Scoring standard for acupuncture at GB21 using the direct observation of procedural skills (DOPS) tool.
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",isbn:"978-1-83969-070-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-069-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-071-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"6504dee75dbbfd7792308293a8f1a27f",bookSignature:"Prof. Moulay Tahar Lamchich",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11520.jpg",keywords:"Optimal Method, Intelligent Technique, Torque Control, Speed Control, Electrical Machine, Hybrid Vehicle, Renewable Energy System, Embedded System, Electrical Vehicle, Electrical Generator, Machine's Noise, Special Machine",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Moulay Tahar Lamchich is a pioneering researcher in the management, supervision, and control of multi-source energy conversion systems and electrical machines. He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his Ph.D. in July 2001. Dr. Lamchich is currently a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia at Marrakech (Morocco). He has published over fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"21932",title:"Prof.",name:"Moulay Tahar",middleName:null,surname:"Lamchich",slug:"moulay-tahar-lamchich",fullName:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21932/images/system/21932.png",biography:"Moulay Tahar Lamchich is a Professor at the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University at Marrakech (Morocco). He completed his thesis in electromechanics in September 1991 and received his Ph.D. in July 2001. His main activity is based on short-circuit mechanical effects in substation structures, control of different types of machine drives, static converters, active power filters. For more than tweenty years, his research interests have included renewable energies, particularly the control and supervision of hybrid and multiple source systems for decentralized energy production, and intelligent management of energy. He has published more than fifty technical papers in reviews and international conferences. With IntechOpen, he has published two chapters and was editor of the books 'Torque Control” and 'Harmonic Analysis”. 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Since it was introduced to Western countries in the 1970s, acupuncture has been widely-studied using modern clinical research approaches. In 2000, a large-scale acupuncture clinical trial was conducted in Germany due to controversy over insurance reimbursements for acupuncture treatment. According to the results of the trial, acupuncture was found to be valuable for pain relief, benefiting patients with back pain, knee pain and headache. In 2002, the World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a review of the results of controlled clinical trials, and concluded that the indications for acupuncture can be classified into four groups of disorders. The first group is diseases, symptoms or conditions for which acupuncture has been proved to be an effective management technique through controlled trials. There are 28 disorders belonging to this group, including stroke, lower back pain, headache, and hypertension [2]. In recent years, more clinical trials have been performed in patients with other disorders, such as dysmenorrhea [3]. Although the scientific community does not yet completely understand the mechanism of acupuncture, its efficacy is widely-accepted worldwide.
As with most medical interventions, acupuncture can also cause varying degrees of side effects. In a study by White [4], the risk of adverse events occurring in association with acupuncture was found to be very low when performed by qualified practitioners. As some serious adverse events may cause life-threatening complications, it is very important to actively prevent serious side effects. Common acupuncture side effects include pain at the punctured region, ecchymosis or hematoma, lightheadedness/dizziness, and pneumothorax [4, 5, 6, 7]. With the exception of lightheadedness/dizziness, which is more relevant to the patient’s physiological condition during acupuncture, the adverse events are related to the practitioner’s technique and the depths of needles at acupoints. Among the major acupuncture-related adverse events, pneumothorax is the most severe, and therefore it is crucial that acupuncture practitioners identify safe depths of insertion of acupuncture needles for individual patients. Studies by Professor Lin and colleagues have extensively investigated the safe needle depth [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. In one study of 11 acupuncture points in the neck and shoulder region, they found that the mean depths for the points around the shoulder in all study subjects, regardless of BMI and gender, were as follows: GB21 = 5.6 cm, SI14 = 5.2 cm, and SI15 = 8.8 cm. Subjects with a higher BMI had greater measured depths for most points [9]. However, the researchers also pointed out that differences between individuals are present, and it is difficult to set a standard. Therefore, study has been performed using modern imaging techniques, such as tomography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and ultrasonography, to directly measure the safe needle depths at acupuncture points in patients [12]. Ultrasound-guided aspiration has been widely-used to remove extra fluid from parts of the body, such as paracentesis of ascitic fluid, thoracentesis of pleural fluid [13], insertion of small-bore chest tubes in patients on clopidogrel [14], and placement of a central venous catheter [15]. Ultrasound-aided procedures are non-invasive, and the device is easy to access and relatively simple to operate. It is therefore the most suitable technique for detecting the needle depth during acupuncture. When practitioners perform acupuncture at dangerous acupoints, ultrasound imaging can help to identify the safe needle depth and prevent damage to organs. We named this technique, which combines acupuncture with ultrasound, ultrasound detection acupuncture (UDA). Taking acupoint GB21 (Jianjing; Gallbladder 21) in the chest area as an example, ultrasound was first used to measure the distance from the skin surface at the acupoint to the pleura, and the safe needle depth at the acupoint was then defined as a distance shorter than the one measured. In this way, pneumothorax can be avoided by preventing the needle from puncturing the lung or pleural cavity, which improves the safety and quality of treatment.
This study aimed to integrate the ultrasound technique into acupuncture training, and developed a course that teaches the use of ultrasound to measure the safe needle depth at difficult acupoints (e.g., GB21). We created a model of an acupoint for the course participants to practice on, and evaluated the efficacy of the training by qualitative and quantitative assessment.
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of our hospital (IRB No.: 151211) before the study was initiated. Residents in our hospital were recruited, the inclusion criterion being medical residents of the Department of Chinese Medicine who volunteered to participate in the training course. The participants were informed in detail about the training and completed a consent form before the start of the course. As the residents were trainees, which constitute a vulnerable group, and therefore in order to safeguard their rights, the recruitment process was publicly announced, and there was no mentor-trainee or colleague relationship between the recruiter and potential participants in order to ensure that the participants joined the study completely of their own accord.
After enrollment in the study, a pre-test and an interview were carried out for each participant, followed by a program of four 2-h ultrasound acupuncture training classes. After completion of the course, a post-test and another interview were performed to assess the efficacy of the training (Figure 1).
Study flow chart.
A preliminary draft of the course was designed by ultrasound clinicians, clinical acupuncturists, and medical education experts, and then reviewed by a committee comprising five Chinese medical physicians qualified to teach in traditional Chinese medicine medical institutions under the regulations implemented by The Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taiwan. Course standards and DOPS (Direct Observation Procedural Skills) were then established to assess trainee skills.
Four experts were invited to serve as lecturers for the program. After the initial course content had been established, two lecturers generated teaching slides, and a test course was taught to two students. The students were then asked to provide feedback in order to improve the course, and the review committee also gave suggestions on the revision of the teaching content, enabling completion of the first draft of the course.
Next, we generated a questionnaire, which was reviewed by the five members of the review committee. The questionnaire was then revised until it passed validity and reliability testing, and the teaching content was modified to obtain the final teaching materials for the program. The classes of the program were taught by four lecturers (Figure 2).
Establishment of the ultrasound detection acupuncture course.
Meeting agenda for course planning:
Clinical experience of dangerous acupoints.
Discussion of the ultrasound technique to be taught in the course.
Design of DOPS as the tool to assess the effectiveness of the course (Table 1).
Evaluation items | Under expected standard | Close to expected standard | Achieved expected standard | Over expected standard | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Ability in acupoint identification and acupoint selection. | □ 1□ 2 | □ 3 | □ 4 | □ 5 □ 6 | □ |
2. Ultrasound operation skills | □ 1□ 2 | □ 3 | □ 4 | □ 5 □ 6 | □ |
3. Suitable needle length selection before procedure | □ 1□ 2 | □ 3 | □ 4 | □ 5 □ 6 | □ |
4. Whether needle is placed in the correct acupoint area (simulator model sensor light on) | □ 1 □ | □ 4 | □ | ||
5. Whether needle punctured the lung, causing pneumothorax (simulator model alarm light on) | □ 1□ 2 | □ 4 | □ | ||
6. Whether acupuncture procedure was completed within the set test time | □ 1□ 2 | □ 3 | □ 4 | □ 5 □ 6 | □ |
7. Overall assessment | □ 1□ 2 | □ 3 | □ 4 | □ 5 □ 6 | □ |
Total score/average | / |
Scoring standard for acupuncture at GB21 using the direct observation of procedural skills (DOPS) tool.
DOPS is an assessment tool developed by the Royal College of Physicians that is used to evaluate the performance of a trainee in learning a practical procedure in the United Kingdom [16]. This study used DOPS to assess the performance of the students after taking the course.
Principles and operation of ultrasound (2 h): this module of the course introduced the principles of ultrasonography in diagnosis, its use in visualizing different tissues and organs, and advanced medical ultrasound. The trainees learned the configuration and operation of a Sonosite ultrasound machine (model: NanoMaxx; Fujifilm Sonosite Inc), and had hands-on practice on an acupuncture simulator model of GB21 (ASM21), in addition to practice on a human body.
Patient safety and safe needle depth (2 h): clinical requirements and precautions for patient safety, introduction to simulation training, and the importance of improving patient safety.
Advanced clinical application for GB21 (2 h): the function and anatomical position of the acupoint GB21, its possible complications and their management.
Introduction and practice for ASM21 (2 h): the configuration of the ASM21 model and its function. The benefit and improvement in clinical skills when used in combination with ultrasonography. The importance of implantation of simulation in learning.
In this study, GB21 was used as the target acupoint, and ASM21, an acupuncture simulator model of GB21, was developed to help the trainees to easily manage this acupoint (Figure 3). The ASM21 model was designed with a sensor that detected whether the needle was placed in the correct position and within a safe depth, and an alarm sounded when the needle reached the lung. As it was constructed with material that is penetrable by ultrasound, the trainees could also measure the safe needle depth when the model was used together with an ultrasound machine.
Acupuncture simulator model of GB21 (ASM21) equipped with a sensor detector light alarm.
We used the inter-rater reliability and employed Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (
Where
We analyzed the
The course validity was calculated using the content validity index (CVI). The CVI method determines the ratio of experts who are in agreement with one another, and allows several raters to independently review the test items and evaluate the performance of the trainees. Briefly, for each test item, a scale of 4 was used for the rater response, responses of 1 and 2 indicating items that are ‘invalid’, and responses of 3 and 4 indicating ‘valid’ items. During the analysis, the four ordinal response rankings were then collapsed into two dichotomous categories of responses (score of invalid item = 0; score of valid item = 1), and the CVI of individual items was obtained. The CVI of the overall scale (S-CVI) was then calculated as:
where
Pre-test: the trainees conducted acupuncture at the GB21 acupoint using the ASM21 model without ultrasound, and the frequency of occurrence of pneumothorax (needle puncture of the lung) was recorded on the DOPS form.
Pre-test interview: interviews were conducted with the trainees, which focused on acupuncture clinical skills and recorded their thoughts on and difficulties in performing acupuncture at the GB21 acupoint.
The trainees attended four classes, totaling an eight-hour course. They were asked to complete a satisfaction survey, and undertook two acupuncture practice sections with ultrasound.
Post-test: the trainees performed acupuncture at the GB21 acupoint using the ASM21 model without ultrasound, and the frequency of pneumothorax was recorded.
Post-test interview: interviews were conducted with the trainees to record their learning experience and thoughts.
Ultrasound acupuncture technical operation procedure: (i) identify GB21 on ASM21; (ii) use ultrasound to measure the distance from the surface to the lung, and use a depth shorter than this measurement as the safe needle depth; (iii) select a needle of appropriate length (the needle body must not exceed the above recorded depth); (iv) use a 28-gauge stainless steel acupuncture needle to perform the procedure; and (v) the test duration was defined from the first use of the needle to when the needle reached GB21 or punctured the lung.
The pre-test and post-test data were compared. Trainee feedback was also analyzed in order to evaluate the efficacy of the course using the methods described below:
Test methods: due to the small number of samples, and the fact that the data were not normally distributed, the Mann-Whitney U test and Fisher’s exact test were used to determine whether the trainee skills at GB21 improved after taking the course.
Comparison of attendance and performance: the number of times that the needle punctured the lung was compared with the attendance rate by Fisher’s exact test.
Effect of ultrasound class attendance: the number of times that the needle punctured the lung was compared with the attendance rate at the ultrasound class using Fisher’s exact test.
Effect of ultrasound skills: the number of times that the needle punctured the lung was compared with the trainee’s ultrasound skills using Fisher’s exact test.
Practice and performance: the relationship between practice and performance was examined by comparing the trainees’ practice simulations and the number of times that puncture of the lung occurred using Fisher’s exact test.
Practice and ultrasound skills: whether the improvement in ultrasound skills was correlated with the number of practice sessions was examined using Fisher’s exact test.
The study recruited 17 trainees, all of whom were residents at the Chinese Medicine Department of our hospital. One of the trainees was not able to attend all the classes and complete the test; therefore, a total of 16 participants, 8 males and 8 females (aged 31.63 ± 4.46 years), completed the program and were included in this study. Of them, one was a dual-licensed Chinese and Western medical physician, and the remaining 15 were all licensed Chinese medical practitioners (Table 2).
Percentage (%) | ||
---|---|---|
Male | 8 | 50 |
Female | 8 | 50 |
21–30 | 7 | 43.75 |
31–40 | 8 | 50 |
>41 | 1 | 6.25 |
1 | 6.25 |
Demographic information of the trainees in this study
During course planning, several experts suggested that more detailed information about the clinical effects of the advanced application of the GB21 acupoint should be introduced to the trainees, and a half-hour practice session for acupoint selection should be added to the course. As ultrasonography is a relatively unfamiliar technique for Chinese medicine practitioners, in addition to the principles taught in class, the experts also recommended that the trainees be given extra time to practice using the ultrasound machine as per the individual needs of the trainees. The identification of suitable teaching staff for the technique was also important and the process of selection of teaching staff needed to be confirmed.
Reliability was determined according to the
The S-CVI values of the five experts were 1, 1, 1, 0.9, and 1, all higher than 0.80, with an overall average of 0.98. This demonstrated that the course had an excellent validity, and that the course design achieved a high standard (Table 3).
Expert no. | S-CVI value |
---|---|
1 | 1 |
2 | 1 |
3 | 1 |
4 | 0.9 |
5 | 1 |
Average | 0.98 |
S-CVI values obtained from the five experts as raters in this study.
Based on the results of the course planning meeting, as well as the reliability and validity analyses, the ultrasound-guided acupuncture course was designed to include four modules, which were taught in four different classes: “Introduction and operation of ASM21”, “Advanced clinical application of the GB21 acupoint”, “Patient safety and safe acupuncture needle depth”, and “Principles and application of ultrasonography”.
In the pre-test, the trainees had not learned the ultrasound technique, and therefore item 2—“Ultrasound operation skills” was not included for evaluation on the DOPS form. The average DOPS score in the pre-test was 3.0 ± 0.6. After the 16 trainees had attended the four classes, the average post-test score, which included item 2, was 3.8 ± 0.3. The Mann-Whitney U test (two-tailed) showed that the scores differed significantly between pre- and post-test (P < 0.05; Table 4). Overall, the use of ultrasound effectively helped the trainees to avoid the complication of pneumothorax when performing acupuncture at the GB21 acupoint.
Pre-test (n = 16) | Post-test (n = 16) | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|
Average score | 3.0 ± 0.6 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 0.00054* |
Comparison of pre- and post-test scores by the Mann-Whitney U test (two-tailed).
The pre-test interviews indicated that most of the trainees did not have experience in performing acupuncture at the GB21 point prior to taking this course, and were afraid of causing pneumothorax when performing acupuncture at acupoints near to the chest. To assess the satisfaction of the trainees following the course, they were asked to complete a questionnaire after each class. For the four classes, 8, 10, 14, and 12 completed questionnaires were received.
Feedback was also obtained from the trainees during the post-test interviews, and some useful suggestions were collected as a reference to improve the program, as listed below (Figure 4).
Course satisfaction survey.
In this program, the trainees were free to participate in the classes according to their individual schedules. Due to the fact that the working hours and locations of the hospital residents might change, some trainees were unable to attend the entire course. The attendance rate and frequency of practice using the ultrasound instrument are presented in Table 5. When a trainee was not able to attend a class, video recordings and slides were provided for self-learning. Of the original 17 trainees recruited to this study, one withdrew; therefore, the data of 16 trainees were included for analysis.
Item | P-value |
---|---|
Attending all classes | 1 |
Attending ultrasound class | 1 |
Acquisition of ultrasound skills | 1.6121e−05*** |
Practice using ultrasound instrument | 1 |
Correlation analyses of trainee course attendance with post-test results.
Fisher’s exact test (***P < 0.001).
Nine trainees attended the “Introduction and operation of ASM21” class (attendance rate = 56%); 12 trainees attended the “Advanced clinical application of GB21” class, but one left early (attendance rate = 69%); 12 participated in the “Patient safety and safe needle depth” class (attendance rate = 75%); and 15 participated in the “Principles and application of ultrasonography” class, but one left early (attendance rate = 88%). The average attendance rate was 75 ± 0.25%. The total number of trainees who practiced using the ultrasound instrument was 12, accounting for 75% of the total number of participants (Table 5).
There was no incidence of puncture of the lung during use of the ASM21 model. To test whether attendance at the course was correlated with post-test performance, Fisher’s exact test was performed, and showed that P = 1.0, indicating that class attendance had no significant association with the incidence of lung puncture. Additionally, analysis of the relationship between attendance at Class 4 (“Principles and application of ultrasonography”) and the incidence of lung puncture also demonstrated that no correlation existed (P = 1.0). Further analysis indicated that acquisition of a good ultrasound technique reduced the incidence of lung puncture (P < 0.05), suggesting that acquisition of ultrasound skills helped to prevent pneumothorax post-test. Finally, no significant relationship was found between practice using the ultrasound machine and puncture of the lung.
Correlation between practice using the ultrasound instrument and improvement of ultrasound skills.
According to the second item (ultrasound skills) on the DOPS scale (score range = 1–6), the post-test score distribution of the trainees was 3–5. Three trainees had a score of 3 (2 had practiced using the instrument, 1 had not); 12 trainees had a score of 4 (9 had practiced, 3 had not), and one had a score of 5 (who had practiced). Fisher’s exact test showed that practice using the ultrasound instrument was not correlated with improvement of ultrasound skills. In the post-test, the depth measurements at acupoint GB21 obtained by seven trainees were 3.0, 3.0, 3.2, 3.3, 3.5, 3.8 and 5.0 cm; the average depth was 3.5 ± 0.7 cm, which was very close to the actual depth of 3.5 cm. The depth measurement of 5.0 cm was much larger than the other measurements, and the trainee who made this measurement had not practiced using the ultrasound instrument and had a poor ultrasound skills score. If this outlier value was removed, the average depth was 3.3 ± 0.3 cm.
The average duration of operation of the ultrasound instrument by the trainees was 87 ± 42 s (ranging from 45 s to 2 min and 9 s).
After attending the course, the trainees expressed that it helped them to reduce their fear of performing acupuncture at the GB21 point, and practice using the ASM21 model helped to improve their self-confidence. Some positive feedback received is presented below:
With the assistance of ultrasound, the depth of the GB21 point can be easily identified. It helps to choose the correct length of needle. By using a proper needle, it prevents causing the problem of puncturing the lung (10704201801001) (Table 6).
Class | Case numbers | Interview key content |
---|---|---|
General | 107010818010 | I used to utilize oblique insertion and avoid dangerous acupuncture points. Now, I am glad that ultrasound can assist practitioners in precisely placing acupuncture needles, and reduce the fear of performing acupuncture at difficult points. In order to make this course more meaningful, I suggest having a qualifying examination after the course |
Class 1: introduction and operation of ASM21 | 107010918005 | Trainees were curious about using the ASM21 model to practice acupuncture ASM21 allows us the opportunity to practice very well at GB21. As GB21 is not often used clinically, performance in reality is rarely seen. I am looking forward to practicing at this point. Patient safety has always been an important principle in medical ethics |
Class 2: advanced clinical application of the GB21 acupoint | 107020618004 | Trainees had the opportunity to further understand the timing of using GB21, and learn how pneumothorax can occur and its management Training helped us to understand that a needle at the acupuncture point GB21 will reach the pleura at a certain depth (about 2–3 cm), and insertion of the needle to a deeper position will penetrate the lung. Studies from Western medicine also showed that even anesthesia cannot block the pain at this point |
Class 3: patient safety and safe acupuncture needle depth | 107030818012 | Trainees improved their knowledge of the safe needle depth, and learned about pneumothorax complications caused by acupuncture from cases of evidence-based medicine Learning of personal experience from the lecturer about acupuncture-caused pneumothorax was impressed. This highlighted that the needle depth is critical during acupoint selection in clinical practice |
Class 4: principles and application of ultrasonography | 107040918001 107040918012 | Following hands-on operation, the trainees gave positive feedback on the use of ultrasound to detect the safe needle depth for acupuncture The ultrasound device is simple and easy to use, and effectively prevents pneumothorax. It was a novel experience to use ultrasound, especially its application in acupuncture in the clinical setting |
Interview records from trainees.
During the pre-test, I did not know what I was doing as I was full of fear. I never perform acupuncture at the GB21 point, and was therefore very nervous. During the post-test, I felt it was quite an interesting task, as I am more self-confident and can perform it immediately without delay (10704201800901).
When I perform acupuncture at points in the chest, I will double-check by using ultrasound, especially if the patient is elderly, a young woman or a child (10704201801703).
I wish that ultrasound could be more popularized. I will use it in the clinic, especially at those acupuncture points with a high risk of causing an accident. For the common points, I will not use it as it takes time to use it (10704201800203).
UDA is an innovative acupuncture technique. It employs modern ultrasound technology to inject new vitality into this ancient medical system. UDA may reduce the risk of complications at difficult acupoints, such as pneumothorax. It can improve patient safety, and render acupuncture at several important but difficult and less-used acupoints (e.g., Gaohuangshu BL-43, and Back-Shu points) more easily performed by acupuncture practitioners. This will help the advantages of traditional acupuncture to be restored and preserved.
In this study, we developed a program that employed ultrasound technology during training in the use of difficult acupuncture points. In the course described in this study, the focus was the Jianjing point GB21. The course included four 2-h classes: “Introduction and operation of ASM21”, “Advanced clinical application of GB21”, “Patient safety and safe needle depth”, and “Principles and application of ultrasonography”. The design of the course aimed not just to teach trainees to operate the ultrasound instrument and the ASM21 model, but also to educate them about patient safety and the safe needle depth at the GB21 acupoint.
According to the satisfaction survey completed by the trainees who undertook the course, the trainees showed high interest in two of the classes in particular: “Advanced clinical application of GB21” and “Principles and application of ultrasonography”. This might be due to these two classes being directly correlated with clinical application, while the other two classes were related to simulation education and medical quality, which hospital residents are often less interested in. In the post-test interviews, most of the trainees were positive about integrating the ultrasound technique into the teaching of acupuncture. As ultrasound imaging helps them to clearly identify the position of the lungs, it improved their confidence in performing acupuncture at the GB21 point. Most of the trainees who attended the course expressed that if the hospital could provide an ultrasound instrument at their out-patient clinic, they would be willing to apply the UDA knowledge they had learned from the course in patient practice.
Currently, the largest barrier to Chinese medicine practitioners or acupuncturists using ultrasound is the high cost of the instrument. Even an entry-level new machine will cost more than $10,000 USD. At this moment, with the exception of large hospitals or medical centers, most small clinics are not able to afford to install this instrument at their practice locations. To solve this problem and enable UDA to be widely-used, the purchase of used ultrasound instruments is an option. Alternatively, the development of a low-cost, small-sized simple ultrasound instrument without an imaging function (such as the Butterfly IQ [17], which can easily detect the needle depth), should be considered.
Education in traditional Chinese medicine is still relatively conservative in comparison with modern medical education. Although acupuncture is considered a less invasive therapy, it does require thousands of hours of training to gain the proper skills. However, education in acupuncture still very rarely uses modern teaching aids to assist learning, and especially rarely uses simulation-based learning. These issues are in urgent need of improvement. This study utilized an innovative method that integrated a simulator that mimicked the chest body part and modern ultrasound technology to help trainees to learn how to safely perform acupuncture at the GB21 point. The UDA approach allows greater application of the traditional acupuncture points in therapy, as many of the difficult points are known to be very important, but it is difficult to master the necessary skills. We used UDA in acupuncture education, emphasizing patient safety, which differed from traditional acupuncture education, which mainly focuses on classroom teaching and observational learning [18, 19]. The outcomes of this study indicated that new teaching methods are required for education in acupuncture, as the conventional education system for acupuncture is known to have many problems and needs to be improved [20, 21].
The introduction of a body part model in acupuncture education is very useful for the learner. Body parts or organ sets have been created, and others have developed a 3-D interactive virtual environment, phantoms or integrated platforms to assist learners in acupuncture training [22, 23, 24, 25]. However, such types of models or virtual training simulation systems still cannot provide sensations similar to those felt when practicing on the human body. We developed the ASM21 model using material that could be punctured by stainless steel acupuncture needles and that was penetrable by ultrasound. Integrating this material with a sensor detector and a light alarm, the goal was to allow the learners to practice on an object similar to a patient in clinic, and to measure the needle depth by ultrasound. Using a high-quality simulator with a realistic chest model, learners are able to perform sufficient practice before applying UDA in actual patients. Rehabilitation medicine has attempted to incorporate acupuncture as one of its therapy techniques, and has integrated acupuncture with the ultrasound technique [26]. However, that application mainly focuses on soft tissue-related diseases, such as muscle and tendon disorders. Neither patient safety nor the theory of the Meridians has been paid attention to. From a different aspect, in the present study, we used the theory of traditional Chinese medicine and considered patient safety to promote acupuncture modernization.
Although Chinese medicine has a long history, its modernization has followed a difficult path. In the development of the UDA training course, we had a great appreciation of the obstacles faced. Modern medicine is closely integrated with modern science; modern medicine keeps pace with the development of science-based technology, and new technology is used to develop new products and treatments to improve patient care. However, the majority of Chinese medicine practitioners do not pay attention to new technology. Many researchers have continued to work hard to improve this dilemma [27, 28, 29], while more Chinese medicine peers are still needed to join in the modernization. The ASM21 model developed in this study can be further improved to incorporate ultrasound techniques by collaborating with medical engineering manufacturers, which might create a new path for the development of technology for use in the application of Chinese medicine.
The outcomes of our study show promise. However, there were some limitations. First, this study was an educational study conducted in a single group, i.e., hospital residents, and was not a randomized controlled trial. The small sample size was also a limitation.
However, by using qualitative and quantitative analyses to validate the efficacy, the results are still valuable, and can be taken as a useful reference for developing similar courses. The significant improvement in score after the trainees had attended the course indicated a well-designed course, which can help to reduce the risk of pneumothorax, a complication of acupuncture at difficult chest acupoints. Both the attendance rate and practice of the ultrasound technique were independent of the reduction in the incidence of pneumothorax, suggesting that the use of ultrasound is key to reducing the incidence of this complication. As the operation of the ultrasound instrument is simple, no special repeat practice is required, which is a significant advantage of UDA that should be promoted in the future. The trainees only need to learn to measure the safe depth of the needle, rather than being familiar with diagnostic sonography. Based on the outcomes and the feedback obtained from the trainees, the course could be shortened by focusing on the operation of the ultrasound instrument and practice using the simulator. In terms of satisfaction, the post-test interviews demonstrated that the trainees gave the highest ratings for the course, indicating that the course design was successful.
In conclusion, a course design for acupuncture training needs to include practice using a simulator, which can greatly enhance the interest and motivation of the trainees. In the interviews, several trainees suggested that acupuncture clinical instructors should receive UDA training, which showed that they were not satisfied with the conventional educational approach. Some trainees also had different opinions to those of the lecturers for the classes, suggesting that the new generation no longer fully accepts the arrangements of traditional education. In order to achieve the goal of a high level of education, it is necessary to implement more communication between teachers and students in the current medical education setting.
UDA, by introducing ultrasound into acupuncture practice, will be a revolution technique for traditional acupuncture. UDA can not only reduce the risk of severe advertise effect when needing dangerous points, but also increase the usage of some important points traditionally, such as GB21 and BL43. We proposed the standard operating procedure for UDA and developed a course for UDA training. A video demonstration could be found at the web www.Dr-Hou.com. We truly hope that UDA would be widely accepted and performed popularly everywhere in acupuncture practice.
In order to prompt UDA further, a specific and affordable ultrasound devise is urgent needed. All the ultrasound devises available are too complicated and expensive for acupuncturists. We are currently in cooperation with medical engineers to develop a UDA special ultrasound. This ultrasound devise for safety depth (USD) will be a handy and useful devise specially designed to measure the safe needling distance of dangerous points. We believe that only by introducing and developing new ideas and practices can renew and update acupuncture. Thus an energetic and a fresh acupuncture can be presented to the world.
We like to thank Dr. Su-ChingLin, Dr. Jian-GuoBau, Dr. Bo-Shiu Chen, Dr.Yuen-Chun Lo, and Dr. Mao Sheng Sun for their help and inspirations. We also want to thank Miss Davy Kuo, Ariel Yu, and Sherry Ho. This study was funded by Ministry of Technology (no: MOST 106-2511-S-371-001) and Changhua Christian Hospital (no: 106-CCH-MST-133).
There is no financial relationship to disclose.
Biomass can be regarded as any organic material that originated from plants or animals. Thus, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC in 2005 [1], defined it as follows;
“A non-fossilized and biodegradable organic material originating from plants, animals and micro-organisms. This shall also include products, by-products, residues and waste from agriculture, forestry and related industries as well as the non-fossilized and biodegradable organic fractions of industrial and municipal wastes”.
The world’s energy demand has been steadily increasing in the last several decades. This is due to rapid increase in industrialization, population and the quest for improvement of the living standards for societies. On the other hand, this has caused an irreversible damage to the environment which leads to global warming, and climate change. These issues have been the topic of discussion among scientist and policy makers at national and international levels on how to mitigate the problem. The modern society is emphasizing on shift from non-renewable to renewable energy (such as wind, solar, tide, geothermal and biomass) in their search for energy source. Before the discovery of fossil fuels such as petroleum products, coal, and natural gas, biomass was the main source of energy for heating and cooking [2]. Biomass is the term used to describe all materials that contain carbon in an organic form. This organic form of carbon can be transformed into inorganic through photosynthesis by forming bonds with other elements such as hydrogen, and oxygen using solar energy. The demolishing of these bonds (molecules) through physical or biological means, causes a closure in the cycle and making CO2 to be regenerated. During the regeneration process, energy is released which can be converted into other forms of energy. Therefore, as long as these equilibrium is maintained between use and regeneration, biomass is a renewable or inexhaustible source of energy [3]. Biomass is expected to be the leading form of energy with a significant global energy load of about 10–15%. However, biomass has a share of about 90% of total energy requirements for remote and rural areas of the developing countries. Therefore, it is likely to remain the future leading source of energy feedstock for the developing countries since about 90% of the world population is expected to live in the developing world by 2050 [4, 5, 6].
Biomass accumulates chemical energy in form of carbohydrates through combination of solar power and carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesis. This has made it to be a potential energy source since the carbon dioxide captured during photosynthesis could be released when it burns. It is cheap and available in all forms such as forest and agricultural residues, wood, by-products of biological materials, organic components of municipal and sludge wastes, etc. There are several ways to convert biomass into useful products which largely depends on biomass characteristics and the end product [7]. The technologies applied in the conversion of biomass are mainly categorized under thermochemical or biological methods.
Biomass can be converted into several useful products for energy generation and chemicals. There are some factors that influence the choice of a conversion technology to be applied on the biomass. These factors include quality and quantity of the biomass feedstock, availability, choice of end-products, process economics and environmental issues (Figure 1) [9].
Main biomass conversion routes [
The major options within thermochemical biomass conversion processes include combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and liquefaction (Figure 2). The most practiced thermochemical conversion of biomass industrially is combustion process, which is used for heat and electricity generation. Most of biomass thermochemical conversions were carried out with or without the use of catalysts, though the use of catalyst has distinct effects on the end-products [10].
Thermochemical conversion processes and end products [
The process of biomass gasification was discovered independently in France and England by the year 1798. The technology did not come into its limelight until 60 years later. The gasification process continued flourishing until 30 years later when natural gas from oil fields was discovered. Until 1970, the use of natural gas for cooking and lighting was substituted with liquid fuels due to discovery of oil. Generally, biomass gasification is an endothermic thermochemical conversion of solid biomass fuel using gasifying agents such as air, steam or CO2 to form a mixture of combustible gases which may include H2, CH4, CO and CO2. The process is carried out at temperatures between 800 and 1300°C. Nowadays, flexibility of the gasification technology coupled with the different uses of the produced syngas, allows for the integration of biomass gasification with many industrial processes and as well with power generation systems [7].
Biomass feedstock characteristics such as particle size, moisture content, shape, heating value, carbon content and ash content significantly affect the gasifier performance. However, knowledge on feedstock parameters such as volatility, elemental analysis, heat content and biomass potential for fouling or slagging is essential for evaluation of gasification process [11]. Therefore, feedstock with low volatile contents are preferred for partial oxidation gasification, while those with high volatile content are more suitable for indirect gasification process [12].
Feedstocks for biomass gasification exists in different forms with each type having peculiar issues. Therefore, it is vital to predict suitable type of biomass for a specific gasifier type under defined conditions. Although, characteristics within specific biomass feedstock species is identical, the shape and size of the feedstock particles are useful in determining the difficulties that may arise during movement, delivery and as well as the feedstock behavior in the gasifier. The size and size distribution of the feedstock affect the gasification zone thickness, pressure drop in the bed and the maximum hearth load. To overcome some of this problems, biomass feedstock of uniform size were utilized [7].
Gasifier operation depends on moisture content of the biomass feed used. The use of feedstock with high moisture content reduces biomass conversion efficiency and as well the production rate. This is because the process discharges more fuel or heat in order to vapourize the excess moisture to the temperature of the syngas [13]. During the pyrolysis/gasification process, water need about 2.3 MJ/kg to vapourize and as well 1.5 MJ/kg to raise it to 700°C. Also, high moisture content in a biomass reduces the achieved temperature in the oxidation zone which results in incomplete cracking of the products released in the pyrolysis zone. Consequently, high moisture content in the biomass feedstock affect the syngas composition or quality due to production of CO2 from reaction between the moisture. Furthermore, using feedstock that has high moisture content results in the production of syngas with high moisture, which subsequently course additional stress on downstream cooling and filtering equipment [14].
Hydrothermal gasification is a biomass treatment that involves the use of water at high temperatures and pressures. Products formed during this process is as a result of different reactions that takes place in the biomass which mainly depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and time of treatment. To understand the process, behavior of water at high temperature and pressure must be known. Figure 3 indicated the phase diagram of water, where at 273.15 K and atmospheric pressure (0.101325 MPa), ice melts to liquid water, while at 373.15 K liquid water boils and vapourized to steam. However, boiling point of water is affected by pressure and this means at high pressure the boiling point decreases, while at low pressure it increases. Likewise, pressure has effect on volume of water when it changes to steam. The volume of water increases greatly when it changes to steam. This change in volume is as high as 1600 times under atmospheric pressure.
Phase diagram of water [
At increased pressure, the volume of liquid water is not affected when compared to steam volume. Therefore, under increased pressure, the increase in volume associated with the phase change becomes smaller (Figure 4). The volumes for both water and steam were found to be equal at 22.1 MPa at the phase change. Also, when the pressure is higher than this value, no noticeable phase change is seen. At this point, the pressure is called the critical pressure of water, while the temperature is called critical temperature of water which corresponds to 647 K. This point on the phase diagram, is called the critical point. If the temperature and pressure are above these critical values, the water is called supercritical water, while when the values are below the critical values, the water is called subcritical [9].
Pressure effect on volume change when water changes into steam [
Hydrothermal treatment of biomass can be carried out in either supercritical or subcritical water. That is when the temperature and pressure of the water is high. The process employs low temperatures ranging between 150 and 250°C. Under these conditions, the polymeric components of the biomass such as hemicellulose and lignin are dissolved together with small fraction of cellulose [15]. This process is mainly physical and requires harsh reaction conditions since the decomposition of the polymeric substances is limited. The process is often employed for saccharification of cellulose (Figure 5) or for an increased biomethanation of lignocellulosic biomass [16, 17, 18].
Reaction network for hydrothermal gasification of cellulose [
The term pyrolysis is defined as the thermal depolymerization of organic matter in the presence of nitrogen or absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis is an exothermic reaction with heat requirements that ranges between 207 and 434 kJ/kg of which many wood based and agricultural biomass were heated in an inert atmosphere to produce vapours and a carbon rich residue. The vapours composed of fragments from cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin polymers. These vapours can be condensed into free flowing organic liquid known as the bio-oil. On the other hand, the remaining carbon residues is left as bio-char (Figure 6) [20].
Carbonization reaction scheme of a carbonaceous material [
The polymeric substances distribution in bio-oil largely depends on the lignocellulosic contents of the biomass feed [21]. Many researchers investigated the individual pyrolysis characteristics of cellulose, hemicellulose and as well lignin. Hemicellulose was observed to decomposes at 220-315°C, cellulose decomposes between the range of 314-400°C, while lignin decomposition takes place from 160 to 900°C and it generates a solid residue with highest percentage of about 40% [22]. From energy view point, cellulose pyrolysis was observed to be an endothermic reaction, while the reactions of hemicellulose and lignin is an exothermic. The gaseous products obtained from pyrolysis of these three components were similar and mainly comprises of CO2, CO, CH4 and other organic gases. Micro-GC was employed to analyzed the releasing behaviour of the H2 and total gases released when the three gases were pyrolyzed in a packed bed. Hemicellulose was observed to have higher yield for CO2, cellulose gives higher yield for CO with high presence of aromatic ring and methoxyl, while the lignin cracking and deformation yields higher H2 and CH4. Cellulose pyrolysis involves the cleavage of glycosidic groups via dehydration which is followed by the breakdown of anhydroglucose units. The dehydration and breakdown of sugar molecules at lower temperatures, results in the formation of char. Shafizadeh and Fu [23] reported char yield of 34.2% for the pyrolysis of pure cellulose in the absence of air and at 300°C. At high temperatures, there is enough energy to initiate the rapid cleavage of glycosidic bonds and evaporation of gaseous products was favoured. However, the distribution of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in a bio-oil is predominantly determined by the interactions between these components rather than just their quantities. Rowell [24] suggested that hemicellulose and cellulose were bonded through hydrogen bond, while hemicellulose and lignin were covalently bonded via ester bonds. The bonds that exist between these polymeric substances influence the pyrolytic behaviour of the biomass which may bring about a difference in products distribution when compared to a sample prepared synthetically by physical mixing. Couhert
The necessary conditions for pyrolysis are temperature, pressure, heating rate, residence time, environment, catalyst, etc. This conditions greatly determines the nature of the products formed after pyrolysis [27]. Therefore, the pyrolysis conditions can be adjusted to obtain a desired product. It is well known from literatures that high temperature and short residence time favours formation of condensable fractions, high temperatures and longer residence time favours non-condensable gaseous products, and as well solids fractions are only favoured at low temperatures [28]. Depending on the pyrolysis conditions, the process can be classified as follows;
Recently, fast pyrolysis which is an advanced technology is gaining attention because of an increasing need for the production of fuel oil from biomass. As a continuous process, fast pyrolysis is aimed to prevent further cracking of the pyrolytic fractions to non-condensable compounds. During the process, the parameters that give high oil yield were carefully controlled in which the primary parameter is high rates of heat transfer. This parameter could be achieved by grinding the biomass feed finely. The finely ground biomass feed is heated rapidly at high temperatures between 450–600°C for a very short residence time of typically less than 2 seconds. The liquid yield for wood fast pyrolysis was reported to be as high as 75% [29, 30]. Since the process takes place in a very short period, not only chemical kinetics, but rate of heat and mass transfer, and as well transition phenomena plays an important role in determining the chemistry of the end products. Tailored products could be obtained by setting the necessary parameters at optimum [29].
In comparison with fast pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis is operated at optimum temperature range of 300–500°C. The liquid products obtained during the process is less viscous and contains low tar. However, the chemical reactions taking place during intermediate pyrolysis are more controlled and thus the process offers a wide range of parameter variations for process optimization. Although low yield for liquids of up to 55% were obtained during this operation, large sizes for biomass feed are acceptable that may be coarse, chopped, shredded or ground [31].
Slow pyrolysis is the carbonization of a biomass feed without condensing the pyrolysis products. The process is carried out in batches at low temperatures, slow heating rate and for a long residence time. Though, most of the literatures present about the process were based on its use to produce solid fuels such as charcoal and bio-char, but it can also be used to produce liquid fuels and bio-gas [32]. Temperatures as low as 0.1–2°C were reported by literatures. Slow pyrolysis is the oldest technique used for biomass conversion when the desired end product is charcoal or biochar. The vapours produced during the process were not condensed usually, but they could be used in the process to directly or indirectly provide heating. Moisture of about 15–20% were reported and it affects the properties of the solid fuels produced during the process [20]. The biomass feed sizes can vary from ground to a whole log.
Torrefaction is a slow and mild pyrolysis process that is usually carried out at low temperatures between 225°C-300°C. The process is aimed at increasing the biomass energy density and as well its fuel properties [33]. This is achieved by removal of biomass moisture content and other superfluous volatiles. During the process, the biopolymeric substances such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin were partly decomposed to release organic volatiles. The product obtained at the end of the process is a dry and black residual solid regarded as torrified biomass. The torrified biomass is hydrophobic and soft which can easily be crush, grind or pulverized [20, 33].
The process of combustion is a widely applied biomass conversion technology that was functional to a sizeable portion of human race since the advent of human civilization. It is widely applied even today for burning of wood and agricultural residues to make pot fires and stoves in order to provide heat and light energy for cooking and heating. Combustion process is frequently used for the conversion of lignin-rich biomass. The process could be applied in two broad ways, that is either by direct conversion of the whole biomass feedstock or by biochemical conversion in which some portions of the biomass remained. Compared with the other biomass conversion technologies, the process is largely non-selective in terms of the biomass feedstock. During the process, biomass feedstock is converted to CO2 and water including smaller amount of other species which depends on the composition of the biomass and the process parameters. However, combustion of biomass largely depends on energy content of the feedstock. The amount of heat energy released during the process depends on feedstock energy content and as well as the conversion efficiency of the reaction. The fact that biomass feedstock composition plays a vital role in the combustion process was well established by many researchers worldwide in various reports [34, 35, 36]. The major share of energy in the biomass is formed by the assembly of organic matter during photosynthesis and respiration in plants. However, the inorganic fractions in the biomass are important in design and operation of the combustion system, especially when using the fluidized bed reactor. The amount of volatile matter in biomass feedstock is higher when compared with its fossil counterpart in which it is around 70–80%. The presence of this high volatile matter, greatly influence the thermal decomposition of the biomass feedstock and as well as the combustion performance of the solid fuels. This is because, large portion of the biomass feedstock has to be vapourized before the homogeneous combustion reaction takes place and the remaining char will then undergo heterogeneous combustion reaction.
The main elements that constitutes the biomass feedstock are C, H, and O, while herbaceous feedstock such as agricultural waste and grasses contain higher amounts of ash forming minerals [37, 38]. Biomass is more oxygenated compared to the conventional fossil fuel. This is due to the biomass carbohydrate structure and its dry mass usually contains about 30–40% oxygen [37]. During the combustion process, part of the oxygen required is supplied by the organically bonded oxygen from the biomass, while the rest is supplied through air injection into the system. The primary constituent of a biomass is carbon which made up about 30–60% by weight of dry matter depending on its ash content. The carbon present in biomass feedstock is in partly oxidized form and this justifies the low gross calorific value of biomass feedstock when compared to coal. Of the biomass organic components, hydrogen is the third most important constituent that made up of about 5–6% of the dry matter. Other elements that are found in smaller quantities in the biomass (less than 1%) are Nitrogen, Sulfur and Chlorine, with the exception of agricultural residues where their figures are sometimes above 1% [39, 40]. The presence of high amount of such inorganic elements in a biomass feedstock leads to serious operational problems such as agglomeration, deposition, fouling, sintering and corrosion or erosion. Combustion process, unlike biochemical and other thermochemical conversion technologies, is largely nonselective in terms of biomass feedstock selection and the process aims to reduce the entire fuel to simple products. However, this shows that the complex nature of the biomass has substantial influence on its combustion performance. Inorganic elements such as Si, K, S, Cl, P, Ca, Mg and Fe are associated with reactions that leads to ash fouling and slagging (Figure 7) [36].
Various reactors for combustion process [
Biochemical biomass conversion technologies refer to conversion of biomass through biological pre-treatments. These pre-treatments were aimed to turn the biomass into a number of products and intermediates through selection of different microorganisms or enzymes. The process provides a platform to obtain fuels and chemicals such as biogas, hydrogen, ethanol, butanol, acetone and a wide range of organic acids [42]. However, this process was aimed at producing products that could replace petroleum-based products and as well as those obtained from the grains. Biomass biochemical conversion technologies are clean, pure, and efficient when compared with the other conversion technologies [43].
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is one of the most sustainable and cost-effective technology for lignocellulosic and other form of waste treatment for energy recovery in form of biofuels. This process does not only minimize the amount of waste, but also transforms such waste into bioenergy. Also, the digestates produced during the process are rich in nutrients, which can serve as fertilizer for agricultural purposes [44].
The digestion of lignocellulosic biomass anaerobically produces energy rich methane (CH4). The CH4 yield per unit area is usually employed for the determination of energy output of an individual feedstock which significantly varies between species and as well with maturity, location and inputs (such as fertilizer, water etc.) within the same variety (Yang et al., 2013). The Biochemical methane potential (BMP) test is commonly used to evaluate the anaerobic digestibility of a biomass substrate. The biomass yield and CH4 production potentials of some selected feedstocks were presented in Table 1 [45].
Biomass | Biomass yield (ton wet weight/ha) | CH4 potential (Nm3 CH4/tonVS) |
---|---|---|
Sugar beet | 40–70 | 387–408 |
Fodder beet | 80–120 | 398–424 |
Maize | 40–60 | 291–338 |
Wheat | 30–50 | 351–378 |
Triticale | 28–33 | 319–335 |
Sorghum | 40–80 | 286–319 |
Grass | 22–31 | 286–324 |
Red clover | 17–25 | 297–347 |
Sunflower | 31–42 | 231–297 |
Wheat grain | 06–10 | 371–398 |
The biomass yield and methane potential of some selected lignocellulosic biomass [45].
Anaerobic digestion is a process used to produce biogas through biological treatment of biomass. It is performed at temperature ranges between 30 and 35°C, or 50 and 55°C using two stages. The first stage is the breaking down of the complex organics in the biomass by acid-forming bacteria into simpler compounds such as acetic and propionic acids along with volatiles. The second stage is conversion of such acids into CO2 and CH4 commonly called biogas through the use of methane producing bacteria. Usually, both stages of biogas production are performed in a single tank. The produced biogas contains about 60% CH4, 35% CO2, and a mixture of other gases such as H2, NH3, CO, and H2S which account for about 5%. The biogas has a heating value of about 22,350 KJ/m3 for a mixture that contains a ratio (CH4:CO2:inerts) of 60: 35: 5 (Figure 8) [46].
Anaerobic digestion process [
Fermentation is a biological process that is commonly facilitated by secretion of enzymes sourced from microorganisms which converts simple sugars to low molecular weight structures such as alcohols and acids. The fermentation of two most common sugars follow the two reactions below:
During fermentation, biomass could be converted into alcohols through biochemical pathways. These pathways involved several schemes in which hydrolysis and fermentation process are carried out either concurrently in the same reactor or separately [47]. The different processes involved for alcohols production are presented in Table 2.
Process | Substrate | Pre-treatment | Ethanol Conc., g/L | Ethanol Pro., g/L/h |
---|---|---|---|---|
SHF | Acids/alkali | 13.6 | — | |
Arundo donax | Steam explosion | 20.6 | 0.21 | |
Wheat straw | Steam explosion | — | 0.313 | |
SSF | CHEMET with NaOH | 69.2 | 1.24 | |
Reed | phosphoric acid-acetone | 55.5 | 0.57 | |
Reed | Liquid hot water | 39.4 | 0.66 | |
Acid-free organosolv | 29.9 | 0.42 | ||
Corn stover | Steam explosion | 25.7 | 0.36 | |
Miscanthus giganteus | Dilute oxalic acid | 12.1 | 0.13 | |
Industrial hemp | Steam explosion | 21.3 | 0.30 | |
SSCF | Wood chips | Steam explosion | 32.9 | 0.34 |
Wheat straw | Steam explosion | — | 0.7 | |
CBP | Corn stover | Acid hydrolysis | — | 0.27 |
Processes in bio-ethanol production [47].
Conversion of biomass feedstocks through fermentation process is a vital issue because it allows for the production of wide range of substances under mild conditions. The extent of fermentation on organic substances largely depends on composition and structure of the biomass feedstock. Only feedstocks that are not competing with the food items in terms of demand should be selected for biofuel production. Consequently, residues and waste materials from agriculture and forestry were considered as the most interesting sources of biomass.
High hydrolysis ratio is also an important requirement for the effective utilization of monosugars present in lignocellulosic structures. From biochemical perspective, organic substances present in the hydrolyzed solution can be categorized into several groups such as simple and complex carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and heteropolymers. The potentials for biogas and biohydrogen generation from lignocellulosic biomass is huge due to utilization of different microorganisms in the conversion of cellulose and hemicellulosic fractions of the agricultural and forestry residues [47]. However, a major setback is usually encountered during biofuels production which is the conversion ratio of the polymeric substances into fermentable sugars like hexoses and pentoses due to production of inhibitors along with the desired products. To minimize such inhibitors and maximize hexoses and pentoses production, microbial metabolism in the degradation and saccharification of the biomass cell wall were considered [48, 49].
Currently, the use of lignocellulosic biomass as raw material for the generation of bioenergy has received a considerable attention for the development of sustainable ways for production of energy. Most of the researches conducted for biomass conversion technologies heads towards discovery of advanced ways to produce energy fuels so as to tackle its shortage that the world is facing. Also, the studies are aimed towards reduction of greenhouse gases and other harmful effects posed by fossil fuels to the environment.
From above, it can be concluded that biomass is a green source of energy in recent times. The study also indicated that thermochemical and biochemical technologies for the conversion of biomass into different energy products was started several decades ago, but it slowed down due to the discovery of fossil fuels. The biomass conversion technologies gained momentum recently due the fact that it is clean, sustainable and renewable source of energy.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
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\\n\\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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