",isbn:"978-1-83969-545-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-544-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-546-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c77f99db5569e8d0325b856cb7d75b17",bookSignature:"Prof. Maged Marghany",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10854.jpg",keywords:"Optical, Radar, Algorithm, Programming, Big Data, Deep Learning, Image Processing, Time Series Data Analysis, Large Scale Methods, Signal Processing, Computer Vision, Remote Sensing",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Prof. Marghany was recently ranked among the top two percent scientists in a global list compiled by the prestigious Stanford University. A pioneering scientist in microwave remote sensing invented a new theory Quantum Nonlinear Ocean Dynamics " Quantized Marghany\'s Front".',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"96666",title:"Prof.",name:"Maged",middleName:null,surname:"Marghany",slug:"maged-marghany",fullName:"Maged Marghany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/96666/images/system/96666.png",biography:"Prof.Dr. Maged Marghany, recently, ranked among the top two percent scientists in a global list compiled by the prestigious Stanford University. Prof.Dr. Maged Marghany is currently a Professor at the Department of Informatics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala Darussalam, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Microencapsulation is an encapsulation technique or process of very small gas particle, gas, or active solid substance with coating/membrane materials with the purpose of protecting the active particle (core) from unwanted environmental influences, such as radiation, humidity, and oxidation to increase shelf life [1]. These capsules are measured in one (1) micron (1/1000 mm) to seven (7) mm, and release their contents at a measured time according to their applications [2].
\n
Microencapsulation aims to protect sensitive food particle, reduce loss of nutrition, expand the uses of sensitive food material, add certain food particles into other food materials, protect tastes and aroma, modify the state of food material from liquid to solid for ease of handling, and protect food particles from environmental effects. Protection provided by microencapsulation can also prevent degradation caused by radiation or oxidation, and also slow down evaporation on volatile compounds [3].
\n
The results of a microencapsulation process are microcapsules containing an active compounds or raw materials surrounded by membrane or cell. The material encapsulated is usually referred to as the core, internal phase, or insert. The coating material is called coat, encapsulant, or shell with varied number and thickness. Coat, shell, encapsulant, or wall is designed to protect the core from destructive factors such as radiation, oxygen, and humidity. In microencapsulation, capsule is designed and prepared to achieve all the needs considering the natures of the core or coating materials, the desired usage of the material, and storage condition [2].
\n
Encapsulants from carbohydrates, such as maltodextrin, starch, and arabic/acacia gum are widely used. However, these materials generally have weak surface tension and require modification or are used with agents with active surface tension to encapsulate oil-based substances [4].
\n
There are four mechanisms of core release from microcapsules: degradation, dissolution, and melting of capsule walls, and diffusion of core materials through broken shell. Abrasion (slow erosion of capsule shell) and biodegradation are two other mechanisms that are less frequently employed [5].
\n
The use of microencapsulation technology has been applied in many fields, such as drug encapsulation in the pharmaceutical industry, adhesive materials, agrochemicals, live cells, catalysts, vitamin storage, and so on. The advantages of microencapsulation are handling liquid as solid, preserving aroma or taste effectively in the food industry, protecting core substances from detrimental effects of the environment, safe handling of toxic materials, and controlling the delivery of drugs [2].
\n
The benefits of microencapsulations are preserving the functions of active compounds, extending shelf life, covering unpleasant taste or aroma (unpleasant taste but high benefits), facilitating handling, facilitating control, improving appearance, and improving taste and colors. Microencapsulation can be prepared by emulsified coating or fluidized bed coating. Microencapsulation process with spray dryer method consists of two phases: oil emulsification in polymer solution and solvent removal using hot air. The polymers used are from many kinds of polysaccharides and proteins, such as starch, arabic gum, gelatin, albumin, and casein [4].
\n
In an emulsification, emulsion is formed when minute oil droplets are dispersed in an emulsifier, in this case a polymer. Emulsion is a mixture system containing two immiscible liquid phases, in which one phase is dispersed in the other phase in the form of droplets. Almost in all food products, the diameters of the droplets range from 0.1 to 100μm. Emulsion is an unstable system in which the phases tend to separate. In an emulsion system consisting of pure oil and pure water, it is easy to for two layers based on the difference in densities. This phenomenon is caused by the tendency of the droplets to combine with nearby droplets and often produce a perfect separation. As such, stability is one of important factors in the encapsulation process using spray dryer. The process to make two immiscible solutions form an emulsion is called homogenization and the mechanism to perform this process is called homogenizer. To differentiate between the natural state from the initial components, homogenization can be more appropriately categorized as primary (emulsion formation) and secondary homogenizations (droplet size reduction) [4].
\n
In almost all microcapsules, the coating materials are usually made of organic polymers, although wax and fats have been used, especially in the uses for food and pharmaceutical products, the coating materials have to meet the specifications required by the FDA [4].
\n
Microencapsulation process can be performed with several techniques, such as spray drying, spray cooling, extrusion, and coacervation [3]. Out of those four methods, spray drying is most frequently employed. Spray drying has become the most important method in the water removal process (dehydration) for liquid food products in the western world. This dehydrator is a diabetic dehydrator, and there are many considerations on solid-state diabetic dehydrator that can be applied. This process is a conversion from a liquid state into dry particles by spraying materials into the hot dehydrating medium. The dry products from this dehydrating process can be in the forms of powder, granules, or clumps. In this drying process, the products are not placed in drying cabinets or shelves, but dispersed as fine droplets suspended in the air inside the dryer. The advantages of this method are that the technology is well known thus easily obtained; it can be used to produce capsules in large quantities, the coating materials for spray drying are approved as food products, and the coating materials dissolve in water and can release the core without leaving residue. Efendi stated that microencapsulation with spray dryer should utilize encapsulant materials with high solubility, emulsion-forming capability, layer-forming capability, dry, and low viscosity [5]. Even though several encapsulants can be used in nonfood materials, those for food products are limited to natural gum, carbohydrates, maltodextrin, wax, and several proteins.
\n
Drying with spray dryer is performed by spraying the materials to be dried as mists, which increases the surface area of the materials to be in contact with the drying medium, thus the water evaporation process can proceed well. The spraying process is influenced by the form of the sprayer, speed of product flow, and product characteristics [6].
\n
The spray dryer process consists of four stages: (1) atomization, in which liquid or paste is converted into mists, (2) contact between the atomized materials with hot air, (3) water evaporation from the materials to reach the desired moister content, and (4) product collection in a powder form. In the stages of spray drying process, there are several operational units consisting of preconcentrated solution, atomization (mist formation), drying using dry and hot air, separation of powder from water vapor, cooling, and product packaging.
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\n
\n
2. Microencapsulation process of turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val.)
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Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val.) is a type of rhizoma medicinal plant containing curcuminoids, which consist of curcumin compound and its derivatives, desomethoxycurcumin and bis-desomethoxycurcumin. Curcuminoid is an active compound from turmeric rhizome that has biological activities with a wide application such as antihepatotoxic [7]. Turmeric has been known and used by the wider public, in the urban and rural areas, especially at homes, because of its wide usage. Part of turmeric used is the roots or rhizome, which is frequently used as organic fabric coloring, food flavoring, spices, and cosmetic materials. Turmeric is also used as traditional medicine for itching, gum inflammation, wounds, breathing shortness, stomachache, boils, skin fungal infection, back pain, jaundice, bad digestion, diarrhea, toxin neutralizer, low appetite, and so on [8].
\n
Microencapsulation is a coating technology for solid, liquid, and gas using capsules in minute form, in which those capsules can release the core under specific conditions. Microencapsulation aims to protect sensitive components, reduce nutrient loss, and add food products in liquid form to solid form for ease of handling [9].
\n
In this study, the microencapsulation process uses spray drying, which is the most frequently employed in the food industry because of its relatively lower cost. The advantages of this process are flexible and can be used for a variety of materials in microencapsulation because the equipment can be applied to process various materials and produce good quality particles with a consistent distribution of particle size. The food materials that can be applied in this method include fats, oils, and flavor enhancers. The coating can be from carbohydrates, such as dextrin, sugar, starch, and gum, or proteins, such as gelatin and soy proteins. Microencapsulation process includes emulsion formation or suspension on the active compounds and coating, and atomization of the emulsion into circulated dry and hot air inside drying chamber using an atomizer or a nozzle. The water contents inside emulsion droplets evaporate. The solid left over from the coating material traps the core material. Spray drying is useful for food materials that are sensitive to heat because the drying process occurs very fast. The other advantages of spray drying are the variety and availability of equipment, microcapsule quality that stays high, variety of particle size that can be produced, and good dispersibility in liquid media. However, loss still happens to active compounds with low boiling point. Physical characteristics of microcapsules depend on hot air (about 150–200°C), degree and uniformity during emulsion atomization, degree of emulsion density (30–70%), and emulsion temperature. The other disadvantages are the loss of bioactive compounds with low boiling point, oxidation in flavor enhancer substances, and limited options for shell materials, in which these materials can dissolve in water in an adequate amount. The flow diagram for microencapsulation process for turmeric to produce turmeric powder is presented in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
Flow diagram of microencapsulation process transforming turmeric to turmeric powder [13].
\n
This study was conducted to determine the optimal temperature of the inlet (Tinlet) drying of the spray dryer to produce turmeric powder. Turmeric concentrate at 300 ml is added with 10% maltodextrin as microencapsulant; then, it was homogenized. The sample was homogenized using a magnetic stirrer to keep homogenized throughout the spray drying process. This process was taken into the spray dryer SD-basic LabPlant. Data were obtained from the same amount of volume but at different Tinlets of 100, 120, 130, 140, 150°C, while the Toutlets are recorded at 80–100°C, P (blower) at 4 m3/mm, and feed flow at 0.6 ml/s. The yield of microencapsulation was calculated with definition reported by [10]. The microencapsulation yield was defined as percentage of total turmeric dried powder and the mass of the total turmeric liquid fed to spray dryer. The microencapsulation yield of turmeric powder drying at varied drying temperatures is given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
No.
\n
Samples for varied Tinlet (b)
\n
Tinlet spray dryer (°C)
\n
Turmeric concentrate (ml)
\n
Drying time (s)
\n
Yield (w/v) (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
Sample I
\n
110
\n
300
\n
480
\n
2.64
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
Sample II
\n
120
\n
300
\n
475
\n
3.05
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
Sample III
\n
130
\n
300
\n
478
\n
3.31
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
Sample IV
\n
140
\n
300
\n
460
\n
3.69
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
Sample V
\n
150
\n
300
\n
455
\n
4.32
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The study results of turmeric powder drying time and yields at varied Tinlet on the spray dryer, using 10% maltodextrin.
\n
In this study, the turmeric powder was produced by varying the Tinlet on the spray dryer at five points of temperature, i.e., 100, 120, 130, 140, and 150°C. The samples contain 300 ml of turmeric concentrate and 10% maltodextrin [11].
\n
Based on the results shown in Table 1, the increased drying temperature (Tinlet) reduces drying time, while increases yields. This study showed that at temperature of 150°C, the drying time took place at 455 s (7 min, 35 s) and produced 4.32% yield. The higher the Tinlet spray dryer, the shorter the drying time. To obtain the optimum operation condition, it should observe also the curcuminoid content from Table 4.
\n
This outcome is caused by higher the drying temperature, faster the water evaporation from the materials. The result of this study is supported by Estiasih et al. [6], where there is a difference of temperatures between heating medium and materials, in which the faster the heat transfers to the materials, the faster the water evaporates from them. As such, it can be understood that the higher the temperature used in the drying process, the shorter the drying time. However, it takes longer time for the spray dryer to reach higher temperatures.
\n
The turmeric powder resulting from the spray drying process is tested for water content, solubility, and yield. The results of these tests are presented in Table 2. From this table, it can be seen that the water content, solubility, and yields of turmeric powder are affected by Tinlet on the spray dryer equipment.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
No.
\n
Samples from different Tinlet (b)
\n
Tinlet spray dryer (°C)
\n
Water content (w/v) (%)
\n
Dissolving time (s)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
Sample I
\n
100
\n
8.5
\n
492
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
Sample II
\n
120
\n
5.85
\n
497
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
Sample III
\n
130
\n
4.15
\n
520
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
Sample IV
\n
140
\n
4
\n
532
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
Sample V
\n
150
\n
2.65
\n
592
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Test results on water contents and solubility of turmeric powder produced at different temperatures of Tinlet on the spray dryer, using 10% maltodextrin.
\n
Water content analyses are performed to determine the water content of the powder produced from the spray dryer because water content influences shelf life, appearance, and water solubility. An increase of drying temperatures will reduce water content in the product. Water content testing is a part of quality testing on the turmeric powder and is conducted by heating at 105°C for 3 h, as described in SNI 01-2891-1992 on testing of food and beverage. The results of water content testing are presented in Table 3.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
No.
\n
Tinlet spray dryer (°C)
\n
Turmeric powder water content (%w/v)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
110
\n
8.5
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
120
\n
5.85
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
130
\n
4.15
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
140
\n
4
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
150
\n
2.65
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Results of water content testing on turmeric powder produced at different drying temperatures.
\n
Based on Figure 2, an increase of drying temperature would reduce the water content of the product. This is because drying temperature has a role in water evaporation from the materials. And thus, the higher the temperature, the more water will evaporate, and the less water is left in the product.
\n
Figure 2.
The effects of temperature of inlet of spray dryer or drying temperature on the water content of turmeric powder.
\n
Solubility is an important factor in powder product testing. Powder solubility is determined by composition, conditions during drying process, solvent temperatures, and mixing method. The higher the drying temperature, the less the water content in the products. The solubility testing is conducted by dissolving the turmeric powder samples produced at different Tinlets in water at 100°C and recording the dissolving time in seconds. The effect of different Tinlets of the spray dryer on the solubility of turmeric powder is presented in Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
The effects of temperature of inlet of spray dryer or drying temperature on the solubility of turmeric powder.
\n
As shown in Figure 3, the yields from a drying process are determined by the amount of the resulting products. In this study, the yields range from 1 to 4.42%, which means that the yields are relatively low compared to the initial dry materials that are inserted in the spray dryer in liquid forms. In a drying process, free water molecules on the surface of the material particles can be easily evaporated, which produce low yields. However, based on the drying temperature variables, as presented in Table 4, the higher the drying temperature, the higher is the yield. It can be noted that the highest yield is found at the temperature of 150°C, and the effect of different Tinlet on yields is presented in Figure 4.
The results of HPLC on the curcuminoid contents *[13].
\n
Figure 4.
The effects of temperature of inlet of spray dryer or drying temperature on the yields of turmeric powder.
\n
Based on Figure 4, the effects of drying temperatures can be explained by an increase of temperatures causing dryer particles, which leads to less materials sticking inside the dryer and more getting collected in the cyclone vacuum collector. With an increase of temperatures, the yields obtained increase, and in this study, the highest yield is obtained from 150°C drying temperature at 4%. At the drying temperature of 100°C, the yield is relatively low at only 2.64%. The results of this study show that the drying temperatures have a positive correlation with the yields, such that when temperature is raised up to 150°C, the yields also increase because more materials are collected in the cyclone vacuum collector.
\n
The results from HPLC testing are used to show curcuminoid contents in the turmeric powder samples and are presented in Table 4.
\n
From the results of the curcuminoid content testing, it can be observed that an increase of drying temperature produces lower amount of curcuminoid contents, which is caused by the inability of curcuminoid compounds to be preserved by maltodextrin, as the microencapsulant. The best temperature to preserve curcuminoid compounds is at 110°C, in which 10.52% is preserved, although the yield was lower and drying timer was longer than 150°C.
\n
Based on research results, turmeric contains many chemical substances that are useful for human body. Several chemical contents from turmeric rhizome that have been identified are essential oils at 6% consisting of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (zingiberene, alpha- and beta-turmerones), yellow coloring call curcuminoid at 5% (consisting of curcumin 50–60%, mono-desmethoxycurcumin, and bi-desmethoxycurcumin), proteins, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and vitamin C. Out of those three curcuminoid compounds, curcumin makes up the largest amount and one of its functions is to increase appetite in children (Figures 5 and 6).
\n
Figure 5.
Chemical structure of curcuminoid [12, 23].
\n
Figure 6.
Chromatograms of curcumin powder on sample I.
\n
The following figure shows the resulting chromatograms from the HPLC testings on sample V.
\n
\n
\n
3. Microencapsulation process on Aloe vera (Aloe chinensis Baker)
\n
Aloe vera plant is categorized as a low shrub, with succulent characteristics, and suitable for dry regions. The stem is short with the leaves forming a rosette around the stem and bell-shaped flowers. The leaves, which are the main parts to be utilized, have the lengths of 40–90 cm, widths of 6–13 cm, and thickness of 2.5 cm at the base. The variety that is generally cultivated in Asia, including Indonesia, is Aloe chinensis Baker, as described by Baker in 1977, which was developed in but is not native to China. This variety has been commercially grown in Indonesia, especially in the province of Kalimantan Barat (West Kalimantan) and more locally known as Aloe vera Pontianak [15, 16, 17].
\n
The highly perishable nature of Aloe vera gel has prompted some efforts to process the gel harvest into powder. The aims are not only to preserve the contents of the gel, but also to increase the value of the harvest. So, Aloe vera is not just sold in fresh leaves, which usually are priced relatively low [15].
\n
Furnawanthi [15] stated that Aloe vera in powder form also has other advantages: preserved nutrient contents, longer shelf life, and efficient transport. The raw material to powder ratio is around 150:1, which means that to obtain 1 kg of powder, 150 kg of fresh leaves are needed. As such, the establishment of Aloe vera powder industry requires a large amount of raw materials. This industry can also minimize the possibility of detrimental price drops that are often caused by overproduction and storage limitations of Aloe vera farmers. Aloe vera has high water contents and appears to be challenging to convert into powder. However, considering the contents of beneficial active compounds, several milling methods have been conducted to obtain those active compounds. The milling or drying technique frequently used is spray drying, whereas the common method is microencapsulation. Production of Aloe vera powder consists of two stages, which are (1) production of cores for Aloe vera powder and (2) drying with spray dryer. Aloe vera gel is crushed, blended, filtered, and vacuum evaporated to produce Aloe vera powder core. Microencapsulation uses maltodextrin as microencapsulant in a spray drying process. Aloe vera processing produces wastes in the form of rinds/pulp in a large amount. Aloe vera rinds are rich in organic materials or cellulose or pectic, and they can cause pollution problems if not managed. One of the waste managements is to use the by-products to make Aloe vera tea, livestock feed, and organic/composted fertilizer that is eco-friendly.
\n
The procedures to produce Aloe vera powder were the following: (1) the Aloe vera was peeled and taken the gel, manually using knife; (2) the Aloe vera gel was crushed using blender. Then, it was filtrated using manual filter press, the filtrate was collected, and the pulp was thrown away; (3) the filtrate of Aloe vera was evaporated (40 times) using rotary vacuum evaporation (volume 8 lt) to get core of gel at temperature 35–40°C and vacuum condition (75–100 mbar); (4) the core of Aloe vera taken from evaporation was mixed with maltodextrin as filler and then it was mixed well using homogenizer with 1:1 composition between the core and maltodextrin. Then, it was homogenized until its concentration 50 oBrix (40–60 oBrix); and (5) In this research [17], the drying was conducted using spray drier. The hot air was introduced cocurrent with feed stream. In this stage, it was obtained the optimum variable process for drying to get active compound still maintained. The optimization was conducted to obtain the optimum drying temperature corresponding to desired quality of product or product in the market. To approach this, the drying temperature was varied: 110, 120, 130, and 140°C [17]. Mass flow diagram of Aloe vera powder production from the initial mass of 100 kg of Aloe vera leaves is presented in Figure 7.
\n
Figure 7.
Mass flow diagram of Aloe vera powder production from the initial mass of 100 kg of Aloe vera leaves.
\n
To obtain the optimum drying temperature, the optimization was conducted to preserve the active compounds corresponding to commercial Aloe vera powder. The optimization was carried out at 110, 120, 130, and 140°C drying temperatures. The result shows that the density was almost same respectively to the commercial products (Terry Labs‘ product). Hence, the water content was below the commercial product. The water content was 2.88–4.89% w/w in which the commercial product is 8% max. This might be because of drying process. In the cocurrent spray dryer, the hot air is contacted with the feed in the same stream; it means that the highest temperature of hot air meets with the first feed stream. The microencapsulated active components have been affected by high temperature of dryer; on the other hand, it was relatively stable at lower temperature. It means that the quality of product has been affected by temperature of dryer. To analyze the chromatography result, an LC-MS method was conducted at absorbance of 254 mm for Aloe vera gel powder concentrates achieved from evaporation process, and the Aloe vera powder after 110, 120, 130, and 140°C drying temperatures. The result shows that Aloin A and B, Aloenin (B), aloesin, and Chrysophanol were appeared in all samples. Although Aloe-emodin was not detected in all samples, Aloeresin A was appeared in evaporated Aloe vera gel and Aloe vera powder (110 and 120°C drying temperature). Based on the result, the optimum drying temperature was 120°C to produce Aloe vera powder where all of phenolic compounds of Aloe vera powder was still maintained [17].
\n
The Aloe vera powder from fresh Aloe vera leaves was analyzed for the microbiology, water content, density, solubility, pH, particle, color, and active component using LC-MS. The properties of Aloe vera powder obtained from the research for dryer temperature variation were described in Table 5. It was compared with the standard commercial Aloe vera powder from Terry Labs.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
No.
\n
Compounds
\n
Aloe vera powder 1 (140°C)
\n
Aloe vera powder 2 (130°C)
\n
Aloe vera powder 3 (120°C)
\n
Aloe vera powder 4 (110°C)
\n
Aloe vera powder spray-dried gel (Terry Labs’ product)
In general, the resulting product has met most of the parameters and specifications of commercial Aloe vera powder on the market such as water content, solubility, color, pH, appearance, and microbiology. Table 5 shows that drying with higher temperatures resulting in Aloe vera powder products with microorganism contamination levels is lower even though the four variables still eligible.
\n
While the product is almost the same density compared to available commercial products, this might be due to the method of testing using different methods, so the result is somewhat different. The testing methods used packed density. In the drying process (spray dryer), the decreasing of hot air inlet temperature did not affect the increase of water content significantly. In fact, water content tended to be stable of 2–5%. This has a positive effect for the quality of product in which the active component microencapsulated was relatively stable for lower temperature of dryer.
\n
The results of chemical and content analyses of active compounds in Aloe vera powder are presented in Table 6. From these results, it can be determined that Aloe vera powder can be used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. In these industries, the functions of these bioactive compounds must be preserved. The lignin and saponin contents make Aloe vera powder very suitable for skin care formulations, such as lotion, wash, shampoo, and soap. The contents of active compounds in Aloe vera powder are complete with proteins, polysaccharides, lignin, saponin, and minerals, and can be incorporated into formulations for topical applications, such as anti-plaque toothpaste, shampoo, soap, lotion, sunscreen, and burn cream; whereas for internal uses, Aloe vera powder can be used as diabetic medication, because of its high polysaccharide content, and dietary and health supplements [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
The results of chemical analyses on the contents of Spray-dried aloe gel powder [14, 15].
Essential amino acid.
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
Microencapsulation proposes to protect sensitive food components, reduce nutritional losses, expand the usefulness of sensitive food components, add certain food to other food, protect flavors and fragrances, convert liquid food components to more convenient solids handled and protected materials from environmental influences. Product microcapsulation can be used as raw material for the food industry, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, using bioactive compounds. From the results of the curcuminoid content testings, it can be observed that an increase of drying temperature produces lower amount of curcuminoid contents, which is caused by the inability of curcuminoid compounds to be preserved by maltodextrin, as the microencapsulant. The best temperature to preserve curcuminoid compounds is at 110°C, in which 10.52% is preserved. Hence, for Aloe vera processing, the optimum drying temperature was 120°C which maintained the active component of Aloe vera powder. The result of LC-MS observed that the active components of Aloe vera powder can be maintained at the optimum operation condition of drying. The optimum drying temperature was 120°C, which was the active component of Aloe vera powder such as Aloenin (B), Aloeresin A, and Chrysophanol still maintained.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Thanks to Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta and Directorate of Research and Community Service, Directorate General for Research and Development, Ministry of Research and Technology Higher Education on the Research Grant PTUPT in 2018, Contract number 006/KM/PNT/2018, 06 March 2018. Thanks to Rector of Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta and Dean of Engineering Faculty, Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta.
\n
\n',keywords:"microencapsulation, herbal compounds, maltodextrin, Aloe vera, cosmetics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64892.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64892.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64892",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64892",totalDownloads:531,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 4th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 6th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 9th 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Microencapsulation is a technique or process of wrapping very small gas particles, gases, or active solid content with a coating material/membrane to protect the active particles (core) from environmental influences like unwanted effects such as light, moisture, and oxygen to increase shelf life of the product. Microencapsulation proposes to protect sensitive food components, reduce nutritional losses, expand the usefulness of sensitive food components, add certain food to other food, protect flavors and fragrances, convert liquid food components to more convenient solids handled, and protect materials from environmental influences. Product microcapsulation can be used as raw material for the food industry, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals using bioactive compounds. From the results of the curcuminoid content testings, it can be observed that an increase of drying temperature produces lower amount of curcuminoid contents, which is caused by the inability of curcuminoid compounds to be preserved by maltodextrin, as the microencapsulant. The best temperature to preserve curcuminoid compounds is at 110°C, in which 10.52% is preserved. Hence, for Aloe vera processing, the optimum drying temperature was 120°C which maintained the active component of Aloe vera powder such as Aloenin (B), Aloeresin A, and Chrysophanol.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64892",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64892",book:{slug:"microencapsulation-processes-technologies-and-industrial-applications"},signatures:"Tri Yuni Hendrawati, Alvika Meta Sari, Muhamad Iqbal Syauqi Rahman, Ratri Ariatmi Nugrahani and Agung Siswahyu",authors:[{id:"266094",title:"Dr.",name:"Tri Yuni",middleName:"Yuni",surname:"Hendrawati",fullName:"Tri Yuni Hendrawati",slug:"tri-yuni-hendrawati",email:"yuni.hendrawati@ftumj.ac.id",position:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"266723",title:"MSc.",name:"Alvika Meta",middleName:null,surname:"Sari",fullName:"Alvika Meta Sari",slug:"alvika-meta-sari",email:"alvika.metasari@ftumj.ac.id",position:null,institution:null},{id:"276806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ratri Ariatmi",middleName:null,surname:"Nugrahani",fullName:"Ratri Ariatmi Nugrahani",slug:"ratri-ariatmi-nugrahani",email:"ratri.ariatmi@ftumj.ac.id",position:null,institution:null},{id:"276807",title:"BSc.",name:"Muhamad Iqbal",middleName:null,surname:"Syauqi Rahman",fullName:"Muhamad Iqbal Syauqi Rahman",slug:"muhamad-iqbal-syauqi-rahman",email:"muhammadiqbalsyauqirahman@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Microencapsulation process of turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val.)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Microencapsulation process on Aloe vera (Aloe chinensis Baker)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bertolini AC, Siani AC, Grosso CRF. Stability of monoterpenes encapsukated in gum aeabic by spray drying. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001;49:780-785\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Franjione J, Niraj V. The Art and Science of Miecroencapsuation. New York: Botanical Garden Press; 2003\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Risch SJ. Encapsulation: Overview of uses and techniques, di dalam. In: Risch SJ, Renescius GA, editors. Encapsulation and Controlled Release of Food Ingridients. Washington.D.C: American Chemical Society; 1995\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Hogan SA, Namme M, Riordan EP, O’Sullivan M. Microencapsulating properties of sodium caseinate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001;49:1934-1938\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Efendi E. Mikroenkapsulasi Minyak Atsiri Jahe dengan Campuran Gum Arab–Maltodekstrin and Variasi Suhu Enlet Spray dryer [Tesis]. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana. UGM; 2000\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Estiasih T. Mikroenkapsulasi Konsentrat Asam Lemak N-3 dari Limbah Cair Pengalengan Ikan Lemuru (Sardinella longiceps). [Tesis]. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana. UGM; 1996\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Sujatno M. Efek attapulgit, ekstrak daun psidium guajava, dan ekstrak akar curcuma domestica terhadap diare akut nonspesifik. Majalah Kedokteran Indonesia. 1997;46(4):199-200\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Rukmana R. Turmeric. Yogyakarta: Kanisius; 1999. Cetakan pertama\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Dziezak JD. Microencapsulation and Encapsulation Ingridients. Food Technology. 1988;2(4)\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Sutrisno K. Teknologi enkapsulasi flavor rempah-rempah, Swapnali. 2005\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Susantikarn P, Donlao N. Optimization of green tea extracts spray drying as affected by temperature and maltodextrin content. International Food Research Journal. 2016;23(3):1327-1331\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Van der Goot H. The chemistry and qualitative structure-activity relationship of curcumin. In: Pramono S, Jenie UA, Retno SS, Didik G, editors. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Curcumin Pharmacochemistry (ISCP). Yogyakarta: Faculty of Pharmacy Gadjah Mada University; 1997. pp. 13-27\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Hendrawati TY, Mubarok MA, Ramadhan AI. The effect comparison Maltodextrin against results characteristics of Microencapsulation of turmeric (curcuma Domestica Val). ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2017;12(13):4129-4135\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Jayaprakasha GK, Jagan Mohan Rao L, Sakariah KK. Improved HPLC Method for the Determination of Curcumin, Demethoxycurcumin, and Bisdemethoxycurcumin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002;50:3668-3672\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Furnawanthi I. Khasiat dan Manfaat Lidah Buaya Si Tanaman Ajaib, PT. Jakarta: Agromedia Pustaka; 2003\n'},{id:"B16",body:'TY Hendrawati M, Eriyatno ISK, Sunarti TC. Rancang bangun industri tepung lidah buaya (aloe vera) terpadu. Journal of Agroindustrial Technology. 2007;17(1):12-22\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Hendrawati TY. Aloe Vera powder properties produced from aloe Chinensis baker, Pontianak, Indonesia. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. Special Issue on SOMCHE 2014 & RSCE 2014 Conference, January (2015). School of Engineering, Taylor’s University. 2015:47-59\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Changa XL, Wanga C, Fengb Y dan Liua Z. Effect of heat treatment on the stabilities of polysaccharides substances and barbaloin in juice from aloe vera miller. Carbohydrate Research. 2006;341(3):355-364\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Chowa JTN, Williamson DA, Kenneth M, dan Gouxa WJ. Chemical charaterization of the immunomodulating polysaccaharide of Aloe vera L. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2005;37(5):937-941\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Elamthuruthya AT, Shahb CR, Khanb TA, Tatkeb PA, dan Gabheb Y. Standarization of marketed kumariasava an ayurvedic aloe vera product. Food Control. 2004;16(2):95-104\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Eshun K dan He Q. Aloe vera: A valuable ingredient for food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. International Journal of Aromatherapy. 2004;14(1):15-21\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Morsy EM. Aloe Vera Stabilization and Processing for the Cosmetic Beverage and Food Industries. 5th ed. USA: Citra International; 1991\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Wu JH, Xu C, Shan CY d, Tan RT. Antioxidant properties and PC12 cell protective effect of APS-1, a polysaccharide from aloe vera var. Chinensis. 2006;39(1):93-100. Postharvest Biology and Technology\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tri Yuni Hendrawati",address:"yuni.hendrawati@ftumj.ac.id",affiliation:'
Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Muhammadiyah, Indonesia
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Alvika Meta Sari",address:null,affiliation:'
Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Muhammadiyah, Indonesia
Chemical Engineering Department, Al Kamal Science and Technology Institute, Indonesia
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1. Introduction
Cryptography is dexterity of solving and writing codes. Cryptography is used in secured communication between peer parties. A cryptosystem is a network security model, which consists of design and implementation of cryptographic algorithms and associated frame work to contribute towards providing security for information. Basic Model of cryptosystem shown in Figure 1 [1].
Figure 1.
Basic model of the cryptosystem.
Table 1.
Polarization using basis.
Network Security elements:
The important elements of cryptosystem are described −
Plain text: This is the original data that needs to be secured over the unreliable channel.
Encryption Algorithm: It is a mathematical model, which converts original plain text to cipher text, by using encryption key.
Cipher text: The output generated by the mathematically oriented encryption algorithm is commonly referred to as cipher text. The cipher text is communicated to the peer over an unreliable channel.
Decryption Algorithm: It is a inverse mathematically oriented algorithm which converts the cipher text to plaintext by using the appropriate decryption key.
Encryption Key: It is an arbitrary value generated by the transmitter. This value helps in converting the original data to the scrambled version of the plain text by using an encryption algorithm.
Decryption Key. It is a value shared to the receiver in case of shared key cryptosystem or mathematically generated by receiver in case of public key cryptosystem. This decryption key helps to convert the scrambled version of the plaintext to the original data.
Key Space: This is a sample space consisting of all possible types of keys.
An interceptor (an attacker) is an illegitimate peer who endeavors to detect the original data. This unauthorized peer may be aware of the decryption algorithm. But without the knowledge about the appropriate key, the decryption fails.
Types of Cryptosystems
Cryptosystems are undoubtedly classified as two types namely: Symmetric Key Encryption and Asymmetric Key Encryption.
Symmetric Key Encryption
The process of enciphering and deciphering, utilizes the same shared key for in this cryptosystem. It is also known as secret key cryptosystem. The popular cryptosystem methods are:
Digital Encryption Standard (DES),
Triple-DES (3DES),
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
IDEA
BLOWFISH.
Asymmetric Key Encryption
The process of enciphering and deciphering utilizes different, but mathematically related pair of keys, in this cryptosystem. The popular algorithms are:
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)
RSA
However, as the data and innovation is expanding, traditional cryptographic methods are inadequate in giving the protection. Later quantum computation and quantum cryptography with quantum mechanics can be utilized to do the appropriation such that security cannot be traded off among clients. The methodology is known as quantum cryptography or quantum key distribution [2].
2. Recent trends in cryptography
2.1 Dirac vector notation
Dirac vector notation or Bra-ket notation is a standard way of representing classical bits as a vector [3, 4]. A Cbit (Special case of Qbit vectors) with a value 0 can also be written as 0or10..
A Cbit with a value 1 can also be written as, 1or01.
The Cbit vectors shown above are special cases of Qbit vectors. A Qbit comprises of 0 or 1. This is called superposition. In simpler words superposition means the Qbit is both 0 and 1 at the same time. A Qbit is represented by ab where a and b are complex numbers and, a2+b2=1.
During the measurement of the Qbit, it yields the actual value 0 or 1. This result is generally obtained at the termination of the Quantum computation. As mentioned a Qbit has a value ab which then encodes to 0 with a probability ‖a‖2 and 1 with a probability ‖b‖2. The Qbit 10 has a 100% chance of collapsing to 0 and Qbit 01 has a 100% chance of collapsing to 1 [5].
2.2.1 Operations on Qbits
To measure and operate on Qbits different gates are used in the form of matrices. These Matrix operators are used to design device, and manipulates Qbit spin/polarization without measuring and collapsing it. There are numerous popular matrix operators that can be used in Quantum computation. Quantum computing use only reversible operations [7]. Reversible means given the operation and output value, you can find the input value, For Ax = b, given b and A, you can find x [2].
2.2.1.1 Hadamard (H) gate
Hadamard gate works on a single Qbit. It helps in creating superposition; where during measurement the probability of getting 0 or 1 is equal. The Hadamard gate takes a 1 or a 0 bit and disseminate it into exactly equal superposition. It comprises of two rotations π about the z-axis and π2 about the y- axis. The H gate shown in Figure 2 [2]. Hadamard matrix is given by
Figure 2.
H-gate.
Bit
0
0
1
1
Base
+
X
+
X
Orientation
—
\\
|
/
Table 2.
Representation of binary bits.
H=1√2111−1
2.2.1.2 Controlled not-gate
Controlled “Not-gate” operates on bit-pairs, commonly referred to as “Control bit” and “Target bit”. The condition over bit-pairs are:
Control-bit = 0; Then Target bit is “unchanged”
Control-bit = 1: Then the Target bit is “Flipped”
In the binary pair shown, the most significant bit is referred to as control bit and the least significant bit as the target bit. The CNOT gate shown in Figure 3 [2].
Figure 3.
CNOT-gate.
Sender’s bit
0
1
0
1
Base
+
+
X
X
Orientation
—
|
\\
/
Receiver base
+
X
X
X
Received bit
0
0
0
1
Table 3.
Comparison measurements.
00→0001→0110→1111→10.
It is represented by the matrix,
CNOT=1000010000010010
2.3 Quantum entanglement
Quantum Key Distribution is also based on Quantum Entanglement principle according to which two particles can be entangled such that when of property is measured, on either of the particle the opposite state will be obtained on the entangled particle. This is totally independent of distance between particles, also the key feature of this is that, it is impossible to measure the state prior until it is discussed over classical channel [8].
2.4 Bloch sphere
It is used to represent states of qbit on a unit sphere. The operations performed on qbit during qbit information processing is described in block sphere. The Bloch Sphere Representation is shown in Figure 4 [1].
Representation of single qbit state is given by:
∣φ>=eiγcosθ20>+e−iØsinθ21>
Where γ, θ, φ are real numbers.
Bloch sphere is general representation of complex number z where |z2| = 1 as point on circle in complex plane.
Figure 4.
Bloch sphere representation.
General Qbit: |Ψ > = α |0 > + β |1>.
2.5 BB84 protocol
BB84 was invented by Charles Bennet and Gills Brassard in 1984. This is first security protocol that was designed to implement QKD which uses idea of photon polarization. The key is transmitted as number of binary bits which are encoded on a random polarization basis [9].
In this protocol there are two channels used mainly for transmission.
Quantum Channel
Classical Channel
Quantum channel is the one that is used to transmit secure information by converting into bits and transform information photons which is quantum information. This channel can be used to transmit classical information as well. Classical channel is the one that is used to transmit classical information. Examples include e-mail, message, phone lines etc. This protocol is mainly based on Heisenberg uncertainty principle that states measuring quantum state without disturbing is impossible. Hence introducing anomaly by intruder can be noticed by the user [2]. The quantum Key distribution is as shown in Figure 5.
2.5.1 Working
The Figure 5 illustrates that Quantum Key Distribution system has two channels i.e. quantum channel and public channel. Quantum Channel is used to transmit and share the information of.
Figure 5.
Quantum key distribution.
Secret key in the form of polarized photon, called as quantum bit (qbit). In the meantime the open channel is utilized to examine the procedure of qbits transmission and make an arrangement about the mutual mystery key. For the most part, there are two medium kinds of quantum channel which is executed on QKD framework for example optical fiber and free space [10].
There are some famous character terms that is utilized in QKD framework to be specific Alice as the sender, Bob as recipient, and Eve as meddler. Quantum condition of photon is utilized to recognize nearness of outsider. The message is transmitted by means of polarization photon meant by zero or one that has one piece quantum data called as qbit. The sender transmits energized photon through quantum channel utilizing channel on arbitrary premise. Likewise beneficiary uses irregular channels to get the information and after that check for change in got bits.
There are two steps involved in key distribution
One-way Communication (Via quantum Channel)
Step 1: user A (Alice) randomly chosen polarized photon and send it to user B (Bob) over Quantum channel.
Step 2: In this, user B receives photons using random basis either rectangular or diagonal.
Two-way Communication (Via Public channel)
Step 1: User A will use public channel to inform user B about the polarization she chose for every bit sent to user B without disclosing the bit value.
Step 2: Now user B will compare the polarization sequence he received from user A with the sequence he generated.
Step 3: Bits of same orientation of those two sequences can be used as secret key.
2.5.1.1 Post reception
Error Estimation:
Both sender and receiver discusses the basis used through a classical channel which is either through a e-mail, telephone. Then discards the bits which basis are not matched.
Whenever there is an intrusion, error is introduced and keys with users does not match. Hence errors are to be considered, if it exceeds QBER Threshold then key is discarded and recent.
Error correction:
This is performed by considering bits at both sender and the receiver by removing errors in key using certain protocols namely cascade, winnow. QKD is a technique that creates symmetric key by using quantum properties of light to communicate between users.
2.5.2 Eaves dropping
If attacker (eve) tries hacking the bits secretly that is if he/she tries to tap channel then that is observed at the receiver end. According to No Cloning theorem, an unknown quantum state cannot be cloned therefore eve cannot have same information as Bob Probability of Eavesdropping [11]:
ForNbits=3/4N
When N increases, detecting eavesdropping is also easier.
Advantages:
Detection of Eavesdropping
Disadvantages:
Loss of photon in transmission.
2.5.3 Photons
The basic unit of the electromagnetic radiation is the photons. The classical computer uses bits to transfer the data, while quantum computing is based on quantum mechanics which make use of photons for communication. Qbits can be combination of both 0 s and 1 s having more than one state, such that retrieving the information about one qbit will give the result of other states too, unlike the classical computing where 0’s and 1’s are used [12].
2.5.4 Essentials of QKD
The fundamental principles of Quantum Key Distribution protocol is based on the two Quantum mechanics laws.
According to Heisenberg Uncertainty without operating the system, it is not possible to carry out any sort of measurement on the system. For example, consider the two conjugate variables having momentum p and position x, both parameters cannot be measured concurrently [12].
Zurek and Wooters presented the first polarization principle on photons in the year 1972. According to this principle and also no-cloning theorem, any eaves dropper will not be able to duplicate the random qbits. This principle elaborates about polarization of light photons and its orientation in a specific direction. Photon destruction can result due to the utilization of erroneous photon filters. In cloning theorem, if the state of photon orientation are distorted, then passive attack of the system may occur. Therefore Quantum Mechanics key distribution recommends security.
2.5.5 Heisenberg uncertainty principle
The impact of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is huge just for movement of infinitesimal articles and is insignificant for that of plainly visible items. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle expresses that it is difficult to know at the same time the precise position and force of a particle. That is, the more precisely the position is resolved, the less known the force, and the other way around. This standard is not an announcement about the points of confinement of innovation, yet a crucial farthest point on what can be thought about a particle at some random minute. This vulnerability emerges in light of the fact that the demonstration of estimating influences the item being estimated. The best way to gauge the situation of something is utilizing light, at the same time, on the sub-nuclear scale, the collaboration of the light with the article unavoidably changes the item’s position and its course of movement [13].
Under the laws of quantum physics, a moving photon has one of four introductions; vertical, horizontal, or diagonal in opposing directions as shown in Figure 6. Quantum cryptographic gadgets transmit photons each one in turn, and every photon has a specific introduction. Photon sniffers can record the introduction of every photon, except in certain situations. Because as per Heisenberg’s uncertainty guidelines, doing so will change the introduction of a portion of the particles which will caution both the sender and the receiver that their channel is being examined. Heisenberg’s vulnerability rule is of gigantic advantage to information security that, if quantum cryptography is utilized to send keys by means of photons at that point consummate encryption is guaranteed.
Figure 6.
Polarization of photons.
Figure 7.
Illustration of QKD.
Figure 8.
Impact of eaves dropping on QKD.
Figure 9.
Receiver entering the basis and decodes key.
Figure 10.
Results key after discarding mismatched bits.
2.5.6 Photon polarization
Basically polarization of light wave is restricting plane of vibration of electric field in a definite plane. There are 3 types of light polarization:
Plane polarized light
Circularly polarized light
Elliptical polarized light
A device called a Polarizer allows us to place a photon in a particular polarization. A Pockels.
Cell can be used too. The polarization basis is mapping we decide to use for a particular state.
There are two types of Basis/Polarizer through which polarization can happen (Table 1),
Rectilinear Basis
Diagonal Basis
Spin of Rectilinear Basis,
If θ=0°→State∣0
θ′=90°→State∣1
Spin of Diagonal Basis,
If θ=45°→State∣0
θ′=135°→State∣1
Photon polarization principle explains how photons can be oriented in different directions. Polarized photons can be detected only with photon filter of correct polarization otherwise photon will be destroyed. Plane polarization of light can be done by ways like reflection, refraction, selective absorption, scattering, double reflection. In circularly and elliptically polarized light, electric field of light is confined in one direction but direction rotates as light propagates.
2.5.7 No cloning theorem
The eminent feature distinguishing between classical and quantum theory is No cloning theorem which restricts copying of quantum state.
Cloning in physics means much perfector copy where the reality of positions and momenta and energy levels of every particle and interaction are exactly the same in the copy as the original.
No cloning preliminaries:
Quantum properties that needs to be known:
Super positions
Particles can be in several states at once, in quantum mechanics the whole is the sum that is the superposition of its different possible parts
A>=A>+∣A>
Composite systems
The superposition of the product of component.
AB>=A>+∣B>
Transformations distribute
Any change to a particle that in superposition of a state affects all of the states independently.
TA1>+A2>=TA>+TA>
No cloning theorem states that “an identical copy of unknown quantum state cannot be created”.
2.5.8 Quantum channels
The communication for quantum network over optical networks and photon based qbits for wide range distances are used. Optical networks support the wide range of bandwidth. The Quantum bits can be transmitted reliably and at high velocity over an optical fiber channel.
2.5.9 Fiber optic networks
To design and implement Optical networks the contemporary Telecommunication equipment’s can be utilized. At the transmitter, a unique photon source can be produced by densely attenuating a standard telecommunication laser such that the average number of photons per pulse is below 1. The receiver can have an avalanche photo detector. For the phase and polarization control, beam splitters and interferometers are used. Entangled photons are generated through continuous parametric down conversion of entanglement based protocols.
2.5.10 Free space networks
Fiber optic networks works based on free space quantum networks, but rely online of sight between the communicating parties. Free space networks provides higher bandwidth and better data rate than fiber optic networks and this does not have polarization scrambling like optical fiber.
2.5.11 Cavity-QED networks
Quantum key distribution based on Telecommunication lasers and parametric down converters is combined with photo detectors. To amalgamate and retransmit the quantum data, without disturbing the current states, is important in distributed quantum entangled system. Cavity quantum electrodynamics (Cavity QED) helps to generate such quantum entangled system. In this method, the quantum states can be transmitted to and from one atomic quantum states which is located in single atom and consists of optical cavities. This process supports transmission of quantum states between atoms over optical fiber for the creation of remote entanglement distributed systems [14].
3. Pros and cons of QKD
Quantum key distribution is a one of the techniques used for exchanging keys between two users. The main advantage of quantum communication is its security. Since any change made to a particle of an entangled pair is reciprocated by the other, quantum information secured through quantum cryptography cannot be tapped. This is also because of the no cloning and no destroying theorem. So the information can neither be duplicated nor be destroyed. Discrete variable QKD is limited to around 200 km until a quantum repeater is created and can be efficiently implemented. This currently requires a quantum memory. Continuous variable QKD is also limited to similar distances and cannot pass an Optic amplifier in a standard communication network yet also has no known repeater architecture. This will have to be overcome for global QKD to be taken up. There is a trade-off in speed over distance. The longer the distance, the slower the quantum communication. Therefore classical communication is currently faster and can propagate over global distances. It is possible satellite based QKD will allow longer distance quantum communication but this has not been performed to date. When sending quantum information one must also have some classical communication to ensure security, which means that both a classical and quantum network must exist side-by-side.
Despite these advantages, the technology needed to build a quantum computer is currently beyond our reach. This is due to the fact that the coherent state, fundamental to a quantum computers operation, is destroyed as soon as it is measurably affected by its environment. Attempts at combating this problem have had little success, but the hunt for a practical solution continues.
QKD is advantageous when compared with conventional cryptographic techniques in certain aspects which are as follows:
Any attempts of eve in obtaining information can be identified with the help of two principles of quantum mechanics.
Quantum key distribution protocol can detect eavesdropping because the error level is more during this case.
The errors caused during communication between users can be detected.
Video can be transferred between the nodes with the rate of 128–1024 kbps without the consideration of any overhead data.
QKD generates new private key randomly and continuously so it is next to impossible to steal any key distributed by quantum cryptography.
Data security is increased with QKD protocol.
The actual information can never be revealed to any third party.
Security of QKD is based on the laws of quantum physics which can be proven.
QKD sounds too good when concerned with security but when it comes to practical considerations it takes back seat. There are certain technical weaknesses related to implementation.
High set up and installation cost for commercial use.
Long distance transmission is not feasible, range of QKD is restricted to few hundred kilometers and quantum repeaters do not have any practical application.
Equipment set up has to be done precisely.
Key distribution rate of QKD is 1000 to 10000 times slower than the conventional optical communication.
While transmitting video there is problem of delay.
The sender decides large sequence of binary bits, which are polarized on a random choice of rectilinear (0, 90 degree) and diagonal basis (45, 135 degree). Binary bits are encoded according to the table shown (Table 2).
Encoded keys are transmitted as polarized photons through a quantum channel. Similarly receiver has to measure these polarized photons since the receiver does not have idea about the basis used by sender, receiver randomly chooses between diagonal and rectilinear basis. There are chances of receiver choosing wrong basis which results in misinterpreting the bit received. Once all the bits are received to clarify the bits used sender and receiver communicates over classical channel, and discusses the basis used to polarize each bit. Finally once sender and receiver reveals basis used for polarizing each bit they ignore all the photons for which receiver uses wrong base and consider only those bits that were decrypted using the same base as used by sender. In short, sender and receiver on a common basis generate key of shorter sequence of bits (Table 3).
The bits for which receiver uses wrong basis are discarded and the remaining bits are considered as key. QBER (Quantum Bit Error Rate) is measured for the chosen key and if its less than threshold value, in that case key is used for message encryption, else key is discarded and is expected for another key transmission (Figures 7 and 8).
Quantum key distribution is not a replacement for the present day cryptography, but a more secured way of transmitting keys which are required for a encoding and decoding of the messages. The maximum speed and the amount of information that can be sent using quantum key distribution is not very large. But it is very secure [16, 17].
Sending:
After deciding number of bits to exchange, Alice decides the stream of basis (rectilinear or diagonal) for each pulse of photons she is going to send. A lot of this bits are discarded later due to mismatch of basis, so the Main aim is not to transfer a specific key, but to agree on a common key.
Desired polarized Photons are generated using A light-emitting diode (LED) Or from a laser. Each pulse consists of a single Photon. In real-time it has to be a beam of light whose intensity is has to be maintained with care. Because if the intensity is too low, the receiver might not be able to detect the pulse of photon. Also, if the intensity is too high, then the eaves dropper can measure the beam of light with respect to both the basis without letting his presence known to the user as there will be no major change made to the spin. So, there as to be a threshold to be set for beam of light.
Receiving and converting.
Bob, who is the exclusive receiver of the information, choses stream of basis (rectilinear or diagonal) to measure the spin of each photon.
Number of basis used in receiver end is also predetermined and equal to number of bits that was decided to be exchanged (Figures 9 and 10).
Now, Bob will announce the basis that he used to receive each photon on a public channel without giving much attention if other people are hearing it.
Now, Alice publically announces the basis which has matched.
All the unnecessary bits whose basis was not matched are discarded.
Bits received through the correctly-chosen basis are now converted on to binary code.
Using the bits that have matched as keys, the actual plain text is encoded and sent over a public Channel without worrying about eavesdropping.
5. Applications
Ultra-Secure Voting: To detect and control voter fraudulent during elections, a more secured system is desired. By using Quantum cryptography the voting results are kept secured. Especially the important vulnerable part of the data transaction is uninterruptible. This technology is expected to escalate worldwide, as fraudulent elections may be faced by many countries.
Secure Communications with Space: Secure space communications with satellites and astronauts is of major concern. NASA is working on a project, with Quintessence Labs to guarantee the security of communication.
Smarter Power Grid: Normally power grids are at more risk, due to cyber-attacks. Smart grids are required for stabilizing the supply and demand. With adequate precautions, they are more efficient than the traditional grids. With Quantum cryptosystems, it is be possible to preserve the safety of the framework against any attacks.
Quantum Internet: Internet needs to be relatively fast and secured. By using Quantum cryptosystem, the speed of the internet greatly slows down. If the switching between the q-bits can be done at a significantly faster rate, then the sensitive data over the internet can be more secured and can be retrieved quickly.
6. Conclusion
In this article, the key distribution algorithm using quantum mechanics and concepts of physics is elaborated. Using famous BB84 algorithm and python programming, the system can successfully transfer the secret key from sender to receiver. Along with automatic generation and transmission of Qbits, a GUI can be designed for a user to send bits of their choice. Also the photon orientations/spin can be depicted in the transmission from sender end to receiver end. Quantum Cryptography is mainly designed to be future ready Quantum computer to face threats. It performs exceptionally well without any rigorous and complex mathematical calculations. At the receiver end the photons are received in an expected manner and provide accurate data to the user. The main advantage being 0% exposure of information to intruders and Quantum computers are efficient in transferring keys. The physical implementation which is still a challenge needs lot of meticulous work to setup the system. Long distance transmission is limited as the photons might lose its energy. As the whole system is performing accurately up to this mark, error bit calculation and notifying the exclusive users about the presence of Eavesdropper is proposed as a future work. Any attempts to attack the communication will be notified to the user through error rate being higher than threshold.
Acknowledgments
We would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who were kind enough to provide assistance when needed, which helped us in completing this article. We are grateful to the management of Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, for their kind co-operation. We would like to express our heartfelt thanks to our beloved head of the department, Dr. A R Aswatha, for his constant encouragement and timely suggestions during the course of preparation of the article. We are very grateful to Dr. Nagamani A N, post-doctoral from IISc, Bangalore, Karnataka, India for her constant supervision, motivation and support provided during the completion of the article. We would like to thank Almighty, our parents for their support and encouragement throughout the work.
\n',keywords:"quantum cryptography, Q bits, dirac vector notation, key distribution, secure transmission",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75112.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75112.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75112",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 16th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 5th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The application of internet has spiked up in the present-day scenario, as the exchange of information made between two parties happens in public environment. Hence privacy of information plays an important role in our day to day life. There have been incredible developments made in the field of cryptography resulting in modern cryptography at its zenith. Quantum computers are one among them creating fear into security agencies across the world. Solving the complex mathematical calculations is uncomplicated using quantum computers which results in breaking the keys of modern cryptography, which cannot be broken using classical computers. The concept of quantum physics, into the cryptographic world has resulted in the advancement of quantum cryptography. This technique utilizes the idea of key generation by photons, and communicates between peer entities by secured channel. Quantum cryptography adapts quantum mechanical principles like Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and photon polarization principle to provide secure communication between two parties. This article focuses on generation of a secret shared key, later converted into Quantum bits (Qbits) and transmitted to the receiver securely.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75112",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75112",signatures:"Bharadwaja V. Srividya and Smitha Sasi",book:{id:"9875",title:"Cryptography - Recent Advances and Future Developments",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Cryptography - Recent Advances and Future Developments",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Riccardo Bernardini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9875.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"219317",title:"Prof.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardini",slug:"riccardo-bernardini",fullName:"Riccardo Bernardini"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. 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Pros and cons of QKD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"4. Results and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.1 Generation of keys",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"5. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network Security”, Edition 4,Pearson Publishers'},{id:"B2",body:'Logan O. Mailloux, Charlton D. Lewis II, Casey Riggs, and Michael R. Grimaila, “PostQuantum Cryptography What Advancements in Quantum Computing Mean for IT Professionals”, IEEE 2016'},{id:"B3",body:'Harshad R. Pawar, Dr. Dinesh G. Harkut, “Classical and Quantum Cryptography for Image Encryption & Decryption”, IEEE 2018'},{id:"B4",body:'C. G. Almudever; L. Lao; X. Fu; N. Khammassi; I. Ashraf; D. Iorga; S. Varsamopoulos; C. Eichler; A. Wallraff; L. Geck “The engineering challenges in quantum computing” , Design, Automation & Test in Europe Conference & Exhibition (DATE), 2017'},{id:"B5",body:'Ashish Nanda, Deepak Puthal, Saraju P. Mohanty, and Uma Choppali, “A Computing Perspective on Quantum Cryptography”, IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine 2018'},{id:"B6",body:'Xiongfeng Ma, Hongyi Zhou, Kefan Lv, “Security level and information flow in a quantum key distribution network”, IEEE 2018'},{id:"B7",body:'Songsheng Tang, Fuqiang Liu, “A one-time pad encryption algorithm based on one-way hash and conventional block cipher”, IEEE 2012'},{id:"B8",body:'Farzan Jazaeri; Arnout Beckers; Armin Tajalli; Jean-Michel Sallese, “A Review on Quantum Computing: From Qubits to Front-end Electronics and Cryogenic MOSFET Physics”, 2019 MIXDES - 26th International Conference “Mixed Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems”'},{id:"B9",body:'Huber Nieto-Chaupis, “Encrypted Communications through Quantum Key Distribution Algorithms and Bessel Functions”, IEEE 2018'},{id:"B10",body:'P. Siva Lakshmi, G. Murali, “Comparison of Classical and Quantum Cryptography using QKD Simulator”, IEEE 2017'},{id:"B11",body:'Ankur Raina and Shayan Garani Srinivasa, “Eavesdropping on a quantum channel with a unitarily interacting probe”, IEEE 2015'},{id:"B12",body:'D N Kartheek, G Amarnath, P Venkateswarlu Reddy, “Security in Quantum computing using quantum key distribution protocols”, IEEE 2013'},{id:"B13",body:'P. W. Shor, “Polynomial-time algorithms for prime factorization and discrete logarithms on a quantum computer”, SIAM J. Comput, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 1484-1509, Oct. 1997, [online] Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1137/S0097539795293172.'},{id:"B14",body:'Ali Ibnun Nurhadi, Nana Rachmana Syambas, “Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Protocols: A Survey”, IEEE 2018'},{id:"B15",body:'Soumy jain” Quantum computer architectures: A survey”, IEEE 2nd International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom) 2015'},{id:"B16",body:'Masahide Sasaki, “Quantum Key Distribution and Its Applications”, IEEE 2018'},{id:"B17",body:'J. Aditya, P. Shankar Rao “Quantum Cryptography”, https: //cs.stanford.edu/ people/adityaj/Quantum Cryptography.pdf'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bharadwaja V. Srividya",address:null,affiliation:'
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