much lighter sensing device compared against the conventional GPR systems found in the literature and with the capability of re-configuration in real-time for different landmines and terrains, with the capability of detecting landmines under terrains with different dielectric characteristics. Secondly, the chapter introduce the integration of the SDR-based GPR into an autonomous drone by describing the mechanical integration, communication system, the graphical user interface (GUI) together with the landmine detection and geo-mapping. This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"15855",title:"Kinematics of AdeptThree Robot Arm",slug:"kinematics-of-adeptthree-robot-arm",totalDownloads:14668,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"152",slug:"robot-arms",title:"Robot Arms",fullTitle:"Robot Arms"},signatures:"Adelhard Beni Rehiara",authors:[{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",middleName:"Beni",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara"}]},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Robotic perception is related to many applications in robotics where sensory data and artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques are involved. Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. 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