Quality indices for water used in hydroponics [3].
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to compile the updated research work on medicinal applications of noble metal complexes mainly focusing the structure activity relationship of metal complexes with targeting biological components.
Plasticulture is a term adopted internationally to designate the use of plastic cover in agriculture, aiming the creation of improved and controlled environments, more propitious to the development of the plants. Vegetables come from the most diverse regions of the world, from arid and desert regions up to the most humid tropical forests, from the icy north to the calico equator, from the sea level to the top of the mountain ranges, and from America to Asia.
\nThe protected cultivation consists of a technique that allows certain control of climatic variables like temperature, humidity of the air, solar radiation, and wind. This control translates into a gain in productive efficiency, reduces the effect of seasonality, favoring a more balanced supply over the months; in addition, the use of this technology allows the effect of seasonality to decrease. This benefit is most evident in regions with a cold climate, as the heat accumulated inside the greenhouses makes it possible to produce certain crops out of season and shorten the production cycle.
\nThe production of vegetables in this type of environment in Brazil is not so recent. In the 1980s, when the production of vegetables began, it was found that, after 3 years of cultivation, many producers could no longer obtain the productivity nor the quality obtained at the beginning of cultivation. At the time, the producers suffered from damages caused by inadequate practices resulting from lack of information and adequate technical assistance. This and other occurrences reinforced the myth that protected cultivation was not feasible. The advance of research, however, showed that the problem was not the system in use but the management adopted.
\nIn countries where protected cultivation is in an advanced stage, the nutritious solution is being replaced by different substrates, with the main objective of circumventing adverse phytosanitary and nutritional factors, allowing strict control of the root environment, especially in relation to water and nutrient management. One of the ways to work around problems of nutritious solution contamination is the use of hydroponic farming systems, in which nutrients are supplied by means of an aqueous solution containing all essential chemical elements to the vegetables.
\nThe main feature of the fertilizers used in hydroponics is that they are soluble in water. One should keep in mind the importance of chemical compatibility between different fertilizers. Macro- and micronutrients are used that are diluted in water to compose up the nutrient solution.
\nIn Brazilian agriculture, potassium (K) is the second nutrient most extracted by vegetables, after phosphorus, which is the nutrient most consumed as fertilizer. The permeability of the plasma membrane makes K to be easily absorbed and transported at long distance by xylem and phloem. Much of the total K of the plant is in the soluble form; therefore, its redistribution is facilitated in the phloem. Thus, under conditions of low K supply through the medium, the element is redistributed from the older leaves to the younger leaves and then transferred to the growing regions. The main biochemical function of K in the plant is enzymatic activation; more than 50 enzymes are dependent on K for their normal activity, such as synthetases, oxidoreductases, dehydrogenases, transferases, and kinases. For leaf and fruit vegetables, several authors have already demonstrated the importance of this nutrient, in addition to increasing production, favoring the improvement of the commercial quality of these products.
\nThis chapter aims to present the cultivation of vegetables and fruits, their nutrient management in hydroponics and salinity condition, and the role of potassium fertilization on the physiological, biochemicals, and antioxidative quality of vegetables and fruits.
\nHydroponics is an agrotechnology for plant cultivation outside the nutritious solution and in nutrient solution, becoming a promising alternative for the diversification of agribusiness. This system of production provides greater yield per area, lesser incidence of pests and diseases, greater ease of execution of cultivation practices, better programming of production, and shorter cycles, due to better environmental control [1].
\nAmong the different hydroponic systems that do not use substrates, the Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) system is the most widespread in Brazil and worldwide [2]. This technique favors the continuous or intermittent circulation of the nutrient solution in cultivation channels, which may have varying dimension sizes and made by different materials, poly(vinyl)chloride (PVC), polyethylene, polypropylene, asbestos, and masonry being the most widely used [3]. Currently, hydroponic cultivation has great importance in several countries, such as Holland, the United States, France, Spain, Japan, and Israel among others. However, one must consider the cost of implementation and the high level of technology required in this system.
\nThe most planted vegetables in this system are lettuce, arugula, and tomato. Other vegetables are restricted to smaller areas, such as cress, parsley, peppers, strawberries, and melons. In general, hydroponic crops require permanent monitoring, mainly as regards the uninterrupted supply of electricity and the control of the chemical and physical characteristics of the nutrient solution [4].
\nAll essential nutrients must be supplied at levels compatible with the requirements of each species, according to the development stage [5]. In order to minimize experimental errors in the analysis of symptoms induced by excess or deficiency nutrient in nutrient solution, it is recommended to use minimum concentrations [6]. The definition of these minimum concentrations should be studied in view of the genotypic, environmental, and demand differences associated with the different phases of development. In general, there is a tendency to reduce the ionic concentration of the nutrient solution in commercial hydroponic crops, especially in environments whose temperature, luminosity, and relative humidity are high in the hottest seasons of the year [7].
\nIt is worth mentioning that the rational use of fertilizers, in addition to reducing costs and guaranteeing production quality, minimizes contamination of the environment and its consequences. These are the eutrophication of surface and groundwater and the accumulation of high levels of nitrate in the groundwater and plants [8]. In the handling of the nutrient solution, factors such as temperature (optimum levels around 24°C), pH (suitable values between 5.5 and 6.5), and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution (optimum range between 1.5 and 4.0 dS m−1) should be monitored and controlled periodically [9].
\nOne of the basic principles for plant production is the provision of all the nutrients the plant requires [9]. In this environment, when nutrient imbalance occurs, production will be limited. For the adequate development of the cultures, macro-and micronutrients that are essences for the growth and production of the plants are necessary, which are presented in Figure 1.
\nChemical elements used in plant production [
That division, between macro- and micronutrients, takes into account the amount that the plant requires of each nutrient for its cycle, all being equally important in nutritional terms. In this way, it is important to observe that the total amounts absorption are of secondary importance since, in hydroponic cultivation, the concentration of nutrients in the growth medium is maintained constant, which does not occur when cultivated in the nutritious solution.
\nThe optimum pH values for the nutrient solution are between 5.5 and 6.5, being important to keep these values in the solution to favor the availability of nutrients to the plants. If the pH is above 6.5, elements such as phosphorus, manganese, and iron begin to precipitate, remaining in forms unavailable to plants. If the pH is lower than 5.5, magnesium, calcium, and molybdenum, in particular, have reduced availability, as shown in Figure 2.
\nRelationship between pH and element availability.
Using a conductivity meter, we established the ability of the nutrient solution to conduct the electric current. As this capacity changes according to the content of the mineral salts, the value of the electric conductivity allows estimating the total concentration of the nutrients in the solution. The higher the EC, the higher the content of mineral salts in the nutrient solution. Normally, when the electrical conductivity is reduced to a certain level of the initial solution (about 30–50%), it is advisable to replace it. The level at which EC value should be maintained varies according to climate and culture.
\nThe pH and EC characteristics of the water used and then of the nutrient solution (water and nutrients diluted in it) should be those indicated for each type of crop. In theory, pH may range from 0 to 14, but in practice, extreme values are incompatible with plant life. Second to the pH values, the quality indexes for the water used in hydroponics can be classified (Table 1).
\nUnits | \nGood | \nAcceptable | \nMaximum limit | \n
---|---|---|---|
EC mS cm | \n<0.75 | \n<0.75–1.50 | \n2.0 | \n
pH | \n6.50 | \n6.80 | \n7.5 | \n
HCO−3 mmol L−1 | \n1.60 | \n3.30 | \n7.5 | \n
Na+ mmol L−1 | \n0.87 | \n1.30 | \n2.61 | \n
Cl− mmol L−1 | \n1.14 | \n1.71 | \n2.86 | \n
SO24 mmol L−1 | \n0.83 | \n1.26 | \n2.08 | \n
Ca+2 mmol L−1 | \n6.50 | \n10.00 | \n14.00 | \n
Fe μmol L−1 | \n— | \n— | \n0.08 | \n
Mn μmol L−1 | \n— | \n— | \n0.04 | \n
Zn μmol L−1 | \n— | \n— | \n0.02 | \n
B μmol L−1 | \n— | \n— | \n0.03 | \n
Quality indices for water used in hydroponics [3].
In preparing the solutions, fertilizers contain macronutrients that must be weighed in the correct amount, indicated by the chosen formulation, then diluted one by one in the tank with water to approximately two-thirds of its capacity. Posteriorly, added the micronutrients are in the form as concentrated solution, in finally, the solution is added with chelated iron. The main fertilizers used for the preparation of nutrient solutions are found in Tables 2 and 3.
\nFertilizers | \nNutrient % | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | \nP | \nK | \nCa | \nMg | \nS | \n|
KCl | \n— | \n— | \n49.8 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
NH4H2PO4 | \n10.0 | \n21.8 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
NH4H2PO4 | \n11.0 | \n21.8 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
Ca(H2PO4)2H2O | \n— | \n24.6 | \n— | \n15.9 | \n\n | \n |
KH2PO4 | \n— | \n22.8 | \n28.7 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
NH4NO3 | \n34.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
Ca(NO3)24H2O | \n15.0 | \n— | \n— | \n20.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
Mg(NO3)26H2O | \n7.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n6.0 | \n— | \n
KNO3 | \n13.0 | \n— | \n36.5 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
NaNO3 | \n16.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
(NH4)2SO4 | \n20.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n24.0 | \n
CaSO4·2H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n21.4 | \n— | \n17.0 | \n
K2SO4 | \n— | \n— | \n41.5 | \n— | \n— | \n17.0 | \n
MgSO4·7H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n9.7 | \n13.0 | \n
K2SO4·2MgSO4 | \n— | \n— | \n18.2 | \n10.8 | \n— | \n22.0 | \n
Main sources of macronutrients used for the preparation of nutrient solutions.
Fertilizers | \nNutrient % | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | \nCu | \nFe | \nMn | \nMo | \nZn | \n|
H3BO3 | \n17.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
Na2BO2·10H2O | \n11.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
CuCl2·2H2O | \n— | \n37.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
MnSO4·H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n43.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
ZnCl2 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n48.0 | \n
FeCl3·6H2O | \n— | \n— | \n21.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
(NH4)6Mo7O24·4H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n54.0 | \n— | \n
NaMoO4·2H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n34.0 | \n— | \n
CuSO4·5H2O | \n— | \n25.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
MnSO4·7H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n32.0 | \n— | \n— | \n
ZnSO4·7H2O | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n20.0 | \n
Na2B4O7·5H2O | \n14.0 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n
MoO3 | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n— | \n66.0 | \n— | \n
Main sources of micronutrients used for the preparation of nutrient solutions.
Table 4 presents the adapted solutions [3] for use in the preparation of the nutrient solution in the NFT system, for leafy vegetables and fruits.
\nCulture | \nN–NO3− | \nP | \nK | \nCa | \nMg | \nS | \nB | \nCu | \nFe | \nMn | \nMo | \nZn | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg L−1 | \n||||||||||||
Lettuce | \n238 | \n62 | \n426 | \n161 | \n24 | \n32 | \n0.3 | \n0.05 | \n5.0 | \n0.4 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Tomato | \n169 | \n62 | \n311 | \n153 | \n43 | \n50 | \n0.2 | \n0.03 | \n4.3 | \n1.1 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Pepper | \n152 | \n39 | \n245 | \n110 | \n29 | \n32 | \n0.3 | \n0.03 | \n3.7 | \n0.4 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Eggplant | \n179 | \n46 | \n303 | \n127 | \n39 | \n48 | \n0.3 | \n0.05 | \n3.2 | \n0.6 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Cucumber | \n174 | \n56 | \n258 | \n153 | \n41 | \n54 | \n0.2 | \n0.03 | \n4.3 | \n1.1 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Melon | \n170 | \n39 | \n225 | \n153 | \n24 | \n32 | \n0.2 | \n0.03 | \n2.2 | \n0.6 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Strawberry | \n125 | \n46 | \n176 | \n119 | \n24 | \n32 | \n0.2 | \n0.03 | \n2.5 | \n0.4 | \n0.05 | \n0.3 | \n
Values of mineral nutrients in nutrient solutions used for the NFT system.
Potassium is an essential nutrient for all living beings, playing a key role in photosynthesis, which is the transformation of light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH). As all vital plant functions depend directly or indirectly on ATP and NADPH, the influence of K on plant metabolism becomes evident. It also plays an important role in the activation of more than 60 enzymes, which act on several metabolic processes such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and carbohydrates, also affecting water balance and the growth of meristematic tissues [10].
\nK absorbed by the root is led to the aerial part by the xylem and phloem, its internal redistribution is quite easy. The element is directed from the older leaves to the younger leaves, to the growing regions and to the fruits. This is due, in part, to the fact that about 75% of plant potassium is soluble in tissues.
\nCultures differ in their K requirements because of differences in the physiological functions in which K is involved. Cultures where the harvested part consists of young plant tissue, as is the case of leafy vegetables and fruits, have high requirements of K per unit of dry weight produced. When the same crop is harvested at the complete maturation stage, the requirement for potassium per dry weight unit is substantially lower. Cultures that produce fleshy fruits or storage organs have high K requirement when compared to cereals [11].
\nAmong the various functions of potassium in plants, water use efficiency is better cited, as a consequence of the control of the opening and closing of the stomata, greater translocation of carbohydrates from the leaves to the other organs of the plant, and improved enzymatic efficiency and commercial quality of crops [12].
\nRelative quantitative evaluations for a particular mineral element can be achieved through the profile scanning of stomata. This type of comparisons between elements can only be made by applying calibration factors. In this way, K contents of guard cells of the opened and closed stomata can be measured. In opened stomata, there is more K, and there is more Cl than the closed one but the differences are not so great. On the other hand, P contents are almost the same.
\nComparison of the traces and stomata indicates, as might be expected, that the P peaks coincide with the nuclei [13] (Figure 3).
\nProfiles of relative amounts of K, Cl, and P across an open and a closed stoma. The traces are the result of scanning a 0.5–1 μm diameter beam across the stomata shown diagrammatically below the traces. In order to indicate the profile scanned, the images of the stomata have been cut off in this diagram where the beam crossed the guard [
Potassium also increases the natural resistance of the aerial part of plants, the fungal diseases, pests, damping-off and counter balances the effect of excess nitrogen absorption. However, excess potassium imbalances the nutrition of vegetables, making it difficult to absorb calcium and magnesium [13].
\nK is required for protein synthesis; when plants are deficient in K, there is less protein synthesis and accumulation of soluble nitrogen compounds, such as amino acids, amides, and nitrates. Thus, the proper use of nitrogen fertilizers depends, also, on an efficient supply of potassium to the plants. The supply of potassium fertilizers to the crops, besides affecting the production, also has an effect on the quality of the harvested fruit. Specifically for tomato, these qualitative characteristics are important both for use in industry and for consumption “in natura.” In tomato, the fruit’s flavor is determined by the amount of solids, mainly sugars and organic acids, and volatile compounds. Considering that, in the ripe fruit, 95% of its constitution is water, only a small amount of solid matter will determine its quality [14]. The decrease in the sugar contents correlates with high doses of nitrogen, which leads to the hypothesis that the apical pruning, associated to the various doses of N and K, can influence, in a certain moment, the level of substances in the fruits [14].
\nThe salinity of the nutrient solution is quantified by the electrical conductivity, which at varies function to the culture and nutrient balance in the solution. Once salts are diluted in the solution, the producer cannot identify which element is causing increasing osmosis power. The salinity in vegetables grown in the hydroponic system causes lower growth in plants, which is also due to the reduction in the absorption of some of the main nutrients, mainly Ca and K [15].
\nPlants are very sensitive to salinity where they absorb water having high contents of salts, which causes toxicity. This excess absorption promotes imbalances in the cytoplasm, causing damages to appear mainly at the edges and at the apex of the leaves, regions where the accumulation of absorbed salts occurs [16].
\nImbalances may be the result of the salinity effect of nutrients above the required, or may be caused by physiological inactivation of an essential nutrient when it increases its internal requirement in the plant [17].
\nIn a yield response curve, there is a point at which maximum production is reached and maintained at that level until an ionic concentration is reached in the solution, where production begins to decrease. This interval, between nutritional deficiency conditions and toxicity, depends particularly on the nutrient and nutritious solution salinity conditions [18].
\nLower absorption of K by vegetables has been attributed to the higher competition between Na and K by the absorption sites or a higher flow of K from the roots. The reduction in K concentration, under saline stress, is an additional complicator for plant growth, since in some situations this element is the main nutrient contributing to the decrease of osmotic potential [19].
\nIn relation to calcium, it has been demonstrated that increased salinity may induce its deficiency [20]. The reduction in Ca2+ absorption may lead to loss of plasma membrane integrity, with consequent loss of the absorption capacity of some ions, especially K+ [21]. Salinity-tolerant varieties tend to have higher K+ transfer rates and only slight reduction in Ca2+ transfer to aerial part, in order to maintain a positive relationship between those nutrients and Na+ and Cl− ions [22].
\nThe high salinity of some fertilizers, mainly of KCl, compromises the growth and distribution of the roots, as well as the absorption of water and nutrients [23]. Potassium chloride is the main source of K for agriculture, followed by potassium sulfate used on a smaller scale. Potassium sulfate has a lower salinity effect than potassium chloride, which makes it more suitable for the preparation of nutrient solutions [24].
\nPlants undergo changes in their metabolism when maintained under adverse environmental conditions. Plant tissues are endowed with different response systems to control the production of free radicals. Due to their specific compartmentalization in the cells, the enzymes and organic compounds formed in situations of environmental stress can be determined. In saline conditions, there is a reduction in the availability of water to the plants; as water tends to move from point larger to the smaller the osmotic potential (of the salinized nutritious solution toward the plant), there will be greater energy expenditure for its absorption. The greater or lesser effort to overcome the osmotic potential difference varies according to vegetable species for adaptation to different salinity conditions [25]. In addition, this factor may influence the photosynthetic process, since the content of chlorophyll in the plants will be affected [26].
\nThe high saline concentration in the solution can cause nutritional imbalance, toxicity of some ions, and interference in the hormonal balance, which are able to decrease the plasticity of the cell, causing reduction in the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane.
\nThe role of calcium in vegetable adaptation to saline stress is complex and not well defined. Saline stresses were observed in the positive effects of this nutrient. The effects of K and Mg are little studied because they have a beneficial effect on the plant to increase the tolerance of vegetables to salinity in the nutrient solution [27].
\nApplications of high and continuous doses of KCl may also raise the chloride ion content in the plant, leading to a chlorosis and necrosis of the leaves, as well as a drop in production. Chlorine does not enter into the constitution of organic compounds, being necessary for the photolysis of water, during photosynthesis and electron transport [28].
\nWhen applied externally, Ca+2 decreases saline stress by means of an unknown function that preserves K+/Na+ selectivity and inhibits K+ absorption sites, which can reduce the Na+ influx mediated by the K+ absorption low-affinity component. Calcium is usually maintained in the cytoplasm at 100–200 mol m−3 by active transport, and NaCl promotes a rapid increase in its concentration in the cytoplasm, probably acting as a signal of general stress. Although there is no confirmation that this increase is a salinity tolerance effect, the higher concentrations of Ca+2 in the cytoplasm may be transient. Results suggest that this increase, as a function of exposure to NaCl, may be reduced by the increase in Ca-ATPase activity [29]. The eggplant presents resistance to salinity induced by potassium sources, being considered a plant that can be used in conditions of high osmotic potential [24].
\nSalinization is a problem that invariably occurs in protected environments, due to the accumulation of salts present in fertilizers. This problem tends to aggravate over time with greater or lesser speed, according to the practices adopted. The effects of salinity on fruit and leaf vegetables are intense, causing flowers to fall, alteration of the fruits color, flowers abortion, and burn on leaf margins [30] (Figure 4).
\nImages of the effects of salinity on eggplant.
Comparatively higher root volume was found when potassium chloride was used as the source of potassium fertilization than potassium sulfate (Figures 5 and 6). Considering the use of K2SO4, it is observed that the root volume increases with increasing doses, up to an estimated maximum value of 645 kg ha−1 K2O; from here, there is a decrease, indicating a stressing effect on the plant. On the other hand, with KCl as source there is no definite trend of increase or decrease in the root volume, values found being stable and higher than those found with the K2SO4 source [30].
\nRoot volume of eggplant (
Roots of plants of eggplant (
Many problems have been observed related to excessive fertilization, leading the nutritious solution to an accumulation of salts. Although the water used in irrigation in the protected crop is of good quality, using the fertigation technique increases the risk of salinization [31].
\nIn the process of nutrient absorption, the cationic interactions at the adsorption sites and the concentration of nutrient ions in the solution are important aspects in plant nutrition and crop production. The rate of absorption of a nutrient by the plant depends on the cations dissolved in the solution in dynamic equilibrium with the cations of the nutritious solution exchange complex [32]. The absorption of a nutrient is also affected by the nature of the complementary cations, that is to say, there is influence of an ion adsorbed in the release of another ion to the solution, besides the relations that involve the cations [33].
\nThe elevation of K content in the solution can induce nutritional imbalance for the plants, due to antagonism, competitive inhibition, and noncompetitive inhibition among nutrients, in addition to synergism, which can cause a differentiated dynamics between cations in the leaves and roots of plants. However, little is known about the interactions between cations caused by excess doses of K2O induced by different sources. When the K2O doses are increased, regardless of the source used, the electrical conductivity increases linearly (Figure 7). However, it is observed that the values of electrical conductivity are significantly higher with the use of KCl, indicating an increase in nutritious solution salinity [34].
\nElectrical conductivity (EC) in function to sources and potassium doses.
The electrical conductivity ranges between 3.82 and 1.33, with a mean of 2.49 dS m−1 when a dose of K2O 250 kg ha−1 for KCl fertilizer was applied, whereas values were between 4.24 and 0.86 dS m−1 and averaged 2.55 dS m−1 for K2SO4 (Figure 8A). A decreasing trend of electrical conductivity was evidenced during the experimental period, and this reduction was more pronounced during 60 days after transplantation because of the onset of flowering and fruiting. In case of K2O 500-kg ha−1 KCl dose, the electrical conductivity ranges between 3.46 and 0.89 dS m−1 and the average of 2.16 dS m−1, while the range was between 3.30 and 0.28 dS m−1 with a mean of 1.79 dS m−1 for K2SO4 as potassium source (Figure 8B). A greater fluctuation of electrical conductivity was observed after K2O 750 kg ha−1 especially for KCl, and the range was as high as 6.27 and as low as 1.30 having an average of 3.78 dS m−1 (Figure 8C). When K2SO4 was applied, electrical conductivity values obtained were between 4.27 and 1.03 dS m−1 with a mean of 2.65 dS m−1. Subsequently, at a dose of K2O 1000-kg ha−1 electrical conductivity in KCl and K2SO4 treatments remained within the ranges from 7.12 to 1.82 and from 3.36 to 1.25 dS m−1 (Figure 8D), with a mean of 4.47 and 2.11 dS m−1, respectively [35].
\nElectrical conductivity (EC) corrected for function and the sources and doses 250 (A), 500 (B), 750 (C) and 1000 (D) kg K2O (KCl and K2SO4) in relation to the days after transplantation (DAT).
The use of K2SO4 as a source of potassium fertilization generates a direct form of competition with Mg2+ in the roots of eggplants, high doses of K2O affect production, and excess K induces competitive inhibition between cations; however, the use of K2SO4 is less harmful, when used in excess, than that of KCl [34].
\nThe elements are absorbed by the plants at different speeds, generally following the decreasing order as follows:
\nAnions—NO3− > Cl− > SO42− > H2PO4
Cations—NH4+ > K+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+
The accompanying ion, as a consequence of this, also influences at the absorption of its pair, so, for example, the maximum absorption of NH4+ will occur when it is accompanied by NO3−, the speed will be minimal if accompanied by H2PO4−. Table 5 presents examples of interionic effects.
\nIon present | \nSecond ion | \nEffect of the second on the first | \n
---|---|---|
Mg2+, Ca2+ | \nK+ | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
H2PO4− | \nAl3+ | \nNot competitive inhibition | \n
K+, Ca2+ | \nAl3+ | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
H2BO3− | \nNO3−, NH4 | \nNot competitive inhibition | \n
K+ | \nCa2+ (high concentration) | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
SO42− | \nSeO42− | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
SO42− | \nCl− | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
MoO42− | \nSO42− | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
Zn2+ | \nMg2+ | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
Zn2+ | \nCa2+ | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
Zn2+ | \nH2BO3− | \nNot competitive inhibition | \n
Fe2+ | \nMn2+ | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
Zn2+ | \nH2PO4− | \nCompetitive inhibition | \n
K+ | \nCa2+ (low concentration) | \nSynergism | \n
MoO4− | \nH2PO42− | \nSynergism | \n
Cu2+ | \nMoO42− | \nNot competitive inhibition | \n
Examples of interionic effects [36].
The inhibition consists in the reduction of the mineral absorption due to the presence of another one, being considered competitive inhibition when the element and the inhibitor are disputed at the same site of the carrier in the membrane. No competitive inhibition happens when binding occurs at different sites of the carrier. In the first case, the effect of the inhibitor can be annulled by increasing the concentration of the inhibited element, which does not occur at the second case. An example of competitive inhibition is observed between Ca, Mg, and K [36].
\nSynergism occurs when the presence of one element enhances the absorption of another, for example, Ca2+ in low concentrations increases the absorption of cations and anions (Viets effect), due to its role in maintaining the functional integrity of membranes, which has a consequence in the practice of fertilization; another example is Mg2+ which increases the absorption of phosphorus [36].
\nThe black bottom or rot apical of the tomato (Figure 9) is a very common anomaly in fruits. It can cause high losses, above 50% of the fruits produced, especially in the lower parts. It is characterized by black spots, hard and dry in the apical extremity, and well visible from the formation of the fruits. The main cause is the lack of calcium in the tissue, caused by the competitive inhibition between K, Ca, and Mg, which causes Ca deficiency. This anomaly occurs very frequently in tomato culture in hydroponic system, because of the accelerated growth of plant, due to the environment conditions and the fact that calcium is still in the plant’s phloem. This problem is aggravated when water deficiency occurs.
\nPhysiological anomaly called black bottom or apical rot.
The proline concentration was significantly modified independently of potassium source, and higher level in this parameter occurred under potassium rate of K2O 1000 kg ha−1 [35], as shown in Figure 10A. As for the protein content, with the increase in K2O concentration there was a reduction in the content (Figure 10B).
\nConcentration of proline (A) and soluble protein (B) in the gram of fresh matter mass (MMF) in function to the sources and doses of potassium.
Under normal conditions, proline is produced using glutamate and arginine while glutamate is the main pathway in stress conditions [37]. When plant experiences stress such as inadequate situations of mineral, salt, and water, proline protects the cell against denaturation processes, because this organic compound is highly soluble in water. It is accumulated in the cytoplasm of cells present in leaves, stems, and roots. Abiotic stresses like salt stress to
Some authors affirm that proline has functions linked to processes of adaptation to water deficit; however, others point to proline as an indicator of stress. Although there is no clear evidence of proline accumulation in tolerant species, its accumulation in species sensitive to water deficit has been observed, and this mechanism seems to be part of the protection against this type of stress [40].
\nThe synthesis of proline has special importance in plants, because it is closely related to the water potential of the tissues. Plants in conditions of water stress or saline have high levels of proline compared to plants under normal conditions. This phenomenon seems to be related to the mechanism of protection against lack of water, because proline helps reduce the water potential of tissues and thus retain water. It is not by chance that the solubility of proline is much superior (162 g in 100 mL) than that of the other protein amino acids (in the range of <1–25 g in 100 mL). Although the two proline synthesis pathways are equally important under normal conditions, the evidence is more favorable to direct glutamate pathway (without acetylation) in water stress conditions [39].
\nIn tomato culture, the accumulation of proline was detected within the first 24 h of the beginning of the treatment with excess fertilizers, observing its osmoregulatory activity. Halophytic or glycophytic plants adapt to high saline concentrations by lowering the osmotic potential of their tissues, with increased solutes absorption (Na and Cl ions). However, in less tolerant species, the growth is inhibited in function to the toxic effect of the accumulation of solutes [41].
\nPlants have a high requirement for K for mainly maintaining a high K content in the cytoplasm, mainly to ensure enzyme activity [42]. A high concentration of K in cytosol and chloroplast stroma is also required to maintain anion neutralization and an appropriate pH level for cell functioning [21]. It can also participate in the control of stomatal opening and closing which is essential for photosynthesis. Despite the great importance of K, excess of it can reduce the osmotic potential of the solution, making the nutritious solution saline, resulting in a modified nutritious solution in which the growth of most species is prejudiced by the presence of high concentrations of soluble salts, exchangeable Na, or both in the rhizosphere [43]. Among the potassium fertilizers available on the Brazilian market, KCl is the most popular. Besides, K2SO4, K2SO4·2MgSO4, and other K sources are widely used in different agricultural segments in Brazil [44]. The above K source fertilizers produce different levels of salinity in nutritious solution, as, for example, KCl has a higher salt content than K2SO4. In the case of potato and eggplant, KCl application has resulted in lower yields compared to K2SO4 [41].
\nThe enzymatic activity of catalase (CAT) is an enzyme that increases the rate of dismutation of the superoxide radical in hydrogen peroxide and is considered as an antioxidant enzyme (reactive oxygen species—ROS). CAT activity increases with increasing K2O concentrations (Figure 11). High rates of KCl and K2SO4 increased the proline concentration at higher doses and reduced the protein concentration (Figure 10). The proline content of the leaf and the development of the eggplants are larger for the K2SO4 source [41].
\nCatalase activity (mKat mg−1 of protein) as a function of potassium sources and doses.
Salinity can restrict the absorption of water and nutrients, reduce photosynthetic processes, and increase respiration, inducing a reduction in plant growth [45]. In the case of water deficit, the activity of the enzyme system and the production of compounds related to the antioxidant system of plants are altered [46]. This plant response occurs due to excessive accumulation of ROS in plant cells, in particular of superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide [47]. Salinity can promote an intense ROS production that can lead to the degradation of proteins and membranes, reducing photosynthesis and plant growth [48]. Among the enzymatic mechanisms involved in detoxification of ROS, there are the isoforms of the enzyme such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), CAT, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and peroxidase phenols (POX). SOD acts by converting O2 into H2O2 and is localized mainly in the mitochondria and chloroplasts. These organelles generate most of the ROS in plant cells [49]. Peroxidases and catalases convert H2O2 into water and molecular oxygen, which are harmless to plants. Although the salinization leads to the production of ROS, at certain concentrations, K has an effect of reducing the harmful effects of salinization and ROS, mitigating stress effects [50]. This effect has been widely investigated in view of the need to understand its relationship with salinity and stress tolerance better. Figure 12 [51] shows the general scheme of salt and drought stress tolerance in plants. Some osmolytes are involved in salt and drought stress tolerance through osmoprotection and ROS detoxification. They protect the plant from osmotic and ionic stresses [51].
\nA general scheme of salt and drought stress tolerance in plants.
K is usually the most abundant cation in the cultures, being found in the tissues in greater proportion in the ionic form (K+). K stimulates vegetation and tillering (grasses); increases the content of carbohydrates, oils, fats, and proteins; stimulates the filling of the grains, reducing the chopping; promotes storage of sugar and starch; helps symbiotic N fixation; increases the use of water; and increases resistance to droughts, frosts, pests, and diseases. As K improves the quality of agricultural products, it is described as the “quality nutrient.” It is interesting to note the high correlation of K and proteins in the seeds of several cultivated plants, since cultures with high protein contents require (and export) large amounts of K through the grains.
\nAmong the essential mineral nutrients for plants, K stands out for its influence in quality attributes that affect the concentration of phytonutrients critical for human health. However, many plants, nutritious solutions, and environmental factors often limit the absorption of K from the nutritious solution in sufficient quantity to optimize the quality attributes mentioned earlier [52].
\nK is a nutrient particularly required by carbohydrate-producing plants, as it participates in the photosynthetic process, transports carbohydrates from the leaves to the tuber or stalk, and activates the starch synthetase enzyme. In sugarcane, research results have shown a close relationship between the K content in the stems and with the sugar production. In the soybean culture, increased potassium fertilization promotes an increase in the grain protein content and a reduction in the oil content. This one fact can be understood by the participation of K in the process of protein synthesis in the plants. For citrus cultivation, it was observed that the increase of the K content in the leaves increases the size, the production, and the number of fruits. It also increases the vitamin C content and the percentage of acid in the juice, and decreases the concentration of soluble solids and the percentage of juice and solids/acid in the fruit.
\nThe acidity in the tomato and the solids and starch content in the potato are positively correlated with the potassium fertilization, which also affects the composition and quality of strawberry, grape, grapefruit, pistachio, watermelon, and tomato. Generally, K appears to affect acidity, the pH, and carotenoid content. In tomato, the increase of K in the nutritive solution improves the color of the pulp and increases the content of lycopene, which is the carotenoid responsible for the red color of tomato and watermelon [53].
\nLycopene is not essential for humans and animals, but research shows that it is then beneficial because it has antioxidant properties, which neutralizes free radicals that can cause cell damage. Lycopene is the most sensitive pigment to K deficiency, since K being an essential cofactor for protein synthesis, its deficiency could lead to reduced rates of enzymatic reactions involved in the synthesis of carotenoids and their precursors [54].
\nPotassium presents many important functions in leaf and fruit vegetables, including enzymatic activation, regulation of the osmotic potential of cells, cell expansion, and opening and closing of the stomata, being the nutrient that most affects the quality of leaf and fruit vegetables. Due to potassium performance in several physiological processes, especially in the enzymatic activity, its adequate nutrition is fundamental for the development and quality of the vegetables. The horticulturist should prioritize the use of potassic fertilizers with lower salt content, if possible free of chlorine and containing magnesium and sulfur. However, it is essential to remember that the high potassium content in plants can induce deficiency of calcium and magnesium.
\nThis chapter received financial support from Fundação de Ensino e Tecnologia de Alfenas (UNIFENAS), encouragement and unconditional support.
\nSince type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic disease, patients will live with it for the rest of their lives, and the treatment is performed through a healthy diet plan, physical activity, and medication [1]. When not treated properly, patients may suffer various complications over time, affecting the overall health and quality of life, failing with the goals for the treatment of the disease [2, 3]. Quality of life is an individual’s perception of overall well-being that comprises of a physical, mental, and social component [4]. The term health-related quality of life (HRQoL), which does not approach the concept of satisfaction or happiness and satisfaction life, that is, related with some specifics of life, is frequently employed [5]. Many psychometric tools were developed to determine the impact of diabetes and other chronic diseases and also the effect of some intervention on quality of life. For those patient, the most used are the Diabetes Quality of Life Measure (DQOL), the Diabetes-Specific Quality of Life Scale (DSQOLS), the Diabetes Quality of Life Clinical Trial Questionnaire-Revised, the Appraisal of Diabetes Scale, the ATT-39, and the revised ATT19; the Questionnaire on Stress in Patients with Diabetes-Revised, the Type 2 Diabetes Symptom Checklist, the Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale (PAID-1), and the revised (PAID-2); and the Audit of Diabetes-Dependent Quality of Life (ADDQoL), SF36, and the EuroQol-5D [4, 6].
The daily routine of medication to control the disease, fear of injections of insulin, episodes of hypoglycemia, as well as severe dietary restriction are factors that alter the psychological state of this population [7]. Cognitive behavioral therapy and pharmacological treatment are used to manage mental health, but data of some studies indicate that 19–34% and 14–43% of depressed and anxiety disorder patients, respectively, do not respond to treatments. On the other hand, the treatment is scarce accessible and costly [8].
Physical exercise is recognized as an effective non-pharmacological therapeutic strategy to improve insulin action and glycemic control and reduce risk factors for cardiovascular disease [9]. Furthermore, it seems to be an efficient tool to promote brain health in normal and pathological conditions, protecting against cognitive impairment and/or degenerative diseases [10]. The mechanisms underlying the psychologic benefits of exercise are sustained on six theories: (i) sympathetic arousal, based on the rest physiologic adaptations by repeated exercise, mainly lower sympathetic and arousal activity, where the participant experiences a sensation of mental well-being; (ii) cognitive appraisal, where the exercise can help relief of the daily psychological hardship; (iii) affect regulation, characterized by a prolonged improvement on general mood state; (iv) thermogenic regulation, exercise increases body temperature, and this induces a relaxing state and improvement of symptoms of anxiety; (v) synthesis of catecholamines, exercise induces catecholamines production, and it is involved on regulation mood and protect mental dysfunctions; and (vi) endorphin synthesis, exercise induces endorphin production on brain (psychoactive agent of euphoria) that can act such a drug addiction [11].
A recent study that analyze the effect of four meta-analyses of physical exercise on mental and physical in depression shows that in mild to moderate depression the effect of exercise may be comparable with antidepressant medication and psychotherapy, and on the other hand, for severe depression, exercise seems to be a complementary strategic to the habitual treatments [12]. Two systematic reviews with meta-analysis show that exercise was associated with significant lower depression severity in older people [13] and can decrease anxiety symptoms among healthy adults [14]. Besides that, in patients with T2D, it was found that active adults are associated with fewer symptoms of depression [15], better physical, and mental quality of life than the less active [16]. Before the prescription of physical exercise or physical activity, health professional should be aware for both physical and psychological health problems that could interfere the participant in exercise. However, strategies should incorporate a motivation program that enhance adherence.
The increase in the incidence of T2D has been increasing in parallel with the incidence of overweight and obesity; it suggests a possible causal relationship, particularly when obesity is of the central type [17]. There are several components of health-related physical fitness that are positively affected by regular physical activity [18]: (i) cardiorespiratory resistance, (ii) body composition, (iii) muscle strength, (iv) muscular resistance, and (v) flexibility. Although it is always recommended to practice physical activity during a significant period of time (30–60 min/session), in the last years, it has been alerted to the benefits of physical activities beyond those that are conventionally prescribed (e.g., moderate sessions of less than 20 min duration) [18].
Sedentary lifestyle, or at least reduced levels of physical activity, is often associated with the presence of diabetes. This strong and reliable association between sedentary time and diabetes was largely independent of physical activity levels, adding an additional importance to the concept of sedentary behavior being a distinct behavior in itself [19]. The same study highlights the importance of this fact, since it suggests that the deleterious effects of higher levels of sedentary comportment are not mediated by lower amounts of moderate or vigorous physical activity (MVPA). An explanation for the relation between sedentary activity and diabetes as described in literature is the increase in peripheral insulin resistance that occur in consequence of immobility [20], increasing the blood glucose levels. Recent studies comparing different times of sedentary activities in a day (e.g., in a day with 10 h of sedentary behavior could be a result of thirty 20-min bouts or in ten 60-min bouts) have shown evidence that longer periods of sedentary lifestyle have acute deleterious effects on glucose control and other cardiometabolic risk factors [21]. In line with this explanation, the authors of another study have shown that breaking up periods of prolonged sitting with 2-min bouts of light-intensity activity every 20 min in overweight and obese adults result in a 24% reduction in postprandial glucose and a 23% reduction in insulin, both improving glucose regulation [22]. Recently, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) recognized the potential health benefits of reducing and interrupting sedentary time in adults with type 2 diabetes [9]. In fact, some studies found that patients with type 2 diabetes perform less physical activity and comply with the recommendations for the practice of physical activity less than subjects without diabetes [23]. Same authors referred that about 2/3 of the patients with type 2 diabetes performed a certain frequency of physical activity; however, only 40–43% complied with the recommendations. The recommendations of the ACSM and the American Diabetes Association for adult patients with T2D point to the need to perform moderate physical activity during 150 min per week (60 min per week in 5 days) or 60 min per week (20 min in 3 days) of vigorous physical activity (which can be achieved by adding several 10-min periods), interspersed with 2 nonconsecutive days of moderate-to-vigorous strength training [24, 25]. Planned exercise training of more than 150 min/week is associated with higher hemoglobinA1c (HbA1c) declines than that of 150 min or less per week [26].
A recent study has characterized many individual impairments in key cardiac and vascular measures that are associated with CRF impairment in T2D, such as insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction, decreased myocardial perfusion with exercise, abnormally increased pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), decreased limb blood flow, and skeletal muscle mitochondrial dysfunction [27]. Some researchers highlight that being the reasons for which these abnormalities arise, caused by several factors, makes it unlikely that a single therapeutic approach will resolve the entire problem.
An important and recent article which evidences the benefits of physical exercise as therapy for the treatment of 26 different pathologies stresses that increased physical exercise produces a significant improvement in glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes, yielding an average improvement in hemoglobinA1c of between −0.4 and −0.6% [28]. Indeed, as mentioned in a recently published meta-analysis, a simple walk on a regular basis can provide substantial benefits with little or no impairment to the patient, promoting a reduction of HbA1c [29]. Another meta-analysis, even more recent, highlights that our body’s response to HbA1c reduction is more effective when we perform more than 150/min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per week [26]. Several meta-analyses indicate that strength training, aerobic training, or a combination of both can induce reductions in the order of 0.4–0.6% in the amount of HbA1c [28]. It seems that there is no evidence that resistance exercise could differ from aerobic exercise in influencing glucose control, cardiovascular risk markers, or safety [30]. Same authors referred that the use of one type or another of physical exercise for T2D patients may be less important than doing some form of physical activity. Recently, in view of the fact that there is no great difference in results when comparing the effects of a strength program with an aerobic program [30], the adoption of a mixed program has been mentioned as preferential for these patients [31]. In another meta-analyses, with a total of 37 studies with 2208 patients with T2DM, it is also suggested that a mixed program is also preferable to be applied. In this study, both supervised aerobic and supervised resistance exercises showed a significant reduction in HbA1c compared to no exercise (0.30% lower and 0.30% lower, respectively). Nevertheless, when compared supervised aerobic and supervised resistance exercises with combined exercise, there was a greater reduction in the latter type of exercise program (a reduction of 0.17% higher than supervised aerobic and a reduction of 0.23% higher than supervised resistance exercises) [32].
Likewise, strength training has been suggested as beneficial for these patients, using moderate loads (50–74%) to vigorous ones (75–85%), so that as long as there are no contraindications, it is recommended to practice with a frequency of three sessions per week, involving the large muscle groups, progressing until achieving three series of 8–10 RM [33].
Diabetes patient usually has physiologic exercise limitations and decreased cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). More exactly, when compared with people with and without diabetes, the first ones can present 20% lower maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) [27]. This can be a problem for those patients once a reduced VO2 max is linked to increased cardiovascular mortality [34]. As suggested recently, practitioners should take into consideration in the preparation of exercise programs that the addition of vigorous exercise may be essential to produce substantial changes in cardiovascular function, as it seems that vigorous, but not low-moderate exercise decreases cardiovascular disease [35]. In terms of type of training, it is suggested that interval training may be more successful than continuous training, as well as there is an evidence that suggests that high-intensity exercise improves glycemic control more than low-intensity exercise [28]. In a 4-month RCT with T2D patients, a group of participants of interval walking (n = 12) were compared to a group of continuous walking (n = 12) and to a non-exercise control group (n = 8). Both exercise groups performed 60-min, 5 days/week respective protocols. Values of VO2 max, body fat, and glycemic control recorded improvements in interval walking group only, compared to continuous walking and control [36].
To determine which variable influences more the reduction of HbA1c, of the intensity and of the quantity of the exercise, a meta-analysis was performed [37]. They found a relation between relatively high-intensity physical training and a reduction in HbA1c (r = −0.91, P = 0.002), while no significant association between quantity of physical activity and a reduction in HbA1c (r = −0.46, P = 0.26) was found.
Comorbidities and complications such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, and hyperinsulinemia are common in patients with T2D [32]. The use of different types of exercise can induce different benefits in the variables associated with these pathologies. Thus, supervised aerobic presented more significant improvement than no exercise in fasting plasma glucose (9.38 mg/dl lower), total cholesterol (20.24 mg/dl lower), triacylglycerol (19.34 mg/dl lower), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (11.88 mg/dl lower). On the other hand, supervised resistance showed a higher gain than no exercise in improving systolic blood pressure (3.90 mmHg lower) and total cholesterol (22.08 mg/dl lower) [32].
Another study compared the metabolic and hemodynamic response to high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and to a continuous moderate-intensity exercise (MICE). A total of 11 participants (age = 52.3 ± 3 year) underwent with the protocols suggested by the researchers. They found that capillary glycemia reduction was greater (P < 0.05) after HIIE than MICE as well as a reduction (P < 0.05) in 24 h and tendency toward reduction (P = 0.06) in daytime systolic ambulatory BP only after HIIE. These results recommend that HIIE is superior to MICE for reducing glycemia and ambulatory BP in T2D [38]. Recently, a HIIT protocol allows to increase protein synthesis in the skeletal muscle of older adults as well as shows an effect linked to ameliorate insulin sensitivity [39]. HIIT was also the type of program used to verify the cardiovascular benefits of exercise training and postexercise nutrition [40]. A total of 53 adults with T2D were randomized to 12 weeks of cardio- and resistance-based HIIT (4–10 × 1 min at 90% maximal heart rate) with postexercise milk, milk-protein, or placebo supplementation, thrice weekly. They evaluated carotid and femoral artery intima media thickness (IMT) and femoral flow profiles using high-resolution ultrasound. At the end of the exercise program, subjects showed a significant reduction on femoral IMT (pre 0.84 ± 0.21 mm vs. post 0.81 ± 0.16 mm, p = 0.03), carotid-femoral PWV (pre 10.1 ± 3.2 m/s vs. post 8.6 ± 1.8 m/s, p < 0.01), and resting heart rate (pre 70.4 ± 10.8 bpm vs. post 67.8 ± 8.6 bpm, p = 0.01) regardless of postexercise nutrition. Those improvements in vascular function could counteract the high cardiovascular mortality in individuals with T2D caused by largely owing to the progress of atherosclerosis, accelerated by arterial stiffening, reduced perfusion, and vascular inflammation [41]. A recent research did find that HIIT with or without postexercise nutrition improves endothelial function, glucose control, and cardiorespiratory fitness in people with T2D. More precisely, after 12 weeks of HIIT, the 53 adults with T2D reduced the continuous glucose monitoring (−0.5 ± 1.1 mmol/L), HbA1c (−0.2 ± 0.4%), percent body fat (−0.8 ± 1.6%), and increased lean mass (+1.1 ± 2.8 kg). Besides these variables, there were still improvements in the VO2 peak (+2.5 ± 1.6 mL/kg/min) and %FMD (+1.4 ± 1.9%), as well as on arterial blood pressure (−6 ± 7 mmHg) [42]. Interestingly, those adaptations resulting from interventions of some duration (12 or more weeks) are also present as an acute adaptation to the exercise [43].
To verify what type of training may be more effective for the improvement of some health indicators in patients with T2D, 41 participants were assigned to the non-exercise control group, 73 to resistance training 3 days a week, 72 to aerobic exercise in which they expended 12 kcal/kg per week, and 76 to combined aerobic and resistance training in which they expended 10 kcal/kg per week and engaged in resistance training twice a week [31]. After the 9-month program, a reduction in the waist circumference was recorded in all groups. The fat mass was reduced in the resistance training group and in the combination training group (lost in mean 1.4 kg and 1.7 kg, respectively). Only the combination training exercise group decreased hemoglobinA1c and improved maximum oxygen consumption, compared with the control group. It is important to highlight the reduction on HbA1c, once that has been associated with a 15–20% decrease in major cardiovascular disease events. On the other hand, the increase on 1 MET in fitness compared with control obtained in the aerobic and combination groups will not be less important, because of the public health significance given that each increase of 1 MET is associated with 15–20% lower cardiovascular disease mortality risk [44]. A total of 266 patients with T2D training 3.4 sessions/week, each lasting 49 min with an intensity of 50–75% of maximum pulse, for 20 weeks, showed also an increased VO2 max (+11.8%) [37].
Another interest result was that just the combination training group lost weight, and although both the combination and resistance training groups lost fat mass compared with the control group, the aerobic group did not. The authors suggest firstly that the resistance training group did not lost weight because they increased their lean mass. The inexistence of a reduction on weight and fat mass on aerobic group may be due to an increase in energy intake, to an expenditure compensation, or to both. This was also the same conclusion from another study where it was found that the weight of the patients was not reduced at the end of the intervention [45]. The possible explanations for this was that the training period was relatively short (8–20 weeks), and also the patients overcompensated for their loss of energy by increasing consumption, or patients lost fat mass; however, their volume of muscle mass increased.
Similar results were published in 2007 study [46]. Although the various groups achieved a reduction in HbA1c compared with control, it was again the combination group, the one that registered a more significant reduction (−1 vs. −0.4% with resistance training vs. 0.5 with aerobic group). The practice of physical exercise also allows to increase fat-free mass (in particular muscle mass) and reduce visceral fat in these patients, which has a positive implication in this pathology [47]. This is the reason for the lack of significant effects on weight reduction. Even they could lose some fat mass, they also increased the muscle mass [28].
Physical exercise increases insulin sensitivity in the trained muscle and muscle contraction-induced glucose uptake in the muscle. This increase in insulin sensitivity leads to an increase in glucose uptake by insulin-sensitive tissues, with lower insulin consumption, leading to a reduction in glycemic levels. The mechanisms that underlie this adaptation include increased postreceptor insulin signaling and increased transport of glucose into the muscles by greater dispersion of the muscle capillary network and blood flow [28]. The decrease in insulin resistance in response to increased insulin sensitivity, as well as the reduction of triglyceride (TG) values as a relevant effect for these patients [47].
It is known that older adults with T2D present an increased risk for cognitive decline reported in verbal memory, information-processing speed, and executive functions [48]. The use of exercise programs has also been used in patients with T2D in order to achieve improvements at the cognitive level. Recent literature has shown benefits with either the application of aerobic exercise, resistance training, or a multicomponent exercise program. A 24-week period of square-stepping exercise (SSE) program was used to mitigate this increased risk for dementia present in this pathology [49]. SSE is a low-intensity program that is convenient to older adults for the improvement of cognitive function. Those 24-week SSE program shows promise in improving cognitive function, specifically executive control, in older adults with type 2 diabetes and sCCs. There remains some question regarding the feasibility of the SSE program in this population that has a high chronic disease burden. In an RCT with 155 community-dwelling women aged 65–75 years living in Vancouver that were randomly allocated to once weekly (n = 54) or twice weekly (n = 52) resistance training or twice weekly balance and tone training (control group) (n = 49), both resistance training groups achieved improvements on their performance on the Stroop test compared to control. They concluded that the 12 months of resistance training improve the executive cognitive function of selective attention and conflict resolution [50]. A total of 33 adults (17 women) with amnestic mild cognitive impairment ranging in age from 55 to 85 years participated in an RCT, which used aerobic exercise. After the 6-month program, the women of the aerobic exercise group presented several benefits in different variables such as a higher executive function, increased glucose disposal during the metabolic clamp, and reduced fasting plasma levels of insulin, cortisol, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. The men who participated in the aerobic exercise group, they increased plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor I and had a favorable effect in one of the executive function tests [51]. A total of 100 older adults with T2D presenting mild cognitive impairment were randomized into a multicomponent exercise or an education control group. The exercise group exercised for 90 min/d, 2 days/week, 40 times for 6 months, and the multicomponent exercise program consisted of biweekly 90-min sessions involving aerobic exercise, muscle strength training, postural balance retraining, and dual-task training. The results of the study demonstrated the effectiveness of the program in improving the performance on mental state examination and logical memory scores and reducing whole brain cortical atrophy, compared with control group [52].
The benefits that patients with type 2 diabetes can acquire when they undergo an exercise program are numerous, as we have pointed out here. If there are several modes of exercise, it is necessary to break the barriers that impede the regular participation of these patients in these programs and to provide the practice in the programs that most motivate each one.
Beyond the physical and social well-being implications, patients with T2D are more likely to experience mental health problem. Among the mental disorders, depression and anxiety are the most common in those patients, which can lead to unfavorable influences on metabolic control and micro- and macrovascular complications compared to those with diabetes alone [53].
Depression is a medical condition in which the affected patient experience a feeling of sadness, lack of motivation, and change in thinking which lasts for more than 2 consecutive weeks, and it can lead to a decrease in the performance of the activities of daily living [54].
Individuals with T2D have a doubled risk to be diagnosed with depression than in the general population. The concurrent presence of both these disorders has a negative effect on the quality of life, loss of productivity, and absence at work, a higher risk for mortality and to develop the long-term micro- and macrovascular complication of diabetes compared with those patients without depression [55]. Besides that, those patients are associated with a poor glycemic control and poor adherence to healthy lifestyles [56].
Although it is well documented that patients with T2D are more likely to experience depression, the mechanisms underlying this association is poorly understood. It is pointed out that psychological factors such as the burden of life and related-events of the disease predispose the patient to depression. On the other side, there is a potential biological evidence that is emphasized in three aspects: (i) hyperglycemia, due to the high intracellular glucose level on the brain, it can activate polyol pathway that induces an oxidative stress and formation of advanced glycation end products, and both of them can lead to a neuronal damage; (ii) microvascular dysfunction, involved in an increased cerebrovascular damage, those injury can affect the frontal and subcortical regions of the brain that regulate mood state; and (iii) low-grade inflammation, with less evidence linked to depressive symptoms but is associated with chronic disease and predispose to cardiovascular complications [55]. On the other side, diabetes duration is viewed as a mediator for depressive symptoms. These symptoms tend to elevate immediately following diagnosis and decrease and increases again after several years. The duration of diabetes less than 10 years and bigger than 30 years is associated with increased depressive symptoms, while that between 10 and 30 years is remaining low [56].
It can be classified on (i) major depression, when the presence of depressive mood and anhedonia (reduced positive affect) for 2 weeks is accompanied by at last five symptoms such as depressed mood, uncontrolled weight for no apparent reason, lack of motivation, psychomotor disorder, loss of energy or increased fatigue, alteration in sleep, difficulty thinking and thoughts of dead or suicide; (ii) minor depression, which is similar to major depression, but the patient has few than five symptoms; and (iii) dysthymia, when the patient experiences an acute depressive mood for most of the day which persists for at least 2 years. However, at least two of the following symptoms should be present: changes in appetite, low self-esteem, sleep alteration, difficulty thinking, discouragement, and loss of energy or increased fatigue [57].
The nine-item patient health questionnaire is a valid and reliable screaming tool frequently used for the diagnosis of depression. It is an easy and brief self-report questionnaire and can be used in patient with T2D. It consists of nine questions based in the depressive symptoms with score of “0” (not at all) to “3” (nearly every day). It calculated a total score, and it ranges from 0 to 27. A cutoff score of 10–14, 15–19, and 20–27 indicates moderate, moderately severe, and severe depression, respectively [58].
Referring to anxiety, it is defined as a subjective feeling of fear, worry, and discomfort, for no reason at all or derived from anticipation of something [59]. Results from a recent meta-analysis support scientifically evidence that people with T2DM exhibit an increased likelihood of having anxiety disorder and anxiety symptoms than people without diabetes, and on the other side, it is associated with poor glycemic control and increased diabetes complications [53]. Those patients can experience physiologic sensation such as tachycardia, dizziness, sweating, headaches, and gastrointestinal disorder and also avoid places, people, and events. The diagnosis of the disease may induce anxiety because the patient has to adopt a severe lifestyle change in function of the disease treatment with a daily management of diabetes and worry of the long-term micro- and macrovascular complication [53]. It is common to diagnose anxiety using self-report symptom scales, mainly the Spielberger Trait Anxiety Questionnaire, the general health questionnaire for anxiety subscale, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale for anxiety (HADS), and Hopkins symptom checklist [59].
It is important to note that the idea that physical exercise has positive effects on depression and anxiety of patients with T2D in some cases is not unanimous. For instance, results from a systematic review of intervention studies [60] concluded that the evidences of physical exercise on psychological outcomes are conflicting. In this review, aerobic exercise shows to improve symptoms of anxiety. Significant difference in depression was found only in resistance training. For quality of life, among 6 studies (478 participants examined), only 2 reported significant effect of aerobic training compared to control group. Previous studies examined (361 participants), a mixed effect of resistance training on the mental domain of the SF-36 and SF-12 questionnaire was found. The authors stand out that heterogeneity of the studies was reflected on the mixed results found [60]. On the other side, a randomized controlled trial of 218 inactive patients with T2D found that no exercise was superior to resistance or combined exercise of 22 weeks, three times per week for improving mental health status [61]. Against the mixed evidence of physical exercise to improve mental health in T2D, it is necessary for future studies to confirm some findings. The literature showed that physical activity can mitigate mental disorder in active patient with T2D [15], and in this sense, an important benefit of physical activity or physical exercise for mental health on those patients could be speculated.
For these patients, it is expressly recommended to perform at least 150 min of aerobic exercise of moderate-to-vigorous intensity and at least 2 sessions of resistance exercise. The compliance with these recommendations may have a positive impact on the physical functioning and may improve or maintain their health status [62]. In addition to the specific benefits, aerobic and resistance training seems to be synergic, and available evidence recommends combining both form of trainings to confer great improvements for people with T2D. In this sense, the effects of combined physical exercise program in those patients (aerobic-resistance exercise performed 60-min, 3 days/week for 12 weeks) was examined and reported significant effects in several domains of quality of life in the exercise group (mental health, +40%). The authors emphasize the importance of combining aerobic exercise with strength training in the clinical care of people with T2D [63]. In another study, the effect of three types of treatments in people with T2DM for 24 months was evaluated: (PE) physical exercise with a combined program, n = 59; (M) medication with metformin, n = 30; (PE + M) combination of physical exercise and medication, n = 195. The “PE” group trained three times a week, the “M” used 850 mg of metformin twice a week, and in “PE + M” they combined the two treatments. The physical exercise program consisted in a combination of aerobic, resistance, flexibility, and balance trainings which is performed for 60 min. After the study period, the “PE” and “PE + M” groups improved mood states and better perceived of physical and mental domains of quality of life in comparison with the “M” group [64].
This scientific evidence presented above reinforces the preponderant role that physical exercise plays as medicine in treatment of different pathologies, especially T2D. However, faced with the growing interest in using physical exercise as a non-pharmacological treatment for psychological changes, further research is needed to determine the type and dose response in this population.
Authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.
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Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14206,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7474,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3376,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9199,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:8875,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54048,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7474,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"991",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hassan M.",surname:"Heshmati"}],book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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