\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Although there is some ambiguity in the definitions of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion, the term concussion usually refers to a milder head injury (GCS = 15) and generally used in the context of sport-related injuries while mTBI are a broader term that includes concussion [3]. Concussions have become an international public health concern and it is estimated that about 42 million people suffer from some form of mTBI every year [4]. In the US alone, it is estimated that 1.6–3.8 million mTBI occur each year [5] and approximately 5–10% of the population will experience a concussion in their lives [6]. Some populations, like military personnel, are at a higher risk for concussions and mTBI. It is estimated that approximately 19.5–22.8% of all returning deployed US troops suffer exposure to blast and/or concussive TBI [7].
\nThe pathophysiology of concussion has been studied in great detail, yet it is one of the least understood injuries facing the neuroscience or sports medicine community [8]. It is hypothesized that acceleration/deceleration and rotational forces cause diffuse injury to the neurons, which causes an ionic imbalance and release of a cascade of neurotransmitters [9, 10, 11]. To restore homeostasis, membrane pumps become activated which results in a brief hyper-metabolic state. Lactate is produced, which further impairs neuronal function [12]. Intra-axonal alterations within in the subaxolemmal, neurofilament, and microtubular cytoskeleton network with impairment of axonal transport as well as impaired glucose metabolism have been observed in the acute and subacute phase after mTBI, which support the hypothesis of metabolic and cellular disruptions in the brain [13].
\nThe typical duration of clinical recovery in majority of concussions is 7–10 days, but it is estimated that 10% [14] to 30% [15] of adolescents and 10–15% [16, 17] of adults take much longer to recover. These statistics have ranged from 5% to more than 50% in the published literature; the primary cause of this variation is due to the different criteria used to measure dysfunction [18]. If symptoms persist for more than 2 weeks in adults, or 1 month in adolescents, then the diagnosis of post-concussion syndrome (PCS) is made [19]. However, this terminology is incorrect because technically it is not a
Self-reported symptom checklist have been used to report the symptoms of a concussion, the most common being the post-concussion symptom scale (PCSS) [24]. It is a list of 22-symptoms, which can be rated on a Likert scale (no symptom to severe symptom), with a maximum possible score of 132. Unfortunately, these symptoms are not specific to concussions or PCS and the healthy population has an average score of 6 out of 132 [25], hence several studies use the cutoff of 7 on the PCSS to diagnose concussion and PCS [22]. However, there is no symptom cutoff limit that can reliably identify people with concussion and/or PCS. One study [26] showed this cutoff criterion (7 out of 132) incorrectly labeled 34% of healthy people with PCS, which is higher than people with a concussive head injury (31%). Self-reported symptom checklists have also been criticized because there is variation in symptom reporting between people. Athletes are known to under-report their symptoms, whereas people with secondary gain are known to over-report them [27]. Another potential downside of symptom checklists is that it is suggested to reinforce illness behavior and encourages over-endorsement of symptoms that might not otherwise have been reported on free recall [28, 29]. Still, this is a useful tool for clinicians because it helps track symptoms longitudinally, so it is always advised to compare symptom reports with previous ones. Another popular symptom checklist is the post-concussion symptom inventory (PCSI), it has an added benefit which allows patients to report symptoms before and after head injury which makes is easier for clinicians to interpret its findings [30].
\nPCS have been subcategorized based on their predominant pathophysiology as shown in Figure 1 [31, 32]. These classifications may overlap as it is possible to have one or more associated conditions after a head injury. Physiological PCS are believed to be true concussions because these patients typically present with minimal physical examination abnormalities but can have signs of oculomotor and/or vestibular dysfunction. They often complain of cognitive fatigue, headaches, and balance problems [33], but the most objective biomarker of physiological dysfunction is symptom-limited exercise intolerance at a low heart rate [34]. These patients have worsening of existing symptoms, or onset of new symptoms, when they begin to exercise. This exacerbation occurs at below 70% of their age appropriate maximum heart rate [32]. The pathophysiology of this type of PCS will be discussed later in more detail.
\nPost-concussion syndrome subtypes. Classification of the different types of PCS based on predominant clinical signs and symptoms.
Vestibulo-ocular and cervicogenic PCS are not true concussions since they do not involve global metabolic disturbance of brain function, rather post-traumatic disorders of isolated subsystems from which the symptoms originate, i.e., the central oculomotor and vestibular systems and upper cervical spine respectively [35]. They present with predominantly vestibulo-ocular/cervical signs and symptoms, respectively, and may demonstrate exercise intolerance during graded treadmill testing, but symptom exacerbation typically occurs at a significantly greater workload (beyond 70% of age-predicted maximum heart rate) than in physiological PCS [34]. This late symptom exacerbation is thought to be due to stress on the vestibular/ocular systems or excessive motion of the cervical spine characteristic of walking/running at higher workloads. Abnormal physical examination findings that point towards a vestibular or ocular pathology, such as smooth pursuits, repetitive saccades, vestibulo-ocular reflex, near point convergence (binocular vision), abnormal accommodation (monocular vision), and benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, are present in almost 70% of patient with mTBI [36, 37]. Clinical predictors of vestibulo-ocular PCS include female sex, pre-injury depression, post-traumatic amnesia, history of motion sickness, dizziness, blurred vision, and difficulty focusing at the time of injury [38, 39]. The neck and suboccipital regions are also frequently involved in head injuries and can cause headaches, persistent dizziness, and balance difficulties [40]. Isolated persistent dysfunction (beyond the normal duration of recovery) may suggest lesions in cranial nerves, their nuclei, or the brain stem, and are associated with prolonged recovery [41]. These overlapping symptoms make the diagnosis of PCS difficult and it is possible that patients with physiological PCS can also have isolated dysfunction in the vestibular, ocular, and cervical systems at the same time.
\nThe last subtype, mood-related PCS, presents with symptoms that are primarily affective and/or cognitive in nature, have minimal physical examination signs, and are capable of exercising to exhaustion without significant symptom exacerbation. The management of this sub-type is challenging, even for an experienced concussion expert, because of the extensive overlap with symptoms of primary mood disorders. The most recent concussion in sport group (CISG) guidelines recommend a multidisciplinary team approach to treatment that may involve a psychiatrist, a psychologist and/or a neuropsychologist [21]. Other disorders, such as chronic post-traumatic headaches and migraines, are treated in a similar fashion and should be referred to their corresponding specialist, i.e., a neurologist.
\nThe duration of recovery is suggested to be longer for females with males recovering in an average of 7–10 days where as females recovering in an average of 14 days [21]. Healthy females at baseline are also reported to have higher symptom severity on concussion symptom scales than healthy males [42]. A study [43] suggests that adolescent females were more likely to be diagnosed with PCS due to increased symptom load as well as the duration of symptoms because males returned to being asymptomatic by the fourth week of recovery, missing the PCS diagnostic criteria. Another study suggests the female sex to be a significant predictor of prolonged PCS, which they described as symptoms that lasted for more than 3 months [44]. Interestingly, the same study found this association to be more prominent between the ages of 14 and 56, which is characterized by drastic fluctuations of hormone levels. This calls into question the role of female sex hormones in recovery trajectories and symptom resolution. Some critics have suggested that the above theories overestimate sex effect on PCS, suggesting that the increased relative rates of females entering PCS and experiencing PCS symptoms are more often due to differing societal pressures and perceived stigma experienced by the sexes causing many males to perceive their symptoms as resolved [45, 46].
\nA topic of more recent research is the morphological and structural differences in females that could predict PCS. It has been well established by the literature that female athletes, given equal exposure and risk, are more likely to sustain a concussion [47]. The reasoning behind a female’s increased vulnerability is still under debate, with decreased neck girth and differences in play style all seeming to play a role [48, 49]. A recently [50] identified difference in female brains is decreased axon size and density. This decreased axon size complimented with an increased density of axonal fibers could predispose females to having more severe consequences than males when given the same impact. More research in the cellular differences between males and females could address the differences observed in PCS incidence.
\nCurrently, the ICD-10 states that no advanced imaging methods can diagnose a concussion [21], but some studies have shown that certain types of PCS have observable differences from each other on advanced imaging. PCS patients with neuropsychiatric complains have significant differences than PCS patients without them. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies [51] have shown decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) in the superior longitudinal fasciculus, vermis, and white matter around the nucleus accumbens and anterior limb of the internal capsule which correlates to symptoms of depression and anxiety. A larger meta-analysis [52] showed patients who had predominantly cognitive/affective symptoms 1 month post-mTBI had significantly increased FA and reduced mean diffusivity (MD) than those with other symptoms. Increased FA indicates faster unidirectional flow within neurons and decreased MD indicates better axonal integrity [53], which is surprising after the brain is injured. Another way to interpret these findings is that there is more activity within each neuron, which is more consistent with the hypothesized post-mTBI hyper-metabolic state described above. Long-term changes have also been shown to occur after mTBI and PCS. A study [54] that longitudinally assessed regional brain volumes at 1 month post-injury and again at 1 year post-injury. They found significant reductions in the anterior cingulate white matter, left cingulate gyrus isthmus white matter, and right precuneal gray matter. The reduction in left cingulate gyrus isthmus correlated with clinical scores on anxiety and depression, which is a prominent symptom of PCS. Similarly, electrophysiology studies have also provided evidence for this. Electroencephalographic (EEG) studies [55] have shown altered frontal-alpha asymmetry and beta asymmetry in patients who self-reported depression/anxiety and anger post-mTBI respectively. A magneto-encephalography study [56] has reported high accuracy in identifying patients with mTBI, with a much higher reliability for blast injuries. More research is warranted to identify imaging biomarkers that can diagnose mTBI, the different PCS sub-types, as well as their recovery.
\nThe Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) control centers are located in the brainstem and can be damaged when rotational forces are applied to the upper cervical spine [57]. This damage has been confirmed in a recent DTI study [58] in patients with PCS, with PCS patient displaying a significantly higher percent high and low voxels upon follow up scan. The ANS dysfunction could be due to damage to these centers are/or due to uncoupling of these centers and cardiovascular system [8, 59]. This may cause reduced heart rate variability, a measure of sympathovagal reactivity. This stunted reactivity has been documented at rest and during exercise in the acute phase after concussions, as well as several months after [60]. Cardiovascular dysfunction in PCS may manifest as symptoms of orthostatic hypotension, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome, and altered heart rate and blood pressure responses at rest and during exercise, all which are common in PCS [31]. Studies have also shown abnormal ANS function, as assessed by heart rate variability metrics, when moving from rest to a state of increased metabolic demand in PCS, and this dysfunction can persist even after the patient is clinically recovered [61].
\nPatients with acute concussions and PCS have also been found to have higher rates of sympathetic nervous system output than controls, as exemplified by higher resting heart rates [62] and higher heart rates during cognitive [63] and physical exercise [64]. A study done on acutely concussed adults showed a blunted parasympathetic response to stimuli, with concussed athletes showing a stunted mean arterial pressure and first-minute high frequency power rise when compared to controls, as well as altogether lack of significant changes in heart rate upon face cooling [65]. This abnormal sympathovagal imbalance may help explain some of the clinical symptoms of PCS. One example is sleep disturbances in PCS because it involves activation of the parasympathetic drive [66]. This increased sympathetic drive may interfere with the onset and maintenance of sleep [67].
\nThe brain needs a constant perfusion pressure, i.e., the supply of blood and nutrients, irrespective of changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) or systemic blood pressure. Increases or decreases in CBF are detected by a series of receptors which provide local and systemic responses [68]. Local responses include constriction or dilation of cerebral blood vessels and systemic responses include altering the cardiac contractibility and systemic blood pressure. This protects the brain from changes in sympathetic nerve activity, mean arterial blood pressure, and arterial CO2 levels [69]. Of relevance to physiological PCS, the ANS controls the CBF response to exercise which is suspected to be the cause of symptom exacerbation on physical exertion [70]. Evidence to support this hypothesis includes lower resting global CBF detected beyond symptom recovery using MR-angiography, with 64% of sport-related concussion patients showing CBF improvements within 30 days [71, 72], and regional alterations in resting CBF in patients with PCS [73, 74, 75]. Taken together, there is an abundance of evidence that cerebral autoregulation is impaired in PCS, a likely explanation for many physiological PCS symptoms.
\nFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have also been used to assess patients with concussion and PCS. fMRI can assess task-evoked blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) responses either during resting state or during cognitive tasks [76]. PCS patients have cognitive intolerance so it logical to assess for differences in activation/inactivation during cognitive tasks. Changes in regional deoxyhemoglobin concentrations can also been assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) [77]. Abnormal CBF regulation should lead to differences in BOLD responses in the PCS brain so research is currently being done to find objective biomarkers for PCS. Unfortunately, the literature is not decisive [78]. Studies have shown decreased BOLD activity in thalamus and hypothalamus as well as frontal/temporal regions but increased functional connectivity in certain brain circuits including enhanced thalami-cortical functional connectivity based on resting-state BOLD responses in TBI patients in comparison to healthy controls. There could be several reasons for these differences, it could be due to the multiple sub-types of PCS, some causing an increases response whereas other causing a decreased response, or due to the time since injury with acute cases showing more activation due to neuro-metabolic activity and chronic cases showing decreased activity. More research is warranted to understand the pathophysiology of CBF autoregulation disturbances in PCS.
\nIntra-cranial pressure (ICP) is the pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space and is between 7 and 15 mmHg in a healthy supine adult and -10 mmHg in the standing position [79]. Since the brain is inside a stiff skull with fixed volume, an increase in ICP could lead to impaired CBF and is an important cause of secondary insult due to ischemia [80, 81]. ICP can be measured using direct and indirect methods. Direct methods, such as intraventricular catheter, are invasive, have high risk of complications and are not justified for mTBI [82]. Indirect methods, like ultrasonographic or ophthalmological, are noninvasive but have a downside of being less sensitive and less reliable [83]. Increased ICP has already been documented in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and their treatment includes monitoring and normalization of the ICP. Due to the mild nature of mTBI, directly measured ICP has not been studied in much detail in this population but there is one systematic review that suggests a prolonged increase in ICP after an mTBI and recommends further research [84]. One particular study [85] of interest used intravenous hypertonic 3% saline on acutely concussed patients. Hypertonic saline is a commonly used pharmacotherapy for treatment of increased ICP and its efficacy has been documented in moderate to severe forms of TBI [81, 86, 87, 88, 89]. The study showed a significant decrease in concussion-specific symptoms after an infusion of hypertonic saline but did not measure ICP, hence the ICP response to hypertonic saline is an assumption. More research needs to be done in PCS to investigate this possible alternate method of treatment.
\nNeuroinflammation is the inflammation of nervous tissue and is present in several pathological conditions such as infection, injury, autoimmunity, toxicity and aging [90]. The central nervous system (CNS) has its own native cells, the microglia and astrocytes, capable of initiating the inflammatory response [91, 92, 93]. While neuroinflammation is recognized to promote protective and regenerative effects by activating alternative pathways, persistent neuroinflammation is considered detrimental in several diseases and is an area of interest in several neurodegenerative diseases [94]. Among the several inflammatory mediators released after TBI, some of the most researched include tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) [95] and interleukin-1β [96]. TNFα has been shown to be produced early after experimental mTBI, generally returning to baseline levels within 24 hours of injury. Mice with dysfunctional TNFα systems have prolonged recovery (2–3 weeks versus >4 weeks), increased cell damage, and increased blood brain barrier permeability (BBB) with the extent of BBB breach being 0.9mm3 greater in TNFα receptor lacking mice after TBI [97, 98]. However, the literature on TNFα role in mTBI is controversial. Older studies have shown that inhibition of TNFα after mTBI in animal models can be beneficial by improving neurological outcome, motor function recovery, and decreasing edema size [99, 100]. However, a newer study has shown that TNFα knockout mice performed poorly when compared to wild type mice after concussive brain injury [101]. The authors of that study also concluded that TNFα inhibition influence cognitive deficits independent of mTBI so these therapies are not appropriate for mTBI.
\nTreatment of concussion and PCS has changed significantly over that past decade. The previous standard of care used to be complete physical and cognitive rest with a high degree of social isolation until symptoms resolve [102]. This “rest is best” model of care was supported by evidence that showed that the brain is vulnerable immediately after a concussion with cognitive or physical stress [12] and excessing physical activity [103, 104] would prolong the recovery. Forced aerobic exercise imposed upon rodents within 2 weeks of fluid percussion-simulated concussion was shown to be detrimental to recovery of cognitive function. However, exercise administered three or more weeks after injury in rodents was beneficial to both. A recent randomized controlled trial in humans compared prolonged rest to a short period of rest followed by a step-wise return to activity and found that the strict rest group reported more daily symptoms and a prolonged duration of recovery [105]. Another observational study suggests that moderate levels of physical activity, specifically aerobic exercise, within the first week after injury reduces the incidence of PCS in children and adolescents [15]. This growing body of evidence has changed the management of concussions and PCS and the most recent CISG guidelines [21] recommend a short period of rest (24–48 hours) post-injury, followed by a graded return to sub-threshold activity. There have been more studies [106] that have shown the benefits of early sub-threshold aerobic activity in concussion and PCS since guideline came out. A recent randomized controlled trial [107] of over a hundred acutely concussed adolescents showed a significant reduction in recovery time from a median of 17 days in the placebo group to a median of 13 days in the aerobic exercise group (p = 0.006). This study is a turning point and will affect the approach to concussion treatment worldwide [108].
\nThere are several theories why light to moderate levels of exercise can improve recovery from PCS. The neurocognitive benefits of exercise, such as attenuation of cognitive impairment and reduction of dementia risk in humans, have been known for years [109]. The proposed mechanism of brain health is due to the action of factors that promote neuron growth and repair. Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of these factors that increase hippocampal volume and improves spatial memory [110]. BDNF levels have been shown to increase after exercise in animals [109] which has provided pre-clinical support for the observation that patients with PPCS recover much faster with sub-threshold aerobic exercise treatment [29]. In humans, studies have shown that exercise increases BDNF level as early as 5–6 weeks after initiation of aerobic training, which has a positive influence on brain neuroplasticity [111, 112]. In regards of CBF regulation, physical deconditioning from prolonged rest has been shown to impair CBF regulation [113], which is already impaired in PCS as discussed above, whereas exercise has been shown to be beneficial in improving CBF regulation [114]. The rapidity of the beneficial effect of exercise on neuroplasticity suggests improved neuronal function rather than reduced cerebrovascular disease risk being the cause for increased brain health and function. An interesting finding is that not all light to moderate exercise causes an increase in BDNF. Rats who were “forced” to exercise after concussion did not increase BDNF levels and showed an increase in stress hormone levels, which was not seen in rats who exercised voluntarily [115, 116]. This emphasizes the benefits of voluntary, sub-symptom threshold exercise during PCS.
\nCurrently, there are no pharmacological therapies that are recommended for PCS [117]. Several pharmacological therapies have been researched but there is not enough empirical evidence to suggest their efficacy. A randomized controlled trial [118] studied the effects of the anti-Parkinson drug, amantadine, in adolescents with PCS and found that it significantly improved symptomology and cognitive function (as assessed by a computerized neurocognitive test). However, more evidence is needed to recommend these therapies. Psychostimulants such as methylphenidate and amphetamines, have been considered as pharmacological therapies for cognitive dysfunction after PCS [117]. This is based on studies that have proven their efficacy in moderate and severe forms of TBI [119, 120, 121]. Research is required on patients with mTBI before it can be recommended for PCS.
\nThere has been an increase in the awareness of long-term consequences of repetitive concussions and PCS since the discovery of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in a retired American football player in 2005 [122]. CTE is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by significant emotional disturbances, cognitive decline, and deposition of Tau proteins in the brain [123]. The Tau proteinopathy seen in CTE is different from the Tau proteinopathy seen in Alzheimer’s disease because it is found widespread in the frontal and temporal lobes [124], as opposed to localization in the limbic system in Alzheimer’s. There is no uncertainty that CTE is caused by repetitive head injuries, and has been described as early at 1928 in boxers [125], and the increased awareness of long-term consequences of repetitive head injuries, concussive or sub-concussive, have made it a popular topic in the media and research. The National Institutes of Health held a consensus meeting in 2016 with the aim of defining the neuropathological criteria for CTE diagnosis [126]. They blindly evaluated 25 cases of various tau proteinopathies, including CTE and a number of dementing brain diseases, and the results demonstrated reasonably good agreement and improved specificity to the diagnosis of CTE.
\nThere is some controversy in the incidence rate of CTE and if the presence of tau protein represents trauma-induced CTE versus normal deposits as a result of age and other life factors [127]. Some researchers suggest a very high incidence of CTE in anyone who participated in a contact sport, with rates as high as 75–99% [124, 128]. All of these studies have been done by post-mortem analysis of brain tissue, which is currently the only way to definitely diagnose CTE [129]. However, several studies have been performed since 2017 which have brought uncertainty to the clinical manifestations and incidence of CTE, i.e., the patterns of behavior and cognitive deficits experienced by the living individual affected by CTE. Retired contact-sport athletes have be shown to have no differences in cognition [130, 131], mild cognitive impairment [132], executive function [133], or structural or functional brain differences [134]. This suggests that although Tau proteins may deposit in the brain after head-injuries, they do not causes significant decrease in function unless it is very severe.
\nPCS is a complex disorder and its pathophysiology is not clearly understood. There are no symptoms, or group of symptoms, that can accurately diagnose PCS. Females may be at a higher risk of developing PCS than male. Although there are no advanced imaging biomarkers for PCS, some studies present differences in those patients who predominantly complain of mood-related or cognitive symptoms when compared with other sub-types of PCS. Longitudinal changes in the brain have been identified in PCS up to 1 year since concussive head injury. ANS dysfunction is observed in PCS, which could be due to damage to the ANS control centers located in the hindbrain or uncoupling of the connections between the central ANS and cardiovascular system. Abnormal cardiovascular metrics suggest ANS dysfunction and impaired CBF regulation, which may explain the characteristic finding of symptom-limited exercise intolerance in physiological PCS. Functional imaging, like fMRI, has shown differences between healthy people and patients with PCS, but these differences are not consistent in the literature. Long term consequences of PCS or repetitive concussions include CTE, but the clinical manifestations of CTE need to be studied in greater detail. Therapies for PCS include sub-threshold aerobic exercise, which may increase neuroplasticity and decrease neuroinflammation through release of BDNF. More research needs to be done to identify objective biomarkers of concussion, PCS, and recovery, as well as therapies for PCS.
\nResearch reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the National Institutes of Health under award number 1R01NS094444. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
\nThe author does not declare any conflicts of interest.
Regenerative agriculture is a farming and land management concept based on several principles and techniques that strengthen and restore ecosystem functions and health. Long-term usage of regenerative agriculture has shown many benefits in terms of quality and profitability for farmers, as well as improving the environment and contributing to the maintenance of a healthy agricultural landscape. Given that it is not always very clear how each action contributes to better agricultural management and drought mitigation, this chapter aims to recall the key elements that farmers must consider in regenerative agriculture in order to have the best results. It should be noted that there is more than one approach that may differ depending on local circumstances, however, the elements described in this chapter serve as a starting point for practitioners and academics who wish to learn more or deepen one of the related domains.
The existence of life is largely dependent on the richness and health of soils, which is why soil structure, together with water availability are the most valuable resources for humanity. The annual degradation of the agricultural lands puts even more pressure on farmers, forcing them to use more chemical inputs and these practices may eventually lead to extreme phenomena such as drought, floods, and eventually soil abandonment [1]. However, both farmers and policymakers continue to be neglecting the need for soil health preservation and they do not take firm restoration measures even when the situation becomes concerning.
Water, minerals, and organic matter combine to make the soil in a natural process. Soil minerals are produced in the process of natural erosion, while the organic matter is formed by the decomposition of plants and other organisms that have died. Many scientists consider soiling a finite resource that cannot be renewed during a human lifespan. We propose, in the present chapter, several techniques used and validated for faster restoration of soil properties, which may help recovery in very shorter time periods, depending on the degree of soil impairment.
Degraded soil is described as a change in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that results in a reduced capacity to support plant growth. The most common phenomena that usually occur are related to the fact that soil loses the capacity to deliver nutrients and water, while toxic compounds restrict plant growth, topsoil lacks of organic matter content, subsoil resources are insufficient to support plant roots, the compaction rate is substantially increased, drainage occurs with difficulty, and many of the needed microorganisms are absent.
In most common cases, the quality of the soil decreases as a result of the anthropogenic intervention, while some natural causes are aggravating the circumstances, often leading to erosion. Human activity is the most frequent cause of agricultural soil degradation and for accelerating natural soil erosion. Agriculture has deteriorated the Earth’s soils during the last 100 years, with disastrous consequences, David R. Montgomery [2] estimates that humanity is losing 0.3% of our global food production each year due to soil erosion and degradation. Soil degradation and loss has been a problem since the beginning of agriculture and played a major role in the demise of past civilization including Mesopotamia, Antic Greece, and the Rome Empire. The element that contributes probably the most to the negative damage to the soil, more important even than deforestation is the plowing activity. Stanford University in a study from 2015 estimated the degradation rate of topsoil worldwide at a rate of 70%, with margins between 54% in Africa and 74% in North America [3]. At this time, there is no allotted restoration period, since we are eroding soil 20 times faster than we are regenerating it.
Degraded soils have a poor health state, reducing the ecosystem’s ability to provide water and nutrients to plants, and affecting the soil nutrient web. Degraded soils have a weak structure attributable to a lack of soil biodiversity, which causes flooding, erosion, and low production. Water cannot penetrate inferior soil structures, so the rains follow the flow of gravity, transporting major amounts of minerals and salts to the groundwater, rivers, or lakes. During a drought period, there will be no moisture, and groundwater will not be replenished easily. Plants will be stressed, and yields will decrease very fast. In the tropics especially on fertile land, soil deterioration is prevalent. Natural erosion caused by wind, sun, severe rainfall, and poor human management are the most common causes.
It is critical to understand that poor agricultural management before and during a drought has a synergetic effect on soil properties. Land degradation in arid, semiarid, and sub-humid areas may be generated by various external factors including climate change, and draught may lead to desertification. Desertification may be irreversible if not intervened in time, especially when the environment becomes too dry and the soil becomes further degraded through erosion and compaction.
One of the most important hazardous environmental events in recent history was the American Dust Bowl during the years 1930–1936, when large dust storms swept topsoil from significant land areas, making 75% of the original topsoil quality to be lost [4]. Commenting on the American Dust Bowl, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt said “The nation that destroys its soil, destroys itself”, a remark that is still relevant to modern crop management practices.
Storms, torrential rains, floods, and droughts are becoming more frequent and intense as a result of climate change. Every year, soil deterioration worsens, plants get stressed, and yields decrease. Soil management is, therefore, an essential element of sustainable agriculture.
Proper regenerative soil management will slow down or stop soil degradation and start to rebuild soil fertility. Management should be focused on obtaining healthy and superior plants that do not need intense chemical treatments since it is proven that a high immunity system protects crops from diseases and insect attacks. Increasing plant immunity will be pointed out in high yields, quality products, plants will get increased resistance to diseases and pest attacks. At the same time soil will become healthier, full of nutrients with an active and rich soil food web. Healthy soils with a balanced nutrients ratio, promote biological high activity and replenish groundwater, and will help the plants to withstand better the drought. To stop soil degradation, special attention must be paid to the phenomena that produce natural erosion, and rejuvenate the soil, while human activities have to change rapidly. Soil regeneration practices sequester an important part of the required amount of carbon in the soil, allowing mankind to maintain control over climate change. Soil carbon allows the land structure to function as a sponge, each gram of carbon-absorbing 8 grams of water. In addition to the positive effect on the mineralization process, carbon helps to build the soil structure, which aids in the supply of air, water, and nutrients to plants. Plants, in response, emit liquid carbon from their roots, increasing, even more, the synergies and water absorption. This phenomenon occurs more frequently when aggressive tilling works are avoided, and the synthetic fertilizer and synthetic biocides application are not used. The techniques, if they are applied indiscriminately have the opposite result, eliminating the carbon. Figure 1 depicts the most common approach to regenerative agriculture at three levels of management: acknowledge the objectives and benefits, comprehend the fundamental concepts, and put the best practices into action.
A simplified approach to regenerative agriculture implementation.
Regenerative agriculture requires a complete redesign of the farming system, as well as a shift in the procedures and metrics used in traditional agriculture, and a longer-term commitment of farmers.
FAO [5] defines soil degradation as a change in the soil health status, resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries. Degraded soils have a state of health that prevents them from generating the standard products and services in a given ecosystem. Soil degradation is caused by unfavorable interaction between physical, biological, and chemical soil characteristics, accelerating erosion, and leading to poor drainage, salinization, nutrient imbalance, decrease in soil organic matter, and suppressing biology. Physical soil deterioration includes changes in soil structure (crusting, compaction, etc.), imbalance in water content and air ratio, leading to extreme surface temperatures. Chemical soil deterioration includes nutrient leaching, fertility depletion, or even toxicity. Biological deterioration includes a decrease in the microorganism population and a drop in their activity, as well as, a severe reduction of organic matter content. Degraded soil is being studied at specialist institutions in nearly every country, and warnings are coming from all across the scientific world [6, 7, 8].
Major causes of soil degradation are divided into natural, as climate variations (soil degradation caused by wind, sun, drought, or heavy rains favoring the fertile soil to be washed away) and anthropogenic activities (overgrazing, deforestation, excessive use of chemicals fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, bare soils, excess of tillage, overdraft of groundwater, etc.) [9].
Conventional agriculture is considered to be one of the biggest contributors to soil degradation [10]. After Second World War, the Chemical Industry provide agriculture with new and advanced chemical formulas used as fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. The first results showed great success for everyone; however, the long-term effects were not anticipated since they have affected over time the soil structure and soil food web. Over few decades, the soil became degraded, plants are now mostly unhealthy, animals and humans experience unexplained medical conditions, and yields are going down every year. Chemicals use and tillage technology are producing the most detrimental influence on soil deterioration; as a result, their usage must be closely monitored and, if possible, avoided.
Farmers, working in conventional agriculture, that usually apply intensive chemical technologies, come across many harmful practices like those described below. The practices described in this section aim to draw attention to the most common activities that farmers do voluntarily or unknowingly, which may lead to soil degradation and floods.
In Romania only a few farmers perform soil analysis annually, the majority of them use a standardized technology learned from books or advice from chemical companies. Soil parameters analyzed in a laboratory report do not contain enough information, the evaluation gives most often information regarding land chemistry, but ignores several important physical and biological properties. Sustainable agriculture changes the view of soil performance and soil quality [11]. Farmers need to invest more in complete soil assessment and perform some measurements by themselves, like soil acidity (pH) or soil conductivity (EC). The Haney report is another good analysis report that offers information about soil health, microbial respiration, water-extractable organic carbon, water-extractable nitrogen, etc. Haney soil test report offers farmers additional values to improve plant-available nutrients and estimate the soil health as related to carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) cycling [12].
Topsoil is being washed and lose its properties, microorganisms die, while its structure degrades. Uncovered soil favors natural soil erosion generated by rains, sun, or wind [13]. Soil loss of moisture and high soil temperature suppress bacteria and fungi living in the soil. In this environment, weeds germinate easily, and farmers cannot control them without using highly aggressive herbicides [14].
Tillage works as plowing and disking suppress the fungi network, appear losses the soil moisture, and may destroy soil structure [15]. Plowing is creating the hardpan at 15–30 cm deep. Hardpan is a compact layer of soil below the soil surface that inhibits roots movements through the soil [16]. Water is moving gravitationally on the hardpan, forming ponds, and soil gets salted [17].
Synthetic fertilizers suppress biology [18], contributing to soil compacting, loss of fertility, and humus total rate decrease. Plants are using only 15–30% of total inorganic fertilizers, while the rest is leaching in lakes, rivers, groundwater, etc. Accumulation of nitrogen in groundwater has different sources, being caught in irrigation lakes [19, 20]. As groundwater is the main source of drinking water, contamination poses several human health problems. At present in the United States of America, there are used 20 times more chemicals than in the American Dust Bowl period, and soil degradation continues dramatically.
Using in excess a specific nutrient especially N in a cation form, inhibits absorbing others nutrients cations as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na). The nutrient balance is one of the most important factors in plant nutrition [21, 22, 23], when plants receive too much N, during a 24 h photosynthesis process, N under forms of nitrate (NO3) or ammonium (NH4), is not transformed into proteins and became attractive for insects [24]. Excesses of N develop elongation, delay maturity, change biochemistry, cause plant stress and make plants vulnerable to drought [25].
Monoculture is not resilient to climate change, soil is losing carbon, while carbon dioxide (CO2) is increasing in the atmosphere. Monoculture is a source of scarcity because the diversity principle is strongly affected [26]. Monoculture combined with bare soil practices decreases the fertility of agricultural lands dramatically [27].
Groundwater overdraft is related to a dry aquifer, loss of water in streams and lakes, soil compacting, and polluted groundwater [27, 28].
If the biology of the soil is ignored in drought years, is a major problem, since the soil loses nutrients and water, putting plants under a high level of stress. The plant’s nature enables to fill in the gap of water and nutrients. In recent decades, scientists from many laboratories have studied the interactions between microorganisms and plants, and they have concluded that the soil food web plays the most important role in plant nutrition [29].
In the last decades’ scientific reports demonstrated that micronutrients are as important as major elements, the only difference is the needed quantity. Micronutrient deficiency is widespread in the world due to low organic matter, bicarbonate content in irrigation water, long time of drought, and imbalanced application of fertilizers. Micronutrients application contribute to plant health, soil health, and increase yield by up to 15–50% [30, 31, 32].
There is no special interest nowadays in the quality of the products obtained in conventional agriculture [33]. Healthy plants that are resistant to illnesses, insect attacks, and drought are used to produce high-quality products, while also improving yields. Highly nutritional plants have a substantial positive impact on soil health [34], animal, and human health.
Regenerative Agriculture is organic agriculture, using only natural available resources. In organic agriculture, farmers are certified if they produce non-GMO plants without using synthetic chemicals, approaching soil conservation and preservation for biodiversity. Farmers are allowed to use only inputs from certified organic agriculture. In 2018, at Rodale Institute was introduced for the first time a new higher standard for the farmers working in a regenerative system called Regenerative Organic Certified (ROC) [35]. Regenerative Agriculture is the way to sustainable farming practice, regenerate soil fertility, grow healthy plants that create healthy soils, less sensible to draught. Using methods from Regenerative Agriculture technology, carbon is sequestered in the soil, soil structure and soil fertility improve, water retention, and crop yield increase, while drought and flood ameliorate [36]. Regenerative agriculture can be defined by a holistic system approach that starts with the soil characteristics and also includes the health of the plants, animals, farmers, and community. The main aims envisage to regenerate topsoil, restoring degraded soil biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, improving water cycling and improving the resilience of soil to extreme weather. Regenerative Agriculture focuses on improving soil health by following four main mandatory principles and one optional. All specialists in Regenerative Agriculture accept the four principles that include soil cover, living roots, biodiversity, and minimalizing soil disturbance. The last principle which is the integration of animals is partially accepted and can be even more important in a few specific situations.
Everything plants need is cycled by soil microorganisms before becoming available to plants’ roots. Earth life is based on photosynthesis, a process that transforms photonic energy into chemical energy. It varies, depending on the availability of light, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll concentration, and plant nutrition. Photosynthesis is the most efficient cycle and sustainable process in nature [37, 38], and it is the engine we can rely in Regenerative Agriculture. Farmers know that water, nitrogen, and high-temperature influence the photosynthesis process. During drought, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration process, when are consuming their reserve of proteins [39]. To avoid this happening, proper management has to be used that optimize nutrition. When monitoring fields frequently, one should notice nature needs [40].
Only a limited mechanical, chemical, and physical disturbance of soil is permitted. Tillage destroys soil structure, resulting in bare or compacted soil that is destructive to soil microorganisms and creates a hostile environment for them. Soil stability is a quantitative indicator of soil health that is based on a mix of biotic and abiotic soil parameters. The impact of physic and chemical qualities on soil resistance and resilience is mediated by the microbial community [41]. Living organisms in soil improve the structure, create pore spaces that allow water and air to infiltrate the soil. Intensive tillage destroys macro and microorganism habitat, disrupt the fungi hyphae and soil aggregate.
Synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides suppress life in the soil, having a negative impact on soil fertility. Inputs application disrupts the symbiotic relationships between fungi, bacteria, and plants roots. Overgrazing is a form of biological disturbance that reduces roots mass, increases soil temperature and runoff. All forms of soil disturbances affect microorganisms and diminish the soil food web.
The principle is oriented toward keeping soil covered at all times, especially by setting up cover crops or intercropping. This is a critical step toward rebuilding soil health because bare soil is not a normal state, nature always works to cover the soil surface. When providing a natural vegetal shield, the soil is protected from wind and water erosion, while providing foods and a habitat for macro- and microorganisms [42]. It will also prevent moisture evaporation, reduces temperature, intercepts raindrops, and reduces germination of weed seeds. Soil cover offers a habitat for soil food web members that spend some of their time above ground. Keeping the soil cover on allows microorganisms to break down leftovers while recycling nutrients back into the soil.
Nature aims for the diversity of both plant and animal species. Farmers should do the same, since monocultures are present only where humans have established them. The preservation, conservation, and restoring biodiversity should be a priority nowadays. Biodiversity is a major determinant in ecosystem stability, productivity, and nutrients dynamics. High diversity can be twice as productive as monoculture [43]. Different plant species use carbohydrates to feed certain microorganisms in return for water and nutrients via their roots. Biodiversity of plants is required to support the biodiversity of microbes. Each microorganism plays a specific role in maintaining soil health, and diversity enhances ecosystem functioning [44]. The key to improving soil health consists in a soil food web that is populated with several types of plants and animals. A fully functioning soil food web provides nutrients, water, energy, and allows the soil to express its full potential. The diversity has to be increased using crop rotation and cover crops.
Living roots have to be maintained in soil as long as possible because they are feeding soil biology by providing basic food source carbohydrates [45]. This biology feeds plants with water and nutrients, having the capacity to store nutrients and water that will be provided during drought. Farmers within conventional agriculture used to think there are 120 days to rest soil until the growing season. It is now considered wrong since living plants continue growing into early winter and break biological dormancy earlier in the spring. Their roots are feeding soil organisms and keep the biological population at a high rate. Healthy soil is dependent upon how well the food web is fed. Providing food to soil microbes helps them cycle nutrients that plants needed to grow.
Nature does not function well without animal organisms. Integrated livestock into an operation provides many benefits. The major benefit is that grazing stimulates the plants to pump more carbon into the soil. This drives nutrient cycling by feeding biology, also has a major positive impact on climate change by cycling more carbon out of the atmosphere and putting it into the ground. Pasture cropping is another way of practicing regenerative agriculture for growing food and restoring degraded soil. Farmers should provide a home and habitat not only for farm animals but also for pollinators, predator insects, earthworms, and all the microbiology that drive ecosystem function.
Monitoring the field every day is also a key factor in keeping plants healthy. Checking the soil compaction, earthworm activity, soil structure, erosion risks, poor crop growth, etc., and keeping a recording of everyday activity helps the agricultural management system. Minimum information recorded are data, weather, fertility and irrigation program, yield, insects attack, diseases, etc.
There are different technologies according to these principles that are already used by some farmers. The most commonly used are the NO-TILL or STRIP-TILL, but they are rather used for profit maximized than for reducing drought effect and regenerating soil health. NO-TILL is studied in many countries, over a long period of years, concluded that is a big step forward [46]. However, these technologies are included in regenerative agriculture methods of growing plants during drought. A special part that is additional to these methods in regenerative agriculture, concerns breaking the hardpan and biological inoculation.
Drought stress is reduced when plants are healthy and thrive in healthy soil. For plants to overcome the draught on degraded soils, a new management strategy is required. Water, balanced nutrients, and biology are the three most important requirements for plants. Plants that are well-managed produce soil that is rich in humus. Growing healthy plants to overcome the drought and the elements that impact the process are provided in the appropriate sequence.
The field control has to begin in the autumn before the new agricultural year begins. Weeds like quack grass and foxtail can be found in dry clay soil, indicating calcium deficits and compact soil. Mow the grasses and compost the cuttings into the soil to help with calcium deficits. Broadleaf weeds, like ragweed, indicate copper deficiencies problem, and a phosphate/potassium imbalance. The rate between phosphate and potassium should be 2/1 for row crops and 4/1 for grass crops. Succulent weeds increase soil water capacity, replenish carbonate ions while covering the ground to protect against soil erosion. Weeds role is to deposit nutrients and metabolites in the soil or rearrange the nutrients existing in the soil. There is plenty of information in the literature about weeds role and weeds usage as a soil indicator [47, 48, 49]. This information is important to design a fertilization plan, in order to balance the nutrients. Herbicides must be avoided as much as possible since weeds get resistant to synthetic inputs, plants get unhealthy while the microbial population will decrease. Brix index in plants leaf must be measured before foliar application and 2 h after. After a few foliar applications, the crop will thrive and weeds will be attacked by insects and diseases, and not the established culture. As the nutrients are balanced, pH changes and weeds are under control.
Hardpan management is the compact layer of soil just below the ground surface. Excess plowing leads to soil moisture loss by evaporation [50]. Avoiding working with moldboard plows, farmers must use instead a strip subsoil breaker in the first year to break the hardpan and apply a NO-TILL technology in the next years. Hardpan reduces the soil depth for plants roots and enhances soil waterlog. Plant roots grow in the surface layer reducing access to water and nutrients.
Well, aggregate soils are rarely found, usually, soils are crusted, compacted in layers or plow pans [51]. The agricultural year start in autumn and farmers first issue should be checking the hardpan with a penetrometer. After that, has to be measured the distance from soil surface to hardpan and hardpan thickness. If hardpan thickness is more than 5cm, then must be used a subsoil strip breaker. Soil improvement usually includes subsoil adding biological fertilization to break the hardpan and inoculate with microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) at the same time. Breaking the hardpan will allow water and nutrients to infiltrate deep in the ground, while microorganisms will keep the moisture and nutrients for a long period. Underground water and nutrients are stored naturally and through capillarity, the plants have access to water and nutrients during the drought period. In order to maintain the microbiology alive, they should be multiplied by feeding them and keeping constant moisture and temperature in the soil. In time, they will improve the soil structure, porosity, and the humus percentage will increase. In the photosynthesis process plants secret carbohydrates (sugar) and protein through the roots, which are food for bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi are eaten by bigger microorganisms like nematodes and protozoa. Plants are thriving in such an environment even in drought conditions. With a restored soil food web, plants can control the water and nutrients cycling in the rhizosphere neighborhood. A restored food web reduces irrigation and tillage requirements, provides protection against pests and diseases and inhibits weeds. Pesticides and herbicides are not required, since applying these methods yields and farms profitability will be increasing.
Living life provides soil structure that resists wind and rain erosion. The first step will be in accordance with principles to use no plowing or disking, by implementing a no-till system. Figure 2 compares three types of agricultural soil processing: in the first plan the work was performed with soil loosening equipment, in the second plan it is proposed the minimal processing technology by breaking the hardpan, and in the third plan a plowed land is highlighted.
Comparison between three types of agricultural soil processing: soil loosening equipment (first plan); minimal processing technology-hardpan breaking (second plan); plowing (third plan).
The proposed technology within INMA institute is performed with an equipment that can be carried by an agricultural tractor, that cut the soil linearly without overturning the furrow, break the hardpan, and inoculate the ground with beneficial microorganisms. An active microorganism life restores the soil food web, which keep the pore open. This could be the first phase in rebuilding a healthy soil and ecosystem.
Amendment and treatments have a significant effect on soil’s physical and chemical properties and increase microbial activity. Amendments improve soil water retention and soil structure as permeability, drainage, air holding capacity, etc. Soil acidity is potentially serious land degradation, acid soil is crusted and compacted, requires calcium, phosphorus, and minerals. The recommendation is to apply on soil a minimum 200 kg of lime and 200 kg of soft rock phosphates per hectare every autumn and spring during the first 2–3 years. These small quantities are recommended only in soils with degraded food web, or if microorganisms are being incorporated into the soil. Microorganisms are highly important because they break down the amendments and make them available to plants. High quantities of minerals suppress microorganisms. The amendments are spread best in autumn, before planting the cover crops and in spring before planting the main crop. Any other nutrient must be added as a result of the soil analysis. Organic amendments like compost or vermicompost have a benefic effect, increasing macro and micronutrient, organic matter, physical, and chemical soil properties like pH and EC. Humic acid found inside vermicompost, improves phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals [52]. Vermicompost soil amendments combined with foliar fertilizer, based on vermicompost, reduces the period to regenerate the soil fertility. Vermicompost can be produced in every farm, is cheap and have a tremendous effect on plants that grow during draught.
Plants need minimum 17 mineral nutrients divided into macro- and micronutrients to grow and complete plants’ life cycle. Each of the nutrients perform specific functions within the plant and the amount of each needed by the plant depends on what role the plant has each element [53, 54]. Microelements are needed in a small amount, but they are as important as macro-elements. Micronutrient deficiencies induce stress in plants, cause yield losses, resulting in poor health for animals and humans [29]. Supplying plants with micronutrients, through soil application or foliar spray, increases yields, produces higher quality, but also increases macronutrient use efficiencies. Micronutrients application is cheaper and needs less labor and transport because there are small quantities to manipulate. There are nine macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) from which conventional agriculture is using six, but focus only on three N, P, K. Farmers in conventional agriculture, concentrating on NPK, can deliver excellent yields in irrigated conditions or rainy years, but less quality is usually obtained. Finite products, full of nutrients, for healthy animals and humans, are obtained when plants absorb balanced nutrients. To design a fertilizer plan, one need proper knowledge of the interaction between nutrients [55]. The key to controlling the mineral nutrients is restoring the soil food web. First-year must fertilize with biofertilizers and 70% of the recommended macronutrients N and P to obtain better yields and better-quality crops, low nitrate and nitrite levels in crops [56]. In two-three years, with a soil food web restored, microorganisms will takecare of plant nutrition, bacteria will fix the nitrogen in the soil, while other specific bacteria will solubilize the needed minerals. Biofertilizer is keeping beneficial microorganisms in the soil healthy and allow plants to overcome the drought [57].
Organic fertilizer is added to the soil to improve soil structure, feed both the plants and microorganisms. Microorganisms break down the organic materials and release nutrients slowly to the plants. Organic fertilizers increase soil’s ability to hold water and nutrients. Solid organic fertilizer made from bat guano, fish meal, or manure can be spread on the soil before planting the main crop. Liquid fertilizer can be sprayed on soil or leaves. Chelated liquid fertilizer should be used for a slow-release technique. A cheap method is to spread the fertilizers in furrows, in this way, it will produce the same effect, but the quantity needed is much less (approximately 20–30% of the total quantity needed).
Seed inoculation is a cheap and beneficial tool to grow healthy plants, considering that each plant has a group of bacteria or fungi that work in association with the plant roots. The colonization of plants roots by associated bacteria and fungi result in better performance than plants colonized by the wild population of microorganisms [58]. Inoculations have to be performed for both the main crop and cover crop. Inside the cover crop, there have to be various legume seeds that can be inoculated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. No need to fertilize the soil with nitrogen if seeds are inoculated with these types of bacteria [59, 60]. Biological control agents protect seedlings from disease as fusarium, pythium, etc. [61]. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play an important role in plant growth. Corn inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal have a higher phosphorus absorption, increases vegetative biomass and grain yield, especially in low or medium available phosphorus [62].
Soil food web is a new model of soil fertility based on biology. This new model works better, presenting a lower cost, preventing diseases, do not pollute and use minimal chemical inputs [63]. Microorganisms are the link between water, nutrients and plants. Plants are in control of a viable soil food web, and exudates, in the form of carbohydrates and proteins, attracting specific bacteria and fungi. Bacteria and fungi consuming root exudates are at the bottom of the soil food web. Bigger microbes, nematodes, and protozoa are consuming bacteria and fungi, and are excreted as nutrients right in the rhizosphere. Protozoa and nematodes are eaten by arthropods. Arthropods may eat other arthropods or they might be eaten by snakes, birds, moles, etc. Worms, insect larvae, and moles are moving through the soil, in search of food, creating pathways and letting water and air enter. Members of the soil food web bind soil particles together, create tunnels for air and water to help create soil structure. Soil food web has a natural design and presents seven major benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrients retention, increase mineral nutrient availability to plants, improve soil structure, decomposition of toxic chemicals, production plant growth, and improve crop quality. Microorganisms and other soil food web members release root growing hormones. These growth hormones help the plant to cross the draught or a flood and increase yield.
The presence of plant cover crops in the agricultural system aids in the production of large amounts of biomass. This boosts the soil’s organic content, improving fertilization. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of the soil are improved by maintaining permanent cover crops, and in time, contributing to the restoration of its health. It is recommended to use biodiversity, which include at least one species of leguminous plants. Inoculation has to be achieved with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, especially for leguminous plants. Then the amendments can be spread and may plant various cover crop seeds. Incorporation of amendments can be done with a disk harrow, while the cover crops may consist of oats, rye, buckwheat, radish, mustard, vetch, clover, etc. Plants’ biodiversity will attract various bacteria and fungi, each plant species attracting its own specific microorganisms. In this way, the soil food web will be restored sooner and better. Cover crops have to be chopped or mowed in spring before full bloom, and a minimum of two weeks before planting the main crop. The cover crop will maintain the soil moisture, while soil temperature will not vary too much during drought or between day and night. After mowing, cover crops are used as mulch. Raindrop energy will be dissipated by living crops and mulch, and in this way, erosion will be under control. Cover crops are being decomposed by fungi and bacteria. Another advantage is that in winter cover crops are one of the best options to defend against topsoil loss due to erosion. If it is managed correctly, the decomposition of cover crops by bacteria and fungi provides nutrients to the main crop (cash crop), while biodiversity of cover crop suppresses weeds, prevents NO3 leaching and produces above-ground biomass N [64, 65]. Plant diversity helps to reduce pathogens, pests, and weed invasion, reducing the need for insecticides and pesticides.
A diversified crop rotation enhances soil structure by varying the length of planting zones, allowing for better water penetration. Different crops with varying nutrient requirements, as well as waste products, will help to create a more balanced and resilient soil ecosystem. The duration of these rotations is usually between 4 and 6 years.
When sowing, it is recommended to inoculate the main crop seeds with different solutions based on microorganisms and nutrients. The seeding should start in spring, two weeks after mowing the cover crops and apply foliar fertilizer during the critical point of influence. Each crop has different important phases that may be influenced by inoculation with microorganisms: when planting (to enhance germination), strengthening plant structure, growing the fruit and finishing fructification. Foliar fertilizer must contain at least calcium, manganese, boron, zinc, amino acids. Balance calcium with potassium starting filing fruit point of influence and replace calcium with potassium at the finishing fruit. Get the maximum feedback from the plant when adding biology in the fertilizer solution. A healthy plant will cross the drought. Harvest the corn seeds, but let the corn stalk on the soil to be decomposed by fungi and bacteria.
Foliar application is the most efficient and cheap way to grow healthy plants. Growing healthy plants increase the immune plants’ system, get resistance to diseases and insects attack, plants can cross the drought. In order to grow healthy plants, increase the photosynthesis process from 2- to 3 times by using the right foliar fertilizer solution. Aerated compost tea is a foliar biofertilizer with a benefic impact on plant growth [66]. Inside the aerated compost tea add other nutrients needed by plants.
A complete foliar fertilizer contains clean water, mineral nutrients, microorganisms, plant bio-stimulants, bacteria bio-stimulants, fungi bio-stimulants, and inoculants. It has a synergetic effect on plant growth. Plant reaction is tremendous, especially in degraded soils.
Water is the most important ingredient in foliar fertilizer solution. Using poor-quality water can determine a loss of 50% from the effect of the foliar solution. Do not use water from ponds, lakes, or others sources without water analysis tests. Good water for foliar application has less than 70 ppm, pH between 5.2 and 6.5, electrical conductivity EC between 1.6 and 2.8 ds/mm and temperature between 58 and 78 degrees Fahrenheit. For best results use rainwater or reverse osmosis water. Municipality water is usually unsuitable for foliar recipes because of the chlorine or chloramine, with high pH and potentially hardness.
Foliar solution when humidity is high has to be applied in larger particles (not fine spray), so the liquids remain on the leaf surface a long time without drying out. Sprayers with large droplets make a huge difference. The farmer should measure the effect of the foliar solution before application and 2 h after. If Brix reading is 2 points higher, the foliar solution is good and could apply on the entire field. A diagram of the Brix index reading should be done for every crop. Around 8 o’clock in the morning, after collecting healthy old mature leaf samples from 10 to 20 plants, they are squeezed on a refractometer.
Example of the variation of the Brix index for tomato juice, for a period of 30 days.
In the Brix diagram example, the values are starting from 5, increasing to 9 at the first foliar application, but dropping after a few days to 6. After repeating the foliar application, the Brix index increases to 11, but drop in a few more days to 7. Every time when a good foliar application is applied, the Brix readings are higher and has been found that when Brix values are over 12, the plants present a health status that helps them overcome more easily the drought.
A refractometer gives general information about plant health, but for more information including nutrients balance, a sap analysis is necessary. Plant sap analysis provides 21 nutrients parameters values that enable farmers to optimize the crops’ fertilization plan. The information is valuable because the uptake of plant nutrients are revealed in a few hours, the increasing performance can be tracked graphically, similar to the example shown in Figure 3. To a better understanding, one can compare a sap plant analysis with human blood analysis. A plant sap analyze tells the current uptake of nutrients, excesses or deficiencies of nutrients long term before can be seen on a plant leaf, plant reserves of nutrients, nutrient imbalance in soil, what nutrient plant can use at that moment for its own growth, or even fruit quality [67]. Sap analysis laboratory in less than one week will provide the analysis sheet with a fertilizer plan recommended. A balanced mineral uptake increases plants’ health that gets resistant to diseases and insects attack and crosses the drought.
Water is the most important nutrient for plants. A source of water is critical for drought years, but as long as the regenerative methods presented are met, plants can cross the draught without an irrigation water source. Knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical in understanding long-term soil management. The most influential water parameter is the salinity measured by electrical conductivity EC [68]. High sodium related to calcium and magnesium contends, in irrigation water, causes surface crusting, pore plugging, swelling, and dispersion of soil clay. The acidity or basicity of irrigation water is expressed as pH. Normal irrigation pH is between 6.5 and 8.5. Specific ions like boron, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate, may affect plants grown. An irrigation water analysis is required.
Keep a crop rotation, with cover crop intermediate, for minimum 3 years after starting your regeneration soil program. After concluding that the soil food web is active and the soil is healthy crop rotation is not as important anymore, since biology will take care of plant nutrition and will suppress diseases, insects attack will decrease.
Aerated compost tea, produced by a compost tea brewer, allow microorganisms to be extracted from compost and multiplied. The result consists in beneficial aerobic microorganism production that provides plants with nutrients and helps build the soil food web [69]. The tea is used for spraying both the leaf and soil. Vermicompost is also used to avoid pathogens. Red worm castings are free of pathogens. There are farmers, involved in regenerative agriculture, buying different products that contained few families of fungi and bacteria, but inside aerated compost tea there are thousands of families. A compost tea brewer can be purchased or can easily be built. All a farmer needs is a tank, an air pump, a hose, and an air splitter distributor. To brew the compost needs clean water, vermicompost, mineral nutrients and bio-stimulants for plants, bacteria and fungi. Brew all these ingredients for 24–36 h, then measure the pH and EC. If pH is higher than 6.5 must add 100–300 ml of vinegar and measure again. When measuring EC a few hours before stopping the air pump, If the values are too low must add more vermicompost. The tea has to be used within 4 h after the air pump stops, to improve the synergetic effect on plants and soil [70].
Good and efficient management of animal grazing can rebuild soil health. This is a way for a healthy ecosystem, farm profitability, human health, food system resilience. Studies that use a complementary approach to animal husbandry with organic farming use found that adopting some grazing strategies could regenerate the soil and make them more profitable. Holistic management of livestock management includes grazing, land, and financial planning and ecological monitoring.
Agroforestry can provide suitable tools for landscape restauration because it can enhance physical, chemical, and biological soil characteristics. Agroforestry is restoring and increasing land productivity because the presence of the trees can fix nitrogen, stabilize the soil, reduce soil erosion, increase fertility, and regulate water available in degraded lands.
Trees increase fertility by retrieving nutrients from deeper soils and adding them to the soil surface through the leaf litter. Because of their deep root system, trees prevent nutrients from leaching, combat soil salinization, and acidification. The use of trees with fixing-nitrogen bacteria is increasing crop productivity. Experiments in Zambia, for example, showed that maize yields increased by 88–190% when grown in an agroforestry system under a canopy of
Trees can reduce and prevent soil erosion planted in windbreaks trees protect soil from erosion and increase yield.
Agroforestry buffer strips increase water runoff, and soil evaporation and increase water infiltration and water retention capacity, helping plants to cross the drought.
Minimum instrumentation required to grow healthy plants and cross the draught more easily is the penetrometer, refractometer, pH-meter, EC-meter. A penetrometer is the first instrument to be used in an agricultural season to measure soil compaction. The penetrometer is a device used to measure the resistance of soil to a vertical force. The penetrometer can determine the depth of the hardpan and help producers to determine if a subsoil is in need.
Refractometer measure Brix index values for liquids. Brix values indicate the total soluble solids. The refractometer is widely used in measuring the quality of the grapefruits and the time to harvest. The refractometer can be used to evaluate the overall assessment of plant health. Healthy plants with a minimum 12 Brix readings are resistant to diseases and insect attacks.
Soil pH-meter is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of soil. The values give information about the balance of the nutrients found in the soil. However, can be also used as a pH meter for liquids, and determine pH when adding 5 parts distilled water on 1 part of the soil.
EC (electrical conductivity) meter is used especially to estimate salinity levels. A high level of salinity reduces the plant’s ability to take up water. For assessment is being used 5 parts distilled water and 1 part soil to determine the values of salinity in mSiemens/cm. In clay soils, values are between 0.2 and 1.0 mS/cm, but different plants tolerate different values.
During drought, when air temperature became too warm, plants switch from photosynthesis to photo-respiration and begin consuming their inside proteins. Healthy plants with a waxy sheen, on the leaf surface, have a cooler leaf temperature than plants with a lack nutritional integrity. Foliar applications with teas made from compost, with the addition of 3 L of molasses per hectare, during and after the drought, is a very good practice.
Regenerative agriculture is focused on farming techniques with the primary goal of regenerating the land, particularly increasing the organic composition in order to improve fertility. This strategy conserves and restores soil organic matter, thus, influencing the development and prosperity of micro- and macro-organisms with beneficial results against soil erosion and drought.
Farmers may be forced to adopt unsustainable practices due to economic pressures, as they rarely have enough ability to deal with the conditions imposed by larger corporations, that control prices and credit. As a result, agricultural policies must be implemented at the national level to assist farmers and ensure they are not compelled to deplete the resource that provides them with a means of subsistence.
Regenerative agriculture is based on a holistic approach that places the land at the core of the process to produce efficiently and sustainably a synergy between the soil, the animal world, and the plant world. This enables the development of food chains between all three ecosystems, while the restoration of soil health is ensured by the balance and diversity of species found within the environment.
Climate change is no longer a myth, but a fact and the consequences are becoming increasingly severe every day, influencing the drought phenomena. Every year, topsoil is leaching, soil gets compacted, crusted, loses the ability to supply nutrients and water to plants. Degraded soils, in drought conditions, are not able to support plants with the required water and nutrients, while yields decrease dramatically. In order to reduce the drought effect, farmers have to integrate their use of regenerative agriculture principles and methods, focusing on growing healthy plants and getting rewarded with good yields and increased farm profitability.
Water retention in agricultural lands is associated with soil organic carbon and is influenced by soil health. Soil organic carbon increases the percentage of water retention because carbon acts like a sponge that absorbs moisture. Regenerative management practices such as minimum tillage, cover crops, inoculation with microorganisms, mulching practices, nutrients cycling, maintenance of an optimal balance of organic fertilizers, foliar application, and other methods help to increase soil organic carbon. This strategy restores degraded soils, enhances biomass production, purifies groundwater, reduces the rate of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere and increases the percentage of water being retained in the soil.
An active soil food web is the link between water, nutrients, and plants. Healthy soils have an active soil food web that presents many benefits such as diseases suppression, nutrient retention, improve soil structure, making mineral nutrients available to plants, decomposition of toxic materials, improve crop quality. Soil food web works in synergy with plants and helps crops to overcome more easily drought or floods.
The primary goal of this technology is to grow healthy plants on a worldwide scale. Healthy plants achieve synergies with the soil and improve its health, recover carbon in the soil, increase water retention, and improve soil structure and nutritional status. Drought years will be more profitable for farmers using regenerative agriculture technology, since organically grown cereal prices will be higher, resulting in greater average yields. In a short period of time, farmers using regenerative agriculture technology will spend less money, yields will grow, profitability will increase, soils will regenerate, and drought years will become less risky.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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