Ranking of soils in order of significant erosion predictability
\r\n\tFood insecurity results in fear of hunger and starvation that ultimately affects one’s ability to work for sustainability and economic growth of the country. In addition to this, food insecurity results in various chronic diseases due to reduce immunity that ultimately, a burned on the county economy. Therefore, this book will intend to discuss in detail about the food insecurity challenges and their effect on the quality of life. This book will also aim to provide an overview about the new trends and future prospective that help to resolve the food security issues.
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He also served as an assistant professor for one year at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his doctoral degree from Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany, in 2016. During his stay there, he also worked as a research associate for research projects relevant to various food disciplines. Dr. Ahmad is the author of about thirty five research publications and twelve book chapters. He has also presented his research work at various national and international conferences (25). 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He won the Indigenous and IRSIP (Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA) Fellowships for completion of doctorate research funded by HEC, Islamabad, Pakistan. Dr. Muhammad Imran has expertise in extrusion technology, microencapsulation, lipids chemistry, sensory evaluation, and food process engineering. Until today, Dr. Muhammad Imran has authored 80 publications (International & National) in various Impact Journals of Scientific repute and written 15 Book Chapters as principal author and co-author. 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The problems have adversely affected agricultural productivity and thus casting doubt of food security in the zone. The ecological and social settings in the zone are often distorted some times leading to losses in human and material capitals. In Nigeria desertification and aridity are the major environmental problems of the Northern part of the country while the high torrential rainfall of the southern Nigeria creates enabling environment for catastrophic soil erosion in the region.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe greatest threat to the environmental settings of southeastern Nigeria is the gradual but constant dissection of the landscape by soil erosion by water. Although the incipient stages of soil erosion through rill and interrill are common and easily managed by the people through recommended soil conservation practices, the gully forms have assumed a different dimension such that settlements and scarce arable land are threatened. Therefore, gully erosion problems have become a subject of discussion among soil scientists, geographers, geologists, engineers and social scientists. Ofomata [1] indicated that gully erosion types are the most visible forms of erosion in Nigeria mainly because of the remarkable impression they leave on the surface of the earth. Again Ofomata [2] remarked that more than 1.6% of the entire land area of eastern Nigeria is occupied by gullies. This is very significant for an area that has the highest population density 500 persons per km2 in Nigeria. Before the 1980’s the classical gully sites in the region were the Agulu, Nanka, Ozuitem, Oko in Aguata area, Isuikwuato and Orlu. With the increased development activities the number and magnitude escalated thus making many government administrations within the region to set up soil erosion control with different names in different states. At the last count the Federal Government of Nigeria has started showing interest in ecological problems in the country including the control of the gullies which has reached more than 600 active sites in the region. The gullies are also a visible manifestation of the physical loss of the land due to erosion. Long before now a lot of attention has been focused on the control measurers. As early as the 1930s, the colonial government in Nigeria has undertaken a campaign of tree planting with the main objectives of controlling erosion especially on the steep slopes of upland landscapes in the region. Ever since then there has been a constant enquiry as to the causes of these catastrophic erosion. Most researchers [2, 3, 4] have shown that the environmental factors of vegetation, geology, geomorphology, climate in the form of rainfall which is very aggressive in the region and the soil factor all contribute in the erosion problem and their development. The consequence of the soil erosion is loss of land for agriculture and for habitation. During some slides caused by gully formation, lives have been lost while some communities have been separated because of deep and very wide gullies that may reach in some cases 12 m deep and more than 1.5 km long like the Nanka/Agulu gully complexes or in Oko in Aguata, Anambra State. Crop yields have been reduced, thus creating problem in the “green revolution” campaign.
\n\t\t\tLocation map of the reviewed area
Soil erosion generally is caused by several factors working simultaneously or individually to detach, transport and deposit soil particles in a different place other than where they were formed. The resultant effects of this phenomenon are deep cuttings and ravine which dissects the entire land surface. These are very common site all over the geographical region of southeastern Nigeria. It is well established fact among earth scientists that a number of environment factors as well as pedological parameter influence the extent of soil erosion where ever it occurs globally. These factors are perhaps guided by human factors known as anthropogenic factors. Although man has helped in reshaping and preserving the earth surface yet man has also helped in causing instability of equilibrium in the natural ecology and hence the rapid spread of environmental problem such as soil erosion. Igwe [5] noted that the anthropogenic factors are mainly technical factors comprising mainly of land use and tillage methods, the choice and distribution of cultures and the nature of agro-technology. In Northern hemisphere including many countries of Europe, Giordano et al. [6] showed that among the factors that encourage soil erosion are vegetation clearance, intensive harvesting and over-grazing leaving the soil bare. Other factors are soil compaction caused by heavy machinery which reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil and thus promoting excessive water runoff and soil erosion. In classical modelling works on soil erosion prediction and estimation, works by Renard et al. [7], Igwe et al. [8] among others recognised topography/relief, rainfall and soil factors as being the main agents that determine the extent of soil erosion hazard. The soil factor represents the soil erodibility which is also a product of geology and soil characteristics. In showing how these factors influence the extent of soil erosion and gullying in southeastern Nigeria, there is going to be an attempt into discussing how these parameters contribute to gully erosion in other geographical zones.
\n\t\t\n\t\tHudson [9] observed that in simplest terms steep land is more vulnerable to water erosion than flat land for reasons that erosive forces, splash, scour and transport, all have greater effect on steep slopes. Soil erosion generally is a function of slope attributes. The slope length and the amount of soil erosion have always been proportional to the steepness of the slope. Also the slope geometry of hill sides (i.e. whether convex or concave) often contribute significantly to soil loss and gully development. In southeastern Nigeria, Ofomata [3] found that there is a positive relationship between relief and soil erosion while in southwestern Nigeria, Lal [10] observed an increased severity of soil erosion as the slope changed from 5 to 15%. On a 15% slope he recorded a total soil loss of 230 t/ha/yr from bare plots as against soil loss of 11.2 t/ha/yr on 1% slope.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe topography of southeastern Nigeria according to Ofomata [2] can be classified into three relief units. These units are the plains and lowlands including all the river valleys, the cuesta landscapes and the highlands. It is observed that the uplands which are made up of highly friable sandstones yield easily to erosion and induce gullying even on slopes of about 5%. The cuestas and other highlands with somewhat stable lithology resist gullying but provide aggressive runoff which moves down to devastate the lowland areas especially at the toe slopes and river head-waters. The popular or infamous Agulu-Nanka gully erosion sites started from the head waters of streams and slopes of Awka-Orlu Upland region. The genesis and location of this particular gully site on the landscape is similar to numerous other gully sites in the region.
\n\t\tTypical gully site
The rainfall of southern Nigeria generally is heavy and aggressive. Rainfall amount ranges from over 2500 mm in the southernmost region towards the Atlantic Ocean to about 1500 mm annually around River Benue in the northern borders. Rainfall intensities are high and often above 50 mm/h with short interval intensities in excess of 100 mm/h. Rainfall often come between the month of March and last till October. In some years the rainy period is unduly prolonged while in other years their onset may be delayed for more than 5 weeks. The present global climate change resulting from El-Niño and has not helped issues in this regard.
\n\t\t\tThe nature of the rainfall regime contributes significantly to the erosivity of rainfall. Rainfall erosivity is the potential ability of rain to cause erosion. It is also a function of the physical characteristics of rainfall. Obi and Salako [11] reported that the raindrop sizes obtained generally in the Guinea savannah ecological zone of West Africa ranged from 0.6 to 3.4 mm. The mean drop sizes (D50) of 28 rainfall events ranged from 1-1 to 2.9 mm. There are experimental evidence to suggest that intensity and energy are likely to be closely linked with erosivity. A number of statistical relations have been established in the past between the erosive power and amount of rainfall in other parts of the tropical region [12, 13, 10, 14]. The best estimator of soil loss was found to be a compound parameter, the product of the kinetic energy of the storm and intensity. In Nigeria, the total kinetic energy load of 1091 mm rainfall at Samaru in Northern Nigeria was about 3600 Jm-2. This was twice the amount recorded in southern Africa by Stocking [15]. However, the product of the kinetic energy of the storm and the maximum intensity of the rainfall during the first 30 mins of a storm (EI30) was most significantly correlated with soil loss determined on standard field plots [16]. Erosivity values therefore have been used successfully to produce iso-erodent map of West Africa [14].
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIn southeastern Nigeria, Obi and Ngwu [17] characterised the rainfall regime and recommended Lal’s index of Aim as having advantage over other indices of erosivity such as KE> 1 and EI30. However, Salako et al. [18] compared all the available indices of erosivity adopted in southeastern Nigeria and came up with some modifications of existing ones. Two indices EkI30 and EkIm were recommended
\n\t\t\tWhere;
\n\t\t\tEk is in MJha-1 (kinetic energy)
I30 is 30 minutes rainfall intensity and
Im being maximum intensity computed over a 6 minutes duration
Rainfall therefore plays very significant roles in the erosion hazard of southeastern Nigeria. The rainfall distribution, amount and intensity in combination of other environmental factors contribute in accelerating the rate of interrill rill and gully erosion in southeastern Nigeria. This is evidenced in the sense that as rainfall amount decrease northwards, the rate of all types of soil erosion by water decreases.
\n\t\tThe constant deforestation of the former rainforest due to population explosion and increased agricultural activities in the region expose the bare soils to the vagaries of weather thus escalating the soil erosion problems. The implication is that the soils are frequently subject to different degrees of erosion including accelerated erosion. Vegetation and land use are one of the most important factors in soil erosion process in southeastern Nigeria. Stocking [15] noted that vegetation acts in a variety of ways by intercepting raindrops through encouraging greater infiltration of water and through increasing surface soil organic matter and thereby reducing soil erodibility. According to Lal [19], choosing an appropriate land use can drastically curtail soil erosion.
\n\t\t\tIn southeastern Nigeria soil erosion especially gullies are most intensive on soil on which the former growth has been disturbed, that is mostly on agricultural soils stripped of growth for reasons of infrastructural developments such as road and housing construction. Ofomata [3] showed that in the region soil erosion is connected mainly with agricultural activities and other related land use activities such as mining, road building, urbanization, industrialization and general infrastructural development. These land use activities deprive the soil surface of its vegetation and also contribute directly to sliding, slumping, interrill and rill erosion including gullying.
\n\t\tThe general influence of lithology on soil erosion processes is manifest directly by the resistance of the denuded bed rocks exposed to the flow of water and affected by the character of parent materials whose properties are given by the bed rock. The direct effect of bedrock is also manifest in the properties of the soil forming parent materials which conditions the principal properties. Some geological materials are vulnerable than others to aggressive energy of the rainfall and runoff. High erosion risks match with units of weak unconsolidated geological formations. This is more pronounced when such geological units coincide with medium to long and even very long slopes with marked gradients.
\n\t\t\tIn Nigeria, Ofomata [1] classified the potential erosion susceptible areas based on underlying geology. He indicated that areas of high susceptibility correspond to geological regions of weak unconsolidated sandy formations while least susceptible areas are within the consolidated tertiary to recent sediments. Also in southeastern Nigeria, the classical gully sites are located in the False-bedded sandstone, Coastal Plain sands, Nanka Sands and the Bende-Ameki Formations. These are all sandy formations which have more gullies than their Shale formation counterparts. In these formations, there exist the sites of worst catastrophic soil erosion in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa. The geology therefore plays direct and indirect influence on the gully formation. The indirect effect is on the soil formation and the nature of soil which contribute significantly to erosion processes. The influence of soil process on soil erosion often referred to as erodibility is the subject of discussion in the next section.
\n\t\tThe erodibility of the soil is defined as the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion. It is a measure of a soil’s susceptibility to particle detachment and transport by agents of erosion. Igwe [20] remarked that a number of factors such as the physical and the chemical properties of the soil influence erodibility. In southeastern Nigeria, the nature and the long weathering history of the soils parent material evident in the dominance of the clay mineralogy by non-expanding minerals and low soil organic matter concentration due to high mineralization rates and excessive leaching of nutrients could be linked to the worsening situation. The highly weathered soils contain high concentrations of Fe and Al oxides. Inappropriate land use and soil management options are also a common feature of agriculture in the region. Anthropogenic factors often combine to weakened soils to produce severe gullies. The soils are hence loose and slumps under high intensive rainfall that renders them easily detachable. Some of the soils have the tendency to slake and form seals under such intense rainstorms thereby resulting in considerable runoff and soil erosion. The soil erodibility factor has since been recognized as a contributing factor to soil erosion hazard. The erodibility of the soils in terms of soil indices that predict or promote soil erosion will be elaborated on. The contributions of soil factors to soil erosion in Nigeria have variously been discussed [21, 20, 22]. Igwe et al. [21] found that the soil clay content, level of soil organic matter (SOM) and sesquioxides such as Al and Fe oxides, clay dispersion ratio (CDR), mean-weight diameter (MWD) and geometric-mean weight diameter (GMD) of soil aggregates all influence soil erosion hazards in southeastern Nigeria. SOM, Al and Fe oxides control dispersion and flocculation of the soils. In the event of very aggressive rainfall, the soil inherent properties often combine with the physical forces of rainfall to produce soil erosion in the soils.
\n\t\t\tGully cutting
Erodibility varies with soil texture, aggregate stability, SOM contents and hydraulic properties of the soil. Igwe [22] claimed that the soil dispersion ratio (DR) and the clay dispersion ratio were good indices of erodibility. The soils with high water-dispersible clay (WDC) in southeastern Nigeria often create problem in that in tilled land use, mud flow and soil loss from runoff cause major alteration in the stream flow within watersheds causing severe environmental challenges. Soil crusting, sealing resulting from aggregate breakdown are secondary problems arising from deposited sediments. The large particle sizes are resistant to transport because of the greater forces required to entrain these large particles while the fine particles are resistant to detachment because of their cohesiveness. Aggregate stability and associated indices have been shown to be most efficient soil properties that predict the extent of soil erosion.
\n\t\t\tIn other parts of the world the use of aggregate stability indices in predicting soil erodibility have shown reliable information on the extent and degree of soil erosion [23, 24]. In Western Europe, Le Bissonnais [25] indicated that the mean-weight diameter (MWD) of soil aggregates was a very reliable soil property that could show the erosion potential of the soil in the sense that MWD predicts soil erodibility. Therefore aggregate stability and MWD are very reliable properties in explaining, quantifying or predicting soil erosion and other soil problems such as crusting and sealing.
\n\t\t\tAgain other soil properties encourage structural failure, sliding and mass movement of soils. These soil factors are the mineralogy of the clay and even the soil chemical properties. The stability of the soil mass is therefore depended on the clay minerals present. Illite and smectite more readily form aggregates but the more open lattice structure of these minerals and the greater swelling and shrinkage which occur on wetting and drying render the aggregates less stable than those formed from kaolinite. Soils in which either kaolinite or illite clay predominates but contains small amounts of smectite are easily dispersive. Smectitic soils are more erodible than the soils that contain only small amount of smectite. Conversely, soils that do not contain smectite are more stable, less erodible and less susceptible to seal formation.
\n\t\t\tGully site in association with interill and rill erosion
The sodium dithionite extractable Fe oxide is a soil chemical property which relates significantly with erodibility of the soil. This particular property affects the soil structure and the soil fabric, often being responsible for the formation of soil aggregates and cementation with other major soil components [26, 27]. The mechanism of aggregation of soils in southeastern Nigeria in the presence of Fe (Hydr) oxide has been demonstrated [8, 26, 27]. The presence of OH-Al polymers may lead to a reduction in the swelling and expansion of clay particles by bonding adjacent silica sheets together and by displacing interlayer cations of high hydration power and thus promoting aggregation. Well crystallized aluminium hydroxide may also be able to act as cementing agent in acid soils such as in southeastern Nigeria but its magnitude may be negligible as compared with non-crystalline materials. Iron oxides therefore are more effective than aluminium hydroxide in cement effectiveness except for soils undergoing frequent oxidation-reduction processes.
\n\t\tAn important factor which contributes significantly to soil erosion problem in southern Nigeria is anthopogenic influence arising from misuse of land. Poor farming systems have contributed to collapse of soil structure and thus encouraging accelerated runoff and soil loss due to erosion. In the event of uncontrollable grazing caused by the nomads has resulted in deforestation of the landscape while indiscriminate foot paths created on the landscape has helped the incipient channels on the landscape to form. These channels eventually metamorphose to gullies especially when they are not checked at inception. Road constructions including uncontrolled infrastructural developments have contributed significantly in gully developments. Some road networks under construction have been abandoned in the region due to gully formation.
\n\t\tGully about cutting an asphalt surfaced road
Soil erosion sites in southeastern Nigeria have been identified through various methods. In the 1960s and 1970s gullies were enumerated through natural resource surveys but this method proved to be very cumbersome and often do not actually represent the actual situation on ground. This led to the use of aerial photo interpretation (API) in the generation of information for soil erosion studies. Niger Techno & Technital Spa [28] employed API in the documentation and publication of soil erosion problems in eastern Nigeria. The other methods in this category is remotely acquired data from satellites, radar imageries and from geographic information systems GIS. The advantages of API and other remotely acquired information is that the information they show are real and exact and sometimes in real time. However, acquiring information through this source is very expensive and most often unaffordable by some governments and establishments in Nigeria.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOf late modelling soil erosion hazard in southeastern Nigeria has been very useful not only for erosion hazard prediction but for conservation purposes. Ofomata [3] used multiple regression equation with the environmental factors of climate, vegetation, soil and anthropogenic factors being the variables to predict the soil erosion hazard in southern Nigeria. Again, Igwe et al. [21, 8] employed two different models in predicting soil erosion hazard in some parts of southeastern Nigeria. The predictive abilities of these models with some modifications were satisfactory and approximated data obtained from the field. Table 1 presents the predictive ability of some soil parameters in 25 selected soils in the region.
\n\t\t\tSoils | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tSoil Classification | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDR | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCDI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tRUSLE K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCFI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tMWD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGMD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tOverall* Ranking | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Oseakwa | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGleysols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Akili ozizor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFluvisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Osamala | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Oroma etiti | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGleysols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Umuewelu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Ezillo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Abakaliki | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Okija | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerralsols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Ogurugu | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFluvisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nenwe | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Ifite ogwari | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Umueje | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Umumbo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCambisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Omasi | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Adani | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nsukka | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Obollo afor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nteje | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFerralsols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Awka | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Idodo | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Ukehe | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Abor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nachi | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nanka | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Nawfija | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcrisols | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Ranking of soils in order of significant erosion predictability
*1- most erodible; 25- least erodible; DR- Dispersion ratio; CDI- clay dispersion index; RUSLE K- Wischmeier erodibility factor (K); CFI- clay flocculation index; MWD- mean-weight diameter of soil aggregates; GMD- geometric mean-weight diameter of soil aggregates (Source: Igwe et al [21]).
In other parts of the world the use of some soil parameters such as the water-dispersible clay (WDC) has been adopted as a major parameter in soil erosion models as in the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) [29]. This method has been widely used in the development of soil erosion models for some parts of eastern Nigeria [22]. Soils with high WDC have high soil erosion potential and therefore WDC constitutes a great problem to the soil and the entire environment. The negative influence of high clay dispersion on soil erosion results in detachment, transportation and deposition of sediments with essential plant nutrient elements down stream. This clay associated sediments constitute high environmental menace to man, livestock and agricultural fields. The streams and rivers are silted, while the aquatic life suffers serious problems due to high concentration of nitrates, organic matter and phosphorus in clay suspension down stream. These information have served as basic information for soil conservation processes
\n\t\tThe state of soil erosion problem in southeastern Nigeria calls for a comprehensive soil conservation programme so as to check catastrophic erosion hazard. The soil conservation measures should be those farming system practises which ensure sustainable soil productivity while maintaining equilibrium between the ecosystem and regular anthropogenic influence. In the design of soil conservation strategies, the permissible soil loss tolerance so as to avoid catastrophe in the event of failures of such strategies. In the United States of America, the permissible soil erosion loss is between 2.5 and 12.5 t ha-1 y-1 [7], while in Czech Republic, Holy [30] noted that the permissible soil loss was between 1.0 to 16 t ha-1 y-1 in very deep soil of 120 cm thickness. Obi [31] observed that for a highly weathered, porous and deep ultisol in southeastern Nigeria, the tolerable soil loss was about 10 t ha-1 y-1 under maize production, with appreciable loss in the production capacity of the soils.
\n\t\t\tTherefore, the suggested soil conservation measures based on the agricultural land use is recommended for the entire agro-ecological system. The land use option suitable to the area should be that based on integrated watershed management with arable farming, agroforestry and intensive afforestation. These practises are considered cheap option which can be afforded by the rural poor farmer. The methods are also very sustainable and not destructive to the agricultural land. This is aimed at reducing the annual soil loss rate and prevents the development of fresh gullies in the area. Agricultural land use should be based on topographic variations, major soil distribution, soil potential erosion hazard, hydrology and other geomorphological variables. Igwe [4] recommended that the entire region should be partitioned into 4 broad sections based on their location on the landscape. The lowlands and valley floors which also contain sediments should be put to rainfed and irrigated farming of arable crops. The main soil conservation strategies should be those that improve plant nutrient availability, land levelling in case of irrigation and drainage. On the land areas that are on 5% slope and below, the regular recommended cultural practises of organic matter application to the soil is suggested while mulching, crop rotation and well managed agro-forestry are some of the ways of keeping the soil uneroded. Crop residues in association with tillage systems contribute immensely in the conservation of the soil or other wise. The other remaining 2 land units are those that vary between 5-30 % slope and mostly the sites of catastrophic gullies in the area. They should be permanently forested and may be used for wildlife conservation. The kind of forestation should be that which produces intimate multi-storeyed association of woody species, grasses and creeping legumes. This will ensure steady cover for the bare soil and offer some kind of protection to the soil against the high intensive and aggressive rainfall. The major soil conservation strategies are broad-based terraces and cover cropping of bare soils. A more comprehensive soil conservation method will involve the application of certain hydrological or bioenvironmental processes so as to control the overland flow and excessive runoff.
\n\t\tSoil erosion in the form of gullies is very common in southeastern Nigeria. This review has shown the influence of geology, climate, geomorphology (slope), vegetation, man and soil itself on gully development and soil erosion in general. Typical empirical examples are cited from previous works from other researchers in other parts of the world and locally. Past works on estimation of potential soil erosion hazard in the region indicate that more than 1.6% of the entire land area has been devastated by gullies. The inherent characteristics of the local soils to a large extent promote the spread of soil erosion especially the gully type in the region. The roles of anthropogenic factors with regards to land use and its influence on the vegetation are considered. The serious deforestation of the vegetation and poor revegetation or afforestation programmes have all contributed to the catastrophic erosion hazards. General strategies for soil conservation with respect to soil erosion should include a more comprehensive soil conservation method which will involve the application of certain hydrological or bioenvironmental processes so as to control the overland flow and excessive runoff.
\n\t\tHigh-performance polymeric materials used in the automotive, aerospace, and space industries are progressively replacing metals as structural materials. However, their performances, such as mechanical properties, fatigue life, and esthetic features are usually deteriorated by severe in-service loads and/or environmental conditions. Therefore, the integration of recovery damage capability represents a major challenge for the next generation of technopolymers. [1]
\nSoon after the landmark work by White and Sottos [2] demonstrating the concept of self-healing features in a man-made material, the academic and industrial scientists recognized the ability of this new class of polymers to mitigate the effects of local damages in order to restore mechanical or functional properties and to postpone catastrophic failure of the whole structure. Two primary healing methodologies in polymers focus either on the incorporation of encapsulated healing agents in the polymer bulk or on the introduction of dynamic bonds in the macromolecular backbone. The former mechanism is referred to as extrinsic healing [2, 3, 4]: it is autonomic and is limited to a single, or to very few, healing events occurring in the same site. While the latter is referred to as intrinsic healing [5, 6]: it requires an external stimulus for its activation and can be applied multiple times on the same damaged spot. A thermal process is convenient and effective for treatment of polymers with a wide range of sample sizes and treatment durations. As a result, temperature-dependent reversible covalent cross-linking of polymers or block copolymers, such as DA-based materials, represents an effective method for the implementation of intrinsic self-healing into functional materials [5, 6, 7, 8].
\nSelf-healing thermosets potentially offer increased safety and durability of artifacts produced thereof, and remendable materials are particularly desirable for severe load-bearing applications in which repair and maintenance are costly and safety is concerned.
\nIn addition, costs for material development and production would greatly benefit from the possibility to combine new self-healing materials with conventional resin and from the compatibility with current processing techniques. Nevertheless, the heterogeneity of people involved led to many strategies for improving the durability of existing materials or the synthesis of brand-new polymeric systems. [1] The layout of an efficient strategy to achieve healing efficiency and balance it with mechanical performances exhibited by this new class of materials is a complex task.
\nThis chapter will describe the results we achieved in developing a self-healing epoxy system based on DA reaction. At first, design parameters of an epoxy adduct able to induce mendability will be discussed. Following, techniques to assess the healing capability of a polymeric material are described. Finally, the effort to fabricate composite structural material made by Diels-Alder (DA) thermoset will be discussed [8, 9, 10].
\nIntrinsic healing mechanism relies on complex chemistry, and its development affords several combined advantages. Therefore, following recent interest of scientific community on this topic, development of chemical pathways leading to self-healing strategy will be discussed.
\nSeveral reversible bonds have been used to achieve self-mending functionality. Hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals forces, and electrostatic interactions in polymeric ionomers [11] are claimed to explain self-repair features in supramolecular structures, while covalent disulfide bridges [12], ester linkages [13], alkoxyamine moieties [14], and Diels-Alder bonds [15, 16] account for damage recovery in cross-linked structures. Among them, Diels-Alder chemistry has been widely adopted because of its simplicity, high efficiency, and repeatability through only the application of heat.
\nDiels-Alder chemistry was first described by Otto Diels and Kurt Alder in 1928 [17] and is particularly useful in synthetic organic chemistry as a reliable and clean method for introducing a six-membered DA adducts on a wide range of organic substrates which can be endcapped by reactive functional groups, such as epoxies, acrylates, amines, isocyanates, and hydroxyls. The DA reaction is a thermally reversible cycloaddition between a conjugated diene and a dienophile resulting in a cyclohexene derivative. The cross-linked DA adducts can undergo a cleavage reverse reaction at higher temperatures (rDA) [18, 19]. While several diene-dienophile couples are available for DA reaction, to date, the most investigated precursors are furan/maleimide derivatives. The bond energy of the new C-C σ bonds in DA adducts was evaluated to account to 96.2 kJ/mol [20], while other covalent bond energies are 348 kJ/mol for C-C bonding and 293 kJ/mol for C-N [21]. Since covalent bonds are three to four times stronger than C-C σ bonds formed in DA adducts, cracks are more likely to form and propagate between the new formed bonds in DA adducts. Consequently, available diene and dienophile on the freshly generated surface increase the efficiency of the self-healing method, through the DA recombination. Another notable implication, resulting for the diene-dienophile choice, is the temperature where the self-recovery can be achieved. The range for the rDA reaction of furan/maleimide derivatives is approximately at temperatures higher than 115–120°C, while at lower temperatures the DA recombination is favored.
\nWhen considering self-healing thermosets with the DA reaction, the local molecular mobility, displayed during mending cycles, is a key parameter affecting the healing efficiency. Fast and efficient damage recovery and DA bond recombination are achieved via a local and temporary increase of mobility occurring at temperatures higher than polymer glass transition temperature but lower than rDA cleavage temperature. In the case of DA adducts based on the furan/maleimide couple, the processing window can be identified between the polymer’s
Epoxy resins have been widely used due to their excellent heat resistance, outstanding corrosion protection, high electrical resistivity, and superior mechanical properties. However, cracks might occur as a result of thermal stress and mechanical fatigues during processing and service conditions. Many papers already described epoxy resins containing DA adducts in their backbone [22, 23].
\nFollowing a related concept, bifunctional epoxy precursors cross-linked with amines [24] will be described in the present work. The choice to locate the reversible DA bond on the epoxy or on the amine moieties results in structurally equivalent networks, as far as the self-healing phenomena are concerned. Nevertheless, the synthetic path to produce epoxy DA adducts is easier with respect to the preparation of DA amines, due to the added complexity of amine protection/deprotection. For the sake of simplicity, tetrafunctional amines were used as cross-linkers in the following, while the epoxy functionality was varied between two and four, to investigate about the effect of different cross-linking density.
\nCross-linking density and conformational stiffness of molecular fragments between adjacent cross-links are the main parameters, which affect properties, such as
where
In the case of conventional cross-linked networks,
The ability to adjust the molecular mobility during the healing cycle at a desired preset value is an important molecular design tool, which is helpful in addressing specific application requirements. For example, if the thermosetting DA resin is intended for restoration of small impact damages or micro-delaminations, which are often encountered in the case of barely visible impact damages (BVID) of composite materials, a moderate molecular mobility is required. The sample has to retain its geometry and fiber placement, and long-range viscous flows are detrimental. This target can be achieved tailoring the cleaved state
Further degree of freedom can be introduced in the molecular design if detailed precursor structure is considered. In fact, according to Figure 1(a), a symmetrical Diels-Alder precursor, bearing a pair of cleavable dienophile groups, can be considered. But the same structural features can be achieved using a smaller molecule, as shown in Figure 1(b). In the former case, the formation of an unbound dienophile allows higher molecular mobility, increasing therefore the healing efficiency.
\nExamples of of Diels-Alder adducts: a) symmetric molecules, b) asymmetric molecules.
The coexistence of a stable and a thermo-reversible polymeric network, required for the development of robust self-healing ability [8, 25], is depicted in Figure 2. The hybrid polymer architecture is guaranteed by irreversible cross-links of conventional epoxy (green oval) with tetrafunctional amines (green rectangle) and reversible covalent bonds between furan derivative diene (red pincer) and bismaleimide derivative dienophile (yellow square) of a DA adduct.
\nHybrid network scheme.
The left-hand side of Figure 2 is representative of the cross-linked structure which prevents viscous flows. At low temperatures, the material behaves like a thermoset. As the temperature is increased above the rDA threshold trigger, the cleavage of epoxy DA activates a higher molecular mobility. Small molecular fragments, depicted in the right-hand side schematic of Figure 2 as result of retro Diels-Alder reaction, symbolize distinguishing mobile state and viscous flow of thermoplastic material. Therefore, the presence of thermo-reversible chemical bonds switches the material state between thermoset-like behavior at low temperature and thermoplastic-like flow at high temperature.
\nThe presence of mechanical, thermal, or electrochemical damages results in regions with reduced performances with respect to the surrounding materials and deteriorates the overall response of the component.
\nThe evaluation of self-healing efficiency is a complex task, which is not extensively disciplined yet in test standards or experimental procedures. It can be performed at different dimensional scales, starting from visual inspection or optical microscopy (OM) observation, up to spectroscopic techniques based on molecular interaction, comprising mechanical and dynamical-mechanical characterization [26].
\nThe self-healing mechanism of thermo-reversible epoxy resins relies on the direct and reverse cycloaddition Diels-Alder reaction, which could be monitored by FTIR through the investigation of the spectral band of the C-O-C peak around 1180 cm−1 [8, 27]. Similarly, stretching vibrations in Raman spectra of C=C at 1501, 1575, 1585, and 1600 cm−1 bands, related to furan/maleimide-based DA adduct, could be used to monitor the progress of the reactions [28]. Due to the system complexity, only the signal at 1501 cm−1, ascribable to C=C stretching vibration of the furan ring [28, 29], is a useful marker.
\nSince reversible epoxy thermosets exhibit properties of both highly cross-linked epoxy thermosets as well as typical behavior of thermoplastics that soften and flow at elevated temperatures, the study of thermomechanical behavior of self-healing DA system allows the identification of macroscopic behavior related to low-temperature highly cross-linked status or the high-temperature viscous thermoplastic-like condition.
\nFigure 3 depicts the healing and reshaping cycles of a composite coupon based on self-healing resin. Thermo-reversible bonds affect the molecular mobility [30]; therefore, the investigation of linear viscoelastic behavior is a suitable procedure to assess the self-healing feature of the material.
\nSchematic of the transition between thermoset state and thermoplastic state triggered by temperature.
Rheological tests can be used to discriminate between the solid like behavior and the semi-viscous state of degenerated networks, by measuring storage and loss moduli as a function of temperature [8, 31, 32].
\nOn the other hand, rheological experiments can effectively complement the mechanical and dynamical-mechanical characterization. Thermo-reversible epoxy resins, similar to conventional ones, exhibit little elongation at break. This characteristic depends on the degree of cross-linking of the polymer chains, and then failure of such systems could be described in terms of linear fracture mechanics [6].
\nThe experimental assessment of the fracture properties relies on the study of short-term monotonical loading.
\nThe failures in polymeric materials are a result of chain scission and structural breakup. Self-healing recovery of damaged polymeric structure prevents or reduces the fracture propagation. When the applied load exceeds the critical fracture stress, the crack grows. If the healing cycles preserve the initial shape and dimensions, the healing efficiency, η, may be calculated as expressed in Eq. (2):
\nwhere \n
However, while the efficiency defined in terms of the applied stress represents an actual measured quantity, the same quantity expressed in terms of the stress-intensity factor represents an estimate using a fracture model. The lack of control inherent in the fracture process precludes a direct comparison.
\nGenerally, the efficiency of the healing process is evaluated by the experimental comparison between the performance of intact and healed material [2]:
\nThe subscripts refer to whether the property is measured after healing (
Self-healing feature increases the durability of thermosets by reducing the service costs for high-end applications. Unfortunately, the use of smart polymeric materials raises the issue of a compromise between material performance and integration of self-healing properties. Rigid materials have specific properties, which should remain unchanged by the self-healing chemistry both during use and later to a healing treatment. Such surfaces are usually made of highly cross-linked thermoset polymers; the incorporation of self-healing functionalities into their formulations can be problematic and needs to be investigated.
\nBased on the hierarchical criteria developed on Section 2, a family of epoxy precursors was prepared integrating Diels-Alder precursors 2Ph2Epo and 2Ph4Epo cross-linked with tetrafunctional amines (Table 1).
\nDiels-Alder epoxy precursors.
The two precursors differ in number of epoxy groups, keeping central furan/maleimide DA adduct fixed. Structural formulae of epoxy precursors are shown in Table 1. The 2Ph2Epo is characterized by the presence of two oxirane rings and two Diels-Alder adducts. The introduction of two additional functional groups results in 2Ph4Epo.
\nTo induce the self-healing capability, two identical dienes (furfural derivatives) were capped on a bismaleimide dienophiles, resulting in a symmetrical epoxy compound containing two Diels-Alder adducts. The synthesis of 2Ph2Epo has already been described by the authors in [24]. 1H-NMR spectrum, recorded in
Analogously, the use of furan derivative with a pair of oxirane rings results in the preparation of 2Ph4Epo adduct. Also in this case, the 1H-NMR spectrum confirmed the accuracy of structure reported in Table 1.
\nThe Diels-Alder epoxies 2Ph2Epo and 2Ph4Epo and their mixture with DGEBA were cross-linked using stoichiometrically balanced DDM and Jeff500 as curing agents (Figure 4) at 90°C for 24 hours.
\nMolecular structures of DGEBA, DDM, and Jeff500.
Suitable samples of self-healing epoxy resin have been developed by application of the criteria shown in Section 2. To vouch for a complete physical-chemical and technological compatibility with conventional epoxy system and production technology used in the field of epoxy resin and composites thereof, a mixture of commercial tetrafunctional amines was used as curing agent. The mixture of two different amines was used to finely tune the glass transition temperature of the self-healing resin in the range of 90°C and achieve full cure at temperatures below rDA reaction without incurring the temporary scission of epoxy precursor. The cross-linking density and
Composition of all samples is reported in Table 2.
\nAcronym | \nDA epoxy (mol) | \nDGEBA (mol) | \nDDM (mol) | \nJeff500 (mol) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
DGEBA100 | \n— | \n1.00 | \n0.30 | \n0.20 | \n
2Ph2Epo100 | \n1.00 | \n— | \n0.30 | \n0.20 | \n
2Ph2Epo65 | \n0.65 | \n0.35 | \n0.30 | \n0.20 | \n
2Ph4Epo100 | \n1.00 | \n— | \n0.60 | \n0.40 | \n
DGEBA100 | \n— | \n1.00 | \n0.30 | \n0.20 | \n
Cross-linked sample composition.
Samples reported in Table 2 were cured at 90°C for 24 hours. DSC confirmed the complete conversion of cross-linking reaction by the absence of residual reactivity.
\nAs already discussed, the self-healing capability of small fractures and BVID is related to local molecular mobility, temporarily activated by temperature increase. The observation of superficial scratches and their recovery is a generally accepted technique for the assessment of self-healing features. For this task, a controlled mark has been produced by sharp scalpel and observed by optical microscopy (Olympus BX 51 M), applying suitable thermal stimulus by means of Linkam THM600 hot stage.
\nAs expected, microscopy observation performed on cross-linked DGEBA resin cured with a mixture of 60/40 mol/mol of DDM and Jeff500 amines (DGEBA100,
Scratch recovery for DGEBA100, 10 × magnification. From left to right: at room temperature, at 140°C, after additional annealing for 20 min at 140°C.
Only a minor modification of scratch width can be detected as a result of stress relaxation at temperature higher than resin
On the other hand, thermal treatment at 120°C for 5 min completely restored the damaged surface of 2Ph2Epo100 sample, as depicted in Figure 6. Unfortunately, the high molecular mobility achieved in the activated stage produced sample deformation and viscous flow. In fact, due to the high concentration of reversible bonds, the cross-linking density in the cleaved stage dropped, and materials transformed into viscous thermoplastic.
\nScratch recovery for 2Ph2Epo100, 10 × magnification. From left to right: at room temperature, at 120°C, after additional annealing for 5 min at 120°C.
The occurrence of this phenomenon is not desirable if self-healing materials have to be used for structural application and the molecular mobility has to be reduced, either by introducing a thermally stable epoxy precursor such as DGEBA or by using a tetrafunctional DA precursor.
\nIn the first case, the 2Ph2Epo65 system, containing 65% of DA epoxy and 35% of DGEBA (Table 2), was prepared, with
Scratch recovery for 2Ph2Epo65, 10 × magnification. From left to right: at room temperature, at 120°C, after additional annealing for 30 min at 120°C.
The second approach to prevent viscous flow of materials during the high-temperature stage is to use Diels-Alder epoxy adduct with functionality higher than 2. The presence of four reacting epoxy groups for each precursor molecule (2Ph4Epo) increases the cross-linking density. 2Ph4Epo100 was prepared according to Table 2 and fully cured at 90°C for 24 hours, reaching a
Scratch recovery for DGEBA2Ph4Epo100, 10 × magnification. From left to right: at room temperature, at 120°C, after additional annealing for 20 min at 120°C.
Upon sample breakage, Diels-Alder bonds are preferentially cleaved because they are weaker than other covalent bonds building up the cross-linked network. Therefore, the occurrence of mechanical damage makes diene and dienophile groups available for self-healing on the fracture surface. But molecular backbone in the close proximity of damage remains unaffected, and the overall material stiffness prevents an efficient fracture healing. For this reason, further thermal treatment at 120°C is applied to complete cleavage of DA bonds and to maximize molecular mobility. Physical healing, due to diffusion of molecular fragments in the activated stage, allows the fracture edges recombination. After the first step, a further annealing at 90°C is required to restore the pristine cross-linking density and mechanical properties by direct Diels-Alder reaction.
\nThe proposed healing mechanism is validated by analysis of micro-mechanical tests, performed by Micro Materials NanoTest™ Platform. 2Ph2Epo65 properties have been evaluated and compared between the pristine as prepared and after incremental treatments, including morphological healing and structural annealing.
\nThe reduced elastic modulus,
where A is the contact area, β the geometric constant (1.034 for a Berkovich indenter), and S the unloading stiffness at maximum load. E and ν are the elastic modulus and the Poisson ratio; and the subscripts “i” and “s” refer to the diamond indenter and the specimen, respectively. The Ei is 1140 GPa, the νi is 0.07, and the νs is 0.35.
\nAll data were corrected for thermal drift and instrument compliance and subsequently analyzed with the Oliver and Pharr method [36]. According to Zheng [37], elastic modulus measured by depth indentation technique overrates the elastic modulus by a factor of 5–20%. Reduced modulus is reported in Table 3. After heating at 120°C, required to promote the morphological recombination of scratch edges, the modulus drops down by a factor of 2. In fact, the occurrence of rDA reaction induces the cleavage of specific covalent bonds and reduces the cross-linking density. However, the effect is not permanent. The pristine properties can be recovered by prolonged annealing at 90°C, when DA reaction can lead to network restoration.
\nSpecimen type | \nReduced modulus, Er (GPa) | \n
---|---|
As prepared | \n4.80 ± 0.03 | \n
Morphological healing: 20’ @ 120°C | \n2.54 ± 0.05 | \n
Structural healing: 20’ @ 120°C + 12h @ 90°C | \n4.56 ± 0.05 | \n
Reduced modulus (GPa) of self-healing 2Ph2Epo65 epoxy resin.
The self-healing epoxy 2Ph2Epo65 has been considered for manufacturing a composite plate with the aim to investigate the fracture behavior and to assess the healing efficiency of the system. Interlaminar behavior of the CFRP (composite fiber-reinforced plastic) has been studied by means of shear strength of the laminate.
\nShear tests can be conducted on composite laminates following different experimental approaches, depending on the mode of fracture that needs to be assessed. The ability to recover damages after a cohesive failure has been investigated by interlaminar shear strength (ILSS), and mode II fracture loading has been studied by performing the End Notch Failure (ENF).
\nA composite plate has been manufactured by liquid molding process under vacuum bag; 12 unidirectional layers were laminated to reach a nominal thickness of 3 mm. The presence of a Kapton layer in a bending test (in the case of ENF tests) leads to the mutual sliding of separated parts promoting a mode II failure (shear mode) [38], according to ASTM D7905.
\nLoad versus displacement curves during ENF tests is reported in Figure 9 and show an initial linear behaviour up to the critical load (nonlinearity load, NL). Above this point, delaminations start and steadily propagate until the maximum load is achieved. Afterwards, unstable delamination growth leads to load decrease.
\nEnd Notched Failure test.
The first healing treatment allowed to recover the pristine stiffness, with a sample strength decrease. However, during the third load cycle (i.e., after the second healing), a significant stiffness loss is experienced. Different behaviors between neat polymer and laminate should be related to specific composite features. Delaminations could occur both as effect of a matrix failure and as interface debonding. Moreover, any damage incurring to the reinforcing fibers would reduce material stiffness without chance of recovery.
\nThe critical strain energy release rate should be evaluated as function of the NL load:
\nFracture toughness was determined using Eq. (5), where
Table 4 reports the recovery efficiencies measured as interlaminar critical strength and as critical energy for mode II delaminations. Fracture toughness showed a less effective recovery ability of 52.4% compared to static interlaminar strength recovery of 81.7%.
\nCycle | \nILSS (MPa) | \nη (%) | \nGIIc (J/m2) | \nη (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | \n54.1 ± 1.1 | \n100 | \n650 ± 20 | \n100 | \n
1 | \n51.4 ± 5.1 | \n95.1 | \n583 ± 13 | \n89.7 | \n
2 | \n44.2 ± 4.9 | \n81.7 | \n341 ± 32 | \n52.4 | \n
Strength recovery after failures.
The development of self-healing materials is a very attractive approach to provide long-lasting and efficient protection against micro damages. Great attention from numerous research groups has been paid to polymers, composites, and coatings, which exhibit self-healing behavior at different dimensional scales. Through the chapter, the overall design flow for achieving hybrid epoxy systems containing covalent thermo-reversible bonds and the preparation and evaluation of selected examples were detailed. This paper underlines that the concurring presence of thermo-reversible covalent bonds and high molecular mobility are essential requirements to develop self-healing systems. The most effective structural modification has been pursued by adjustment of the several features: average functionality of reacting precursor mixture and cross-linking density and thermosetting network and concentration of self-healing reversible bonds. Also, the requirements of easy and efficient self-healing were compromised with development of material properties compliant with structural and semi-structural applications.
\nIn particular, possibility to tailor the properties of “dynamic” epoxy resins containing Diels-Alder bonds would allow the development of novel materials, such as reengineered FRP combining the ease of processability typical of thermosets with reworking/recycling capability at the end of life typical of thermoplastics, as an effort to improve environmental sustainability of advanced materials.
\nThe authors thank Mrs. Maria Rosaria Marcedula, Mr. Fabio Docimo, and Mr. Mario De Angioletti for their contribution to the experimental setup and testing.
\nThe authors declare no conflict.
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Geophysics",slug:"geology-and-geophysics"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:206,numberOfWosCitations:153,numberOfCrossrefCitations:125,numberOfDimensionsCitations:272,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"658",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:"progress-in-volcanology",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9992",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"Transdisciplinary Nature of Volcano Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9f71037866aa5450cf23c0fb74711d1",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-transdisciplinary-nature-of-volcano-science",bookSignature:"Károly Németh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7677",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5afd431dd1f4f5081355b017fd17f237",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6104",title:"Volcanoes",subtitle:"Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a11586252b4ac42153a8b2bc9a8fcf08",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",bookSignature:"Gemma Aiello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6104.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100661",title:"Dr.",name:"Gemma",middleName:null,surname:"Aiello",slug:"gemma-aiello",fullName:"Gemma Aiello"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5311",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a579041bbfa682d2376a58326d0483e6",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",bookSignature:"Karoly Nemeth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5694",title:"6th International Maar Conference Abstracts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f96e1339bf34deb5cb0228dba907b1b3",slug:"6th-international-maar-conference-abstracts",bookSignature:"Jiaqi Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194433",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiaqi",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"jiaqi-liu",fullName:"Jiaqi Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5104",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f91748e9b1463ce5e7352ea982c3128",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Maged Marghany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5104.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96666",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Maged",middleName:null,surname:"Marghany",slug:"dr.-maged-marghany",fullName:"Dr. Maged Marghany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"409",title:"Updates in Volcanology",subtitle:"A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39ff133e87b1d1f1a07d872ff755762b",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",bookSignature:"Francesco Stoppa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/409.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"25980",doi:"10.5772/25264",title:"Hydrovolcanic vs Magmatic Processes in Forming Maars and Associated Pyroclasts: The Calatrava -Spain- Case History",slug:"hydrovolcanic-vs-magmatic-processes-in-forming-maars-and-associated-pyroclasts-the-calatrava-spain-c",totalDownloads:2862,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"409",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-a-comprehensive-approach-to-volcanological-problems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - A Comprehensive Approach to Volcanological Problems"},signatures:"F. Stoppa, G. Rosatelli, M. Schiazza and A. Tranquilli",authors:[{id:"57017",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Stoppa",slug:"francesco-stoppa",fullName:"Francesco Stoppa"},{id:"62737",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluigi",middleName:null,surname:"Rosatelli",slug:"gianluigi-rosatelli",fullName:"Gianluigi Rosatelli"},{id:"62738",title:"Mr",name:"Mariangela",middleName:null,surname:"Schiazza",slug:"mariangela-schiazza",fullName:"Mariangela Schiazza"},{id:"62739",title:"Mr",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Tranquilli",slug:"andrea-tranquilli",fullName:"Andrea Tranquilli"}]},{id:"51948",doi:"10.5772/64129",title:"Fumarolic Minerals: An Overview of Active European Volcanoes",slug:"fumarolic-minerals-an-overview-of-active-european-volcanoes",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The fumarolic mineralogy of the Icelandic active volcanoes, the Tyrrhenian volcanic belt (Italy) and the Aegean active arc (Greece) is investigated, and literature data surveyed in order to define the characteristics of the European fumarolic systems. They show broad diversity of mineral associations, with Vesuvius and Vulcano being also among the world localities richest in mineral species. Volcanic systems, which show recession over a longer period, show fumarolic development from the high-temperature alkaline halide/sulphate, calcic sulphate or sulphidic parageneses, synchronous with or immediately following the eruptions, through medium-temperature ammonium minerals, metal chlorides, or fluoride associations to the late low-temperature paragenesis dominated by sulphur, gypsum, alunogen, and other hydrous sulphates. The situation can be different in the systems that are not recessing but show fluctuations in activity, illustrated by the example of Vulcano where the high-temperature association appears intermittently. A full survey of the mineral groups and species is given in respect to their importance and appearance in fumarolic associations.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Tonči Balić-Žunić, Anna Garavelli, Sveinn Peter Jakobsson, Kristjan\nJonasson, Athanasios Katerinopoulos, Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos\nand Pasquale Acquafredda",authors:[{id:"183593",title:"Dr.",name:"Tonci",middleName:null,surname:"Balic-Zunic",slug:"tonci-balic-zunic",fullName:"Tonci Balic-Zunic"},{id:"183700",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Garavelli",slug:"anna-garavelli",fullName:"Anna Garavelli"},{id:"183701",title:"Dr.",name:"Sveinn Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Jakobsson",slug:"sveinn-peter-jakobsson",fullName:"Sveinn Peter Jakobsson"},{id:"183702",title:"Prof.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Katerinopoulos",slug:"athanasios-katerinopoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Katerinopoulos"},{id:"188833",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristjan",middleName:null,surname:"Jonasson",slug:"kristjan-jonasson",fullName:"Kristjan Jonasson"},{id:"188834",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Kyriakopoulos",slug:"konstantinos-kyriakopoulos",fullName:"Konstantinos Kyriakopoulos"},{id:"188835",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Acquafredda",slug:"pasquale-acquafredda",fullName:"Pasquale Acquafredda"}]},{id:"51105",doi:"10.5772/63486",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]},{id:"49656",doi:"10.5772/61974",title:"Optical Satellite Remote Sensing of the Coastal Zone Environment — An Overview",slug:"optical-satellite-remote-sensing-of-the-coastal-zone-environment-an-overview",totalDownloads:2469,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Optical remote-sensing data are a powerful source of information for monitoring the coastal environment. Due to the high complexity of coastal environments, where different natural and anthropogenic phenomenon interact, the selection of the most appropriate sensor(s) is related to the applications required, and the different types of resolutions available (spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal) need to be considered. The development of specific techniques and tools based on the processing of optical satellite images makes possible the production of information useful for coastal environment management, without any destructive impacts. This chapter will highlight different subjects related to coastal environments: shoreline change detection, ocean color, water quality, river plumes, coral reef, alga bloom, bathymetry, wetland mapping, and coastal hazards/vulnerability. The main objective of this chapter is not an exhaustive description of the image processing methods/algorithms employed in coastal environmental studies, but focus in the range of applications available. Several limitations were identified. The major challenge still is to have remote-sensing techniques adopted as a routine tool in assessment of change in the coastal zone. Continuing research is required into the techniques employed for assessing change in the coastal environment.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Ana C. Teodoro",authors:[{id:"18485",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Teodoro",slug:"ana-teodoro",fullName:"Ana Teodoro"}]},{id:"49851",doi:"10.5772/62122",title:"Detection of Tree Crowns in Very High Spatial Resolution Images",slug:"detection-of-tree-crowns-in-very-high-spatial-resolution-images",totalDownloads:3240,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The requirements for advanced knowledge on forest resources have led researchers to develop efficient methods to provide detailed information about trees. Since 1999, orbital remote sensing has been providing very high resolution (VHR) image data. The new generation of satellite allows individual tree crowns to be visually identifiable. The increase in spatial resolution has also had a profound effect in image processing techniques and has motivated the development of new object-based procedures to extract information. Tree crown detection has become a major area of research in image analysis considering the complex nature of trees in an uncontrolled environment. This chapter is subdivided into two parts. Part I offers an overview of the state of the art in computer detection of individual tree crowns in VHR images. Part II presents a new hybrid approach developed by the authors that integrates geometrical-optical modeling (GOM), marked point processes (MPP), and template matching (TM) to individually detect tree crowns in VHR images. The method is presented for two different applications: isolated tree detection in an urban environment and automatic tree counting in orchards with an average performance rate of 82% for tree detection and above 90% for tree counting in orchards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Marilia Ferreira Gomes and Philippe Maillard",authors:[{id:"177110",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Maillard",slug:"philippe-maillard",fullName:"Philippe Maillard"},{id:"177172",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marilia",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Gomes",slug:"marilia-gomes",fullName:"Marilia Gomes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66703",title:"P-Wave Teleseismic Tomography: Evidence of Imprints of Deccan Mantle Plume below the Kachchh Rift Zone, Gujarat, India",slug:"p-wave-teleseismic-tomography-evidence-of-imprints-of-deccan-mantle-plume-below-the-kachchh-rift-zon",totalDownloads:2602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Indian plate had experienced the Deccan volcanism at 65 Ma when it moved over the Re-union hotspot, which has altered lithospheric structure below the Kachchh rift zone (KRZ). To quantify the influence of Deccan volcanism on the crust-mantle, the present chapter focuses on the delineation of the upper mantle structure below the KRZ, through the modeling of crust corrected P-residuals and P-wave teleseismic tomography. The crust corrected normalized P-residuals suggest dominant negative residuals associated with the central KRZ, indicating crustal and lithospheric thinning below the KRZ. A low velocity down to a depth of 170 km below the central KRZ is detected through the teleseismic tomography using these P-residuals. However, these residuals also show positive values for the surrounding un-rifted zones. Note that a low shear velocity zone extending from 100–120 km to 170–220 km depth beneath the central KRZ has already been revealed by the modeling of P-RFs. This reduction in seismic velocity in the upper mantle could be explained by the presence of trapped carbonatite/partial melts related to the Deccan volcanism. The influx of volatile CO2 emanating from the carbonatite melts in the asthenosphere might be generating lower crustal earthquakes occurring in the KRZ.",book:{id:"7677",slug:"forecasting-volcanic-eruptions",title:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions",fullTitle:"Forecasting Volcanic Eruptions"},signatures:"Prantik Mandal",authors:[{id:"279344",title:"Dr.",name:"Prantik",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"prantik-mandal",fullName:"Prantik Mandal"}]},{id:"49608",title:"Remote Sensing of Mountain Glaciers and Related Hazards",slug:"remote-sensing-of-mountain-glaciers-and-related-hazards",totalDownloads:2386,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Mountain glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature and precipitation fluctuations and active geomorphic agents in shaping the landforms of glaciated regions which are direct imprints of past glaciations, providing reliable evidence of the evolution of the past Cryosphere and contain important information on climatic variables. But most importantly, glaciers have aroused a lot of concern in terms of glacier area changes, thickness change, mass balance and their consequences on water resources as well as related hazards. The contribution of glacier mass loss to global sea-level rise and increasing number of glacier-related hazards are the most important and current socioeconomic concerns. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of the changes and constant monitoring of glaciers are essential for studying climate, water resource management and hydropower and also to predict and evade glacier-related hazards. The recent advances in the techniques of earth observations have proved as a boon for investigating glaciers and glacier-related hazards. Remote sensing technology enables extraction of glacier parameters such as albedo/reflectance/scattering, glacier area, glacier zones and facies, equilibrium line, glacier thickness, volume, mass balance, velocity and glacier topography. The present chapter explores the prospective of remote sensing technology for understanding and surveying glaciers formed at high, inaccessible mountains and glacier-induced hazards.",book:{id:"5104",slug:"environmental-applications-of-remote-sensing",title:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Environmental Applications of Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Pratima Pandey, Alagappan Ramanathan and Gopalan\nVenkataraman",authors:[{id:"18342",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Alagappan",slug:"ramanathan-alagappan",fullName:"Ramanathan Alagappan"},{id:"177179",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratima",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"pratima-pandey",fullName:"Pratima Pandey"},{id:"178231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gopalan",middleName:null,surname:"Venkataraman",slug:"gopalan-venkataraman",fullName:"Gopalan Venkataraman"}]},{id:"60548",title:"Volcanic Glass and its Uses as Adsorbent",slug:"volcanic-glass-and-its-uses-as-adsorbent",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Volcanic glasses are an amorphous phyllosilicates formed by the fast cooling of the magma. The physicochemical properties of volcanic glasses are directly related to their chemical composition. Thus, the rhyolitic magma, which presents the highest SiO2 percentage, displays a high viscosity, which leads to explosive eruptions by the ex-solution of H2O, CO2, and SO2, when the pressure diminishes generates a macroporous structure with interesting applications in construction, as abrasive, acoustic, filter as well as in the agriculture field. The macroporosity of volcanic glass allows to host large molecules as biomolecules, tensoactives, or dyes. On the other hand, the existence of hydroxyl groups in this amorphous aluminosilicate also favors the adsorption of cations and anions, so the volcanic glass is an economical adsorbent to retain heavy metals or radioactive cations.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Juan Antonio Cecilia, Miguel Armando Autie-Pérez, Juan Manuel\nLabadie-Suarez, Enrique Rodríguez Castellón and Antonia Infantes\nMolina",authors:[{id:"126325",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Castellón",slug:"enrique-rodriguez-castellon",fullName:"Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón"}]},{id:"57502",title:"The Characteristics of Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia",slug:"the-characteristics-of-volcanic-eruption-in-indonesia",totalDownloads:1846,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter discusses the unique characteristics of the volcanic eruptions in Indonesia. We know that Indonesia has 147 volcanoes and 76 of them are active volcanoes and spread along the islands of Java, Lesser Sunda, Sumatra, and Celebes. The characteristics of Indonesian volcanoes are quite unique in terms of the formation process, eruption phenomenon, and the resulting natural disasters. Most volcanoes in Indonesia consist of stratovolcanoes, but this does not mean that the resulting eruptions are always explosive and they have a long period. This can be seen from the activity of Semeru that always erupts effusively every day, Sinabung that has a very short eruption period, Tangkuban Perahu eruption that occurs suddenly with the lack of early signs, and Merapi and Kelud that have eruption period that is getting shorter. Based on the results of our study it can be known that the types of volcanic eruption are influenced by the structure of the constituent rocks of the volcanoes. However, the presence of external control factors in the form of large-scale earthquakes will affect their periodicity. The large earthquakes can affect the stability of the magma chamber that can trigger a premature eruption.",book:{id:"6104",slug:"volcanoes-geological-and-geophysical-setting-theoretical-aspects-and-numerical-modeling-applications-to-industry-and-their-impact-on-the-human-health",title:"Volcanoes",fullTitle:"Volcanoes - Geological and Geophysical Setting, Theoretical Aspects and Numerical Modeling, Applications to Industry and Their Impact on the Human Health"},signatures:"Eko Hariyono and Liliasari S",authors:[{id:"214360",title:"Dr.",name:"Eko",middleName:null,surname:"Hariyono",slug:"eko-hariyono",fullName:"Eko Hariyono"},{id:"219699",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliasari",middleName:null,surname:"S",slug:"liliasari-s",fullName:"Liliasari S"}]},{id:"51105",title:"How Polygenetic are Monogenetic Volcanoes: Case Studies of Some Complex Maar‐Diatreme Volcanoes",slug:"how-polygenetic-are-monogenetic-volcanoes-case-studies-of-some-complex-maar-diatreme-volcanoes",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing number of field investigations and various controlled benchtop and large‐scale experiments have permitted the evaluation of a large number of processes involved in the formation of maar‐diatreme volcanoes, the second most common type of small‐volume subaerial volcanoes on Earth. A maar‐diatreme volcano is recognized by a volcanic crater that is cut into country rocks and surrounded by a low‐height ejecta rim composed of pyroclastic deposits of few meters to up to 200 m thick above the syn‐eruptive surface level. The craters vary from 0.1 km to up to 5 km wide and vary in depth from a few dozen meters to up to 300 m deep. Their irregular morphology reflects the simple or complex volcanic and cratering processes involved in their formation. The simplicity or complexity of the crater or the entire maar itself is usually observed in the stratigraphy of the surrounding ejecta rings. The latter are composed of sequences of successive alternating and contrastingly bedded phreatomagmatic‐derived dilute pyroclastic density currents (PDC) and fallout depositions, with occasional interbedded Strombolian‐derived spatter materials or scoria fall units, exemplifying the changes in the eruptive styles during the formation of the volcano. The entire stratigraphic sequence might be preserved as a single eruptive package (small or very thick) in which there is no stratigraphic gap or significant discordance indicative of a potential break during the eruption. A maar with a single eruptive deposit is quantified as monogenetic maar, meaning that it was formed by a single eruptive vent from which only a small and ephemeral magma erupted over a short period of time. The stratigraphy may also display several packages of deposits separated either by contrasting discordance surfaces or paleosoils, which reflect multiple phases or episodes of eruptions within the same maar. Such maars are characterized as complex polycyclic maars if the length of time between the eruptive events is relatively short (days to years). For greater length of time (thousands to millions of years), the complex maar will be quantified as polygenetic. These common depositional breaks interpreted as signs of temporal interruption of the eruptions for various timescales also indicate deep magma system processes; hence magmas of different types might erupt during the formation of both simple and complex maars. The feeding dikes can interact with groundwater and form closely distributed small craters. The latter can coalesce to form a final crater with various shapes depending on the distance between them. This observation indicates the significant role of the magmatic plumbing system on the formation and growth of complex and polygenetic maar‐diatreme volcanoes.",book:{id:"5311",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-from-volcano-modelling-to-volcano-geology",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology"},signatures:"Boris Chako Tchamabé, Gabor Kereszturi, Karoly Németh and\nGerardo Carrasco‐Núñez",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"},{id:"182834",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Chako Tchamabé",slug:"boris-chako-tchamabe",fullName:"Boris Chako Tchamabé"},{id:"183809",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Núñez",slug:"gerardo-carrasco-nunez",fullName:"Gerardo Carrasco-Núñez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"658",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/118546",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"118546"},fullPath:"/profiles/118546",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()