Summary of landslide inventory showing affected districts and death and injury reported from 2016 to 2020.
\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-945-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-944-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-946-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0b1e679fcacdec2448603a66df71ccc7",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmut Çalışkan and Dr. Sevcan Aydin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg",keywords:"PCR Based Methods, Protein Based Methods, Sequencing, Conservation of Genetic Resources, Natural Variation, Molecular Markers, Genetic Manipulation in Animals, Resistance to Disease, Genetic Manipulation in Plants, Use of Microorganisms in Biotechnology, Genetic Differentiation, Gene Therapy and Gene Editing",numberOfDownloads:13,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of genetics and molecular biology and Head of Biotechnology division at İstanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include plant molecular genetics, microbial biotechnology and characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaeal strains.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Turkey whose main research areas include genetics, environmental biotechnology and bioengineering.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"462767",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevcan",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"sevcan-aydin",fullName:"Sevcan Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003QRfRpQAL/Profile_Picture_2022-03-24T08:49:06.jpg",biography:"Sevcan Aydın is an Associate Professor of Biotechnology Division in Department of Biology at Istanbul University in Türkiye. She obtained her bachelor's degree from Biology Department of Ege University. She obtained her Ph.D. in Biotechnology Programme of Istanbul Technical University. 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Over decades, genetic and genomic studies provided invulnerable evidence that the host showed a genetic variation in its response to infectious agents, that may otherwise affect epidemiological risks, morbidity, and survival [1, 2, 3, 4]. Determining the host genetic implications in the risk of the epidemic and its severity remains the biggest obstacle to the infectious disease research progression [5, 6]. Because of the large size of the samples required by quantitative genetic studies, the definition of disease resistance based on individual mortality must be changed because it is easy in any case to know if the subjects’ mortality was happening due to the exposition to infectious diseases or not. But, this is not true in the case of survival because it is multisided, and it may depend not only on an individual’s resistance to infectious agents but also on his ability to survive after getting a disease or infection [7, 8].
Obviously, interest has increased in the infectivity genetic regulation, which can be described as the capability of a pathogen to infect an individual upon contact. Comprehension of the genetic regulation of infectivity is especially relevant if there are contrary genomic associations between these traits and elements of tolerance or resistance [9, 10, 11]. Such unfavorable genetic associations could be arising if subjects with much genetic survival not only come over with infection but also have a tendency to shed more pathogens [12]. Endurance and resistance infectivity may be controlled by several gene sets with variable contributions, both in degree and direction for survival [7, 13]. Despite this, no study has investigated these three traits at the same time. It is worth noting that plenty of quantitative genetic studies revealed variation in genetic resistance [2, 14, 15, 16], however, only a few studies showed a genetic difference in disease survival [7, 8]. In the context of infectious diseases, genomic selection may definitely restrict the spread of the disease by implementing a mechanism for determining high-risk people of infection [1].
Almost two decades after the outset of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), produced by a beta coronavirus, recently called SARS-CoV-1, the world was surprised by the emergence of a more virulent and infectious new virus in late 2019. This virus soon spread to almost all parts of the world and quickly reached the epidemic disease state [17]. The new coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak originated from the SARS-CoV-2 virus suddenly became a major public health threat. COVID-19 is characterized by different types of clinical characterizations: affected patients can be asymptomatic, symptomatic with mild respiratory symptoms, or manifest severe pneumonia [18, 19, 20, 21]. It is noted that these estimations are variable and began to approach accuracy as more cases are described, examined, and analyzed. Curiously enough, there is a clear difference in these estimations among different countries, worthy to mention that, the differences in the severity of the virus were recorded between the sexes and different age categories [18, 20, 22]. The infected cases have increased drastically [23]. Transmission from one person to another has been confirmed [24]. The virus was discovered in Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) [22], saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs [25], sputum [26], and throat [27, 28]. Even though the number of patients with COVID-19 was asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic still indecisive until now, but some studies have suggested that the percentage is between 40 and 80% [29, 30].
Among the most debatable characteristics in the clinical course and pathogenesis of COVID-19 is the heterogeneous hazard in the development to the acute form. Some significant clinical factors have been specified as severe disease predictors in different populations around the world, essentially include old age, male sex, obesity, and presence of multiple co-morbidities, such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension (HTN), cardiovascular disease, and impaired liver and renal function [20, 31, 32, 33]. In fact, some patients continue completely without symptoms until the final viral shedding, however, others experience a highly aggressive form of the disease [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. These severe cases in the clinical picture of COVID-19 firmly propose that other co-factors may have a vital role in modifying disease development and progression. The suppressed immune response in the elders, co-morbidities, or smoking condition, may explain the variances in the COVID-19 disease severity between individuals and populations [40], but severe disease has also been detected in young persons, apparently free from these risk factors. This shows that most risk factors clarifying COVID-19 disease severity are yet mysterious. Therefore, to recognize the mechanisms beyond COVID-19 disease severity is critical to provide suitable protective measures and sufficient triage approaches, drug innovation processes, and eventually the pandemic control. The genetic diversity between hosts can be explained the big difference in the incidence of SARS CoV-2 rates and the severity of COVID 19.
In this chapter, we will focus on some genetic variants and their implications for the severity of COVID-19. From these genes, we will take the consideration of the ACE2, TPRSS2, HO-1, and BCL11A genes, and the association between the DNA polymorphisms of these genes with the genetic susceptibility of the COVID-19, Whereas, systematic investigation of the functional polymorphism in these genes among diverse populations could tile the way for reliable medicine and personalized treatment approaches for COVID-19, this will call genetics to take the initiative in combating the virus pandemic.
SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 connect to a similar receptor on the surface of human cells, known as angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) [41]. This complex particularly includes the receptor-binding domain (RBD) positioned within the virus spike protein (S protein). However, recent laboratory studies have revealed that unlike SARS-CoV-1, the SARS-CoV-2 RBD favors creating a greater binding capacity (i.e. 1204 versus 998 Å) [41, 42]. The SARS-CoV-2 infects and enters the infected cell by binding the viral spike protein with ACE2 of the host cell through the RBD. Even so, the splitting of spike protein needs to be done by human protease, where S protein subunits (S1 and S2) are broken apart from each other, with the last domain undergoes considerable structural modifications necessary to bind with the cell membrane of the host cell [43]. The transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), together with lysosomal cathepsins, considers one of the most crucial proteases in this approach [44]. Moreover, a type 1 membrane-bound enzyme (furin), also splits the site between SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (both S1 and S2 subunits). Most significantly, furin can be expressed in numerous organs, involving the lungs. Furin stimulates the splitting of spike protein (S1/S2) after the binding of SARS-CoV-2 to ACE2 receptor, and this stimulation by itself is necessary to enter the virus into the cell [45]. This different pathway, which includes furin-mediate activation, would allow SARS-CoV-2 to be less dependent on co-expressions of TMPRSS2 on the cell surface of the infect cells. Hence, SARS-CoV-2 could be able to enter a wide range of low TMPRSS2 expressing cells. Lastly, disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 17 (ADAM17) stimulate the release of ectodomains for a number of transmembrane proteins, such as ACE2 [46]. Therefore, increased ADAM17 activity is thought to be correlated with increased shedding of ACE2 and eventually decreases the possibility of cellular entry by SARS-CoV-2 [47] (Figure 1).
Illustration of the COVID-19 virus spike protein. Across ACE-2 receptors, the spike invades the cell. Afterward, the spike is cleaved by the host cell proteases, membrane protease 2 (TMPRSS2), and furin, which results in COVID-19 infection activation [
The expression of ACE2 in the different human tissues was controversial because ACE2 was newly identified as a major binding site across which SARS-CoV-2 enters human host cells. Recently, many studies were performed to detect the cell types where ACE2 receptor is mainly expressed, which could describe the possible SARS-CoV-2 targets. One study was conducted to address the expression of ACE2 in various natural human tissues, and the analysis of the results regarding age and sex. Highest ACE2 expression levels were detected in the tissues of the small intestine, testicle, thyroid heart, adipose tissues, and kidneys. Esophagus, pancreas, lungs, liver, adrenal gland bladder, and colon were found to express the intermediate level while the lowest expression was found in the stomach nerves, blood vessels, uterus, muscle, spleen, bone marrow, and brain. Regarding lungs, the levels of ACE2 expression were upregulated and downregulated in relation to the immune pattern of men and women respectively [49]. ACE2 also was expressed in certain types of epithelial cells in the airway, such as type II alveolar epithelial cells and ciliated nasal epithelium. Moreover, it was found to be highly co-expressed with the TMPRSS2 in the nasal epithelium, which explains their higher infectivity by COVID-19 [50]. ACE2 is localizing also on the oral cavity mucosa. For now, these results revealed the underlying mechanism that the oral cavity poses a significant potential risk for 2019-nCoV susceptibility, and ACE2 was also expressed in lymphocytes inside the oral mucosa [51]. These findings have reminded us that COVID-19 attacks the lymphocytes and causes lymphopenia, mostly in severe forms of the disease [52].
More importantly, ACE2 also are expressed in endothelial cells [53]. That explains why COVID-19 disease affects multiorgan in the patients [54]. these results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 virus promotes the initiation of endotheliitis in many organs as a direct result of the viral intervention and the inflammatory response of the host. Additionally, the triggering of pyroptosis and apoptosis may have an important role in endothelial cell injury in COVID-19 patients and can account for the weakened systemic microcirculatory performance in various blood vessels and their clinical consequences in COVID-19 patients [55]. This supposition affords justifications for treatments to stabilize the endothelium during viral reproduction, especially by anti-inflammatory cytokines drugs, cholesterol-lowering drugs, and ACE inhibitors [56, 57, 58, 59]. This approach can be especially appropriate for weak patients with an earlier endothelial disorder, such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular disease co-morbidities patients [55].
A lot of ACE2 variants have been recognized in different databases [60, 61]. over the last decades, much focus has been assigned on some of ACE2 polymorphisms, due to their effects on the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and, more specifically, their association with hypertension (HT). ACE2 restricts the negative profibrotic and vasoconstrictor influences of AngII, as the breakdown of AngII to Ang (1-7) decreases the AngII oxidative stress of the cerebral arteries endothelium [62]. Ang (1-7) has been stated to have antifibrotic and vasodilation [63, 64]. Low cardiac expression of ACE2 levels has been notified in hypertension and diabetes heart failure [65, 66]. ACE2 gene polymorphisms were first detected in the Chinese people with different ACE2 variants (rs4830542, rs4240157, and rs4646155) linked to hypertension (HT) [67, 68, 69, 70]. Also, ACE2 SNP rs21068809 (C > T) was found to be linked to the clinical features of HT [71]. In India, a study of 246 patients with HT and 274 normal subjects showed a connection of ACE2 rs21068809 SNP with HT [72]. in Brazilian cohorts, a study of genetic association of the combination of ACE2 G8790A and ACE I/D polymorphisms reveal susceptibility to HT [73]. ACE polymorphism has been described in African- Americans with HT [74].
ACE2 gene variants are still possible to affect SARS-CoV-2 infectivity. In SARS-CoV, the function of the S1 domain of the S protein is to mediate the binding of ACE2 receptors while the S2 domain is potentially undergoing post binding trans-conformational modulations which activate the fusion to the cell membrane [75]. The viral (RBD) found in S1 has been adjusted to amino acid number 270 to 510 [76]. The Leu584Ala point mutation of ACE2 significantly weakened the shedding activity of the enzyme and promoted the entrance of SARS-CoV into the host cells [77]. An ACE2 soluble form lacks the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domain was stated able to prevent SARS-CoV S protein binding to ACE2 [46]. Recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins were observed to downregulated ACE2 expression by releasing sACE2 and thus enhancing injury of the lung [78]. SARS-CoV and SARSCoV-2 participate in the identity of 76% of the amino acid residues necessary for binding of ACE2 within the SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 domain. A lot of amino acid residues of the ten human ACE2 proteins were compared by multiple sequence alignment, a 100% identity among the ACE2 sequences was observed in four different ACE2 isoforms. The role of these ACE2 isoforms remains unpredictable in SARS-CoV-2 infection outcome. According to the work by Cao et al., [61] 32 polymorphisms of ACE2, including 7 hotspot variables (Ile486Val, Lys26Arg, Asn638Ser, Asn720Asp, Ser692Pro, Ala627Val, and Leu731Ile/Phe) were identified in different peoples, that make some individuals could be more or less susceptible to the virus than others.
In a preliminary study, the distribution of the allele frequency for 1700 polymorphisms in the ACE2 gene was conducted between various populations of the world. What is noteworthy is that 11 common and rare variants were detected linked to the high ACE2 expression. It was observed that their expression is irregularly distributed among different populations groups. This study found that the polymorphism of the ACE2 gene (variant 4,646,127) was closely related to the higher expression levels of the ACE2 gene in the East Asian population, and this paved the way to study this important issue more specifically [61]. These results were confirmed by a similar subsequent study by [79], which also evidenced that the allele frequency of these variants associated with overexpression of ACE2. Also, different ACE2 polymorphisms encoded a number of proteins for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein has been studied, and it was found that each variant differs in compatibility with RBD sequence. Specifically, although the majority of genetic variants exhibited high physical similarity. Specifically, the two ACE2 gene alleles (rs143936283 and rs73635825) showed a quite low binding strength for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, which could mean a lower possibility of viral binding and possible to infection resistance [80]. It has been observed that the probability of some natural genetic variants of ACE2, particularly those assigned to attach with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, may be linked with flexible virus-host interaction, thus likely modifying severity and pathogenicity. A large analysis of the genome data-set was performed and showed that no less than nine human ACE2 variants (E23K, S19P, I21V, N64K, K26R, H378R, T27A, T92I, and Q102P) are prospective to increase predisposition to viral binding, while 17 other variants of ACE2 (that is, E37K, K31R, H34R, N33I, E35K, Y50F, D38V, G326E, N51S, M62V, D355N, K68E, F72V, Y83H, D509Y, G352V, and Q388L) were thought to be protected from viral entry, where they demonstrated a lower binding tendency to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein [81].
In another study, from five separate Italian centers, the authors found that three variants of ACE2 can be specified (p. Gly211Arg, lys26Arg, and p. Asn720Asp). It was noted that these three polymorphisms were recurrently identified in the Italian population rather than the East Asian population. These variants are closely located in the SARS-CoV-2 essential sequence of spike protein binding sites and therefore viral entry and division expected to be modified (for example, Asn720Asp is located on only 4 amino acids of TMPRSS2 cleavage site) [82]. This may tell a partial explanation for the high case mortality rate registered in Italy by comparison to China. Despite ACE2 practically serve as a receptor for coronavirus SARS entry into human host cells, another does not support the correlation between its common gene polymorphisms and receptivity or consequence of SARS [83]. It has also been observed that some ACE2 variants show differential efficacy in stimulating neutrophils, monocytes, natural killer cells (NK), macrophages, and T helper cells, thus may probably either enhance or reduce the inflammatory or “cytokine storm” [84], in addition to stimulating the processing of Ang II, thereby improving or exacerbating vasoconstriction and participating to the improvement or exacerbation of topical or systemic tissue infection [85, 86] (Figure 2).
Diagrammatic representation for the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) pathway. As ACE2/Ang 1-7/Mas-axis and ACE1/Ang-II/ AT1R-axis occur, SARS-CoV-2 inhibition by cleavage of ACE2 by ADAM17 appears.
TMPRSS2 and ACE2 have been associated with SARS-corona (CoV) disease, influenza, and SARS-CoV-2 in facilitating viral entrance into the infected host cell TMPRSS2 considers as an androgen-reactive serine protease enzyme that cleaves SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein, mediating viral activation and entry [88]. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms of TMPRSS2 enzyme have been studied in several diseases such as in breast cancer, the rs2276205 (A > G) with low-frequency allele was correlated with increased patients’ endurance [89]. In prostate cancer, the rs12329760 (C > T) of TMPRSS2 has a higher frequency in men with prostate cancer in his family, while ERG gene fusion [90, 91] Rs383510 (T > C) and rs2070788 (G > A) were correlated with aggressive H7N9, H1N1, and increased lung expression of TMPRSS2 [92]. A study by Hou et al., indicated that 4% of nonidentical variants of TMPRSS2 are stop-codon mutations, Meanwhile, 59% are harmful mutations in TMPRSS2 coding regions [93]. The harmful variants (p.Arg240Cys, p.Val160Met, p.Gly181Arg, p.Pro335Leu, p.Gly432Ala, and p.Gly259Ser) in the coding region of TMPRSS2, are the same with somatic alterations arising in various types of cancer. In the same contest, Hou et al. found that, the p. Asp435Tyr which is a key site for catalytic residue binding of TMPRSS2 has unique low-frequency allele, but predominant SNPs in TMPRSS2 and offer possible descriptions for differential genetic infectivity to COVID-19 and for risk influences, such as those with tumor and male patients. By using the analysis of single-cell RNA-seq, Schuler et al. revealed that the expression of TMPRSS2 was upregulated in ciliated cells and alveolar epithelial type 1 cells and increased with humans aging [94]. This observation indicates that the developmental TMPRSS2 expression regulation may have a role in the relative protection of the children and infants from COVID-19 infection. Yet, it might be of great importance to investigate the link between TMPRSS2 polymorphisms and the age relationship with COVID-19 susceptibility (Figure 3).
A polymorphism and dysregulation of ACE2, and TMPRSS2 in COVID-19 and a suggested model for active compound medicines (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, Camostat mesylate, and E-64D [a protease inhibitor] for COVID-19) [
Many studies demonstrated that the HO-1 gene polymorphisms, particularly the promoter region GT dinucleotide repeat mutation regulates the inducibility of HO-1 to ROS [95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101]. Subjects with more GT repeats have been believed to be more sensitive to cardiovascular endothelium diseases such as atherosclerosis coronary artery disease and aortic aneurysm s [95, 98, 99]. The lower Expression level of HO-1 in those with more GT repeats make the patients to be more affected to decrease endothelial hemostasis and inflammation [95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101]. While, GT sequences short alleles are correlated with increased HO-1 inducibility, which in turn reduced inflammation and enhanced cytoprotection [101]. Patients with COVID-19 complications perhaps have longer GT sequences and decreased vessel hemostasis.
COVID-19 disease has poor effects in diabetic and obese individuals, maybe because those people are already having high interleukin 6 levels of (IL-6) and they are in a proinflammatory state due to leptin and insulin resistance [102, 103]. As a result, the negative clinical outcomes of COVID-19 infection in obese patients was recorded [103]. Peterson et al. have revealed that obesity raises high-density lipoprotein (HDL) oxidation [104]. Oxidized HDL (Ox-HDL) is thought to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines by the direct action on adipocyte stem cells [105]. Ox-HDL initiates an inflammatory cascading with inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukins (IL-6, IL-1), and increasing of Angiotensin II (ANG II), a biomarker for early cardiovascular system disorders [104]. This made the obese individuals are more sensitive to heart failure due to infection of COVID-19 [106]. Up-regulation of HO-1-derived bilirubin may enhance the COVID-19 bad effect, this risk was reduced by an increased HO-1 level [107, 108]. Hence, up-regulation of the level of HO-1 with pharmacological treatment [109] may have valuable action in acute inflammation conditions.
BCL11A Genetic polymorphisms were correlating to produce fetal hemoglobin in overall population, and these genetic variants were later found to be able to modify the severity of β-thalassemia and sickle cell diseases. Although the elevation of fetal hemoglobin can ameliorate the severity of these disorders. In an attempt to best comprehend the genetic background of this heterogeneity, genome-wide surveys were performed with 362,129 joint SNPs on a large cohort population of β-thalassemia and sickle cell patients to explore the genetic linking and relationship with HbF levels, in addition to other traits related to red blood cells. Among the principal variants influencing HbF levels, BCL11A SNP rs11886868 in the was completely correlated with this trait. This BCL11A variant was correlated with raised fetal hemoglobin (HbF) production in beta-thalassemia patients. Also, the similar BCL11A variants were substantially correlated with sickle cell patients HbF levels. These findings show that modifying HbF levels by BCL11A variants, consider as an essential factor in improving the beta-thalassemia phenotype and may potentially help improve other hemoglobin disorders. These findings can help describe the molecular mechanisms for regulating fetal globin and may ultimately participate in the evolution of new therapeutic strategies for sickle cell anemia and beta-thalassemia [110, 111, 112]. Hence, these results can provide an explanation of why some individuals naturally exhibit diseases mild symptoms, while others have shown very acute clinical symptoms. Therefore, it is imperative to perceive the role of genetic polymorphisms of these genes in SARS-CoV-2 infection in human populations to interpret the observed heterogeneity in predisposition and COVID-19 infection severity [88, 113].
COVID-19 may be inactivated or partially treated by the following approaches: ACE2 receptor attaching site blocking either by antibody or specific ligand or using ACE2 soluble form that can neutralize the virus by binding the virus spike protein, and, yet, cover ACE2 binding site on the host cell surface and reducing the tissue injury. The genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome (CYP) 2D6 can affect drug metabolism using this approach, which contains 50% currently using drugs [114]. The metabolism of these genes can be increased by these polymorphisms and in turn, reduce their efficiency or significantly decline their metabolism causing drug toxicity [115]. Slow drug metabolizers permit toxic effects of the medications as chloroquine to become accumulated and resulting in cardiac problems with an increased hazard of cardiac arrest, specifically in diabetes and obesity patients. CYP2D6 Polymorphism is much high in Asians and African Americans [116, 117, 118], which extremely influenced by this disorder. One Korea study studying Lupus disease demonstrated considerable variation in the level of hydroxychloroquine due to polymorphisms of CYP2D6 [119]. This may explain the clinical outcomes differences when using this drug. Because of the metabolism abnormalities due to these genetic polymorphisms, resistant malaria strains will be arising [120, 121, 122]. Heart failure patients can be affected by the same CYP 2D6 gene polymorphisms since it is accountable for metoprolol metabolism [123, 124]. These gene variants affect several other medications such as barbiturates, Isoniazid (INH), serotonin reuptake inhibitor (omeprazole hydralazine sulfasalazine, etc.) [125]. Individuals with CYP2D6 polymorphisms and the HO-1 GT allele make therapy and disease outcomes challenging. Some of the patients who carry these polymorphisms will respond perfectly to drugs and have a low risk of COVID-19 patients to develop complications such as multiorgan failure and ARDS, while other patients will express drug toxicity levels and multiorgan problems [115]. This can describe why clinicians are unable to predict the multiorgan failure with COVID −19 disease and different outcomes from using 4-aminoquinolones.
SARS-CoV-2 inhibition can be done by spike protein and ACE2 differential glycosylation [126]. Several polymorphisms, such as p.Pro389His, p.Met383Thr and p.Asp427Tyr slightly inhibited by hydroxychloroquine. This can be clarifying why hydroxychloroquine treatment was not significantly in a different hospital than others [127]. However, more pharmacogenomics experiments between the genetic data and drug response from COVID-19 patients are extremely needed. The viral entry to the host cell by binding to the cell membrane through S protein can be blocked by TMPRSS2 [88]. The SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and infection depend on the TMPRSS2 presence, in a high pH environment [128, 129]. The inhibitor of endosomal acidification such as hydroxychloroquine and CatB/L inhibitors might work only in absence of TMPRSS2- in SARS-CoV-2 infected and may not work or has no or less effective in patients with TMPRSS2 wild-type [128]. So far, the populations with missense polymorphisms and stop-gained of TMPRSS2 polymorphisms may be good sensitive to treatment with hydroxychloroquine. Furthermore, the patients who carry TMPRSS2 and ACE2 wildtype, a mix of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with camostat may have the best clinical advantage. The ACE2 can be cleaved by TMPRSS2 at Arginine 697 to 716 [130], which improves viral entry. Thus, patients with, p.Arg710Cys p.Arg708Trp, p.Arg716Cys and p.Arg710His polymorphisms in ACE2 might have fewer symptoms of COVID-19 disease as the cleavage site of ACE2 gene loses by these polymorphisms (Figure 3) [113].
The pandemic COVID-19 by SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is multifactorial in which human inheritances might play a pivotal role together with the co-morbidity diseases and other risk factors. The disease clinical course has been depending on the link between genetic variants, such as the CYP2D6 enzyme system, HO-1 (anti-inflammatory gene), and ACE-2 enzyme. Beside ACE2 polymorphisms, there is TMPRSS2 gene variance that possibly changes the pathogenicity of the virus by changing the interaction between ACE2 and SARS-CoV-2 virus. A good characterization of functional polymorphisms and the host genetics can assist in identifying the pathophysiology of the disease pathway to stratify the risk evaluation and to personalize the treatment procedures.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Landslide is a phenomenon that represents the downward movements of a wide range of slope-forming materials (soils/rocks) due to gravitational and other driving forces [1, 2]. Considering the characteristics of the sliding materials and mechanisms of movements they can be classified as falls, topples, slides, flows, spreads, or any mixture of these and occur either slowly or suddenly. Situated in the horn of Africa between 33 and 48°E longitude and 3.40 and 14.85°N latitude, Ethiopia is the second African nation with a population of about 115 million (www.worldometers.info) and a surface area of 1.122 million km2. The landscape constitutes highlands plateaus, dissected valleys, escarpments, gentle slopes, and flat plains. These land features are results of geodynamic processes associated with the establishment of the East African Rift System (EARS), which is a narrow North-west - South-east (NE-SW) elongated rift with thin continental lithosphere. This rift dissects Ethiopia diagonally into western and eastern plateaus that represent the Nubian and Somalian plates, respectively (Figure 1) [3, 4, 5]. Active rifting processes combined with local and global drivers (like seismicity, hydrometeorological events, and demographic factors) have created a suitable environment for the widespread effects of landslides. It occurs in the mountainous regions of Ethiopia dominantly in the North-Northwest (N-NW), central and South – Southwest (S-SW) highlands, and rift-margins, usually following intensive precipitations and brings variable impacts on life, built infrastructures, and natural environment [6, 7, 8, 9].
Generalized map of the East African Rift System (the dotted lines show boundaries of the East African Rift System, while the triangles represent volcanic centers (from Riftvolc consortium, 2013).
In this work, the distributions, probable causative factors, and impacts of landslides are described with more emphasis on infrastructures using few selected case studies. Applying different secondary sources, a landslide inventory map is compiled and relationships between the natural attributes (lithology, slope height, slope angle, rainfall, and land use-land cover) and spatial distributions of landslides are assessed. Moreover, a susceptibility zoning map is generated involving the mentioned parameters to which weights were assigned considering their significance to slope failure. Such a map serves as an input to delineate areas according to their importance to various developmental activities and also helps to identify risk potential ones that demand more evaluations and implementation of mitigation measures before major projects are supported.
Ethiopia’s land surface is characterized by wide elevation contrast that varies from about 125 m below sea level to 4550 m above mean sea level which represents the lowest point in the world, Danakil Depression, and Ras-Dashen mountains (Figure 2c). The elevation is the key determinant that defines the climatic conditions of Ethiopia. Accordingly, the country is divided into five climatic zones (Figure 2a) that locally known as
Climatic zones (a), average annual rainfall distribution (b), and simplified geological (overlain on the topographic) maps of Ethiopia (c). Sources: [
The rifting process has defined not only the geomorphology but also the geological settings of Ethiopia, which are discussed in many works [3, 6, 11, 13, 14]. Hence, the formations that underlay the Ethiopian territory differ in composition and age, which ranges from Quaternary to Precambrian (Figure 2c). The oldest Precambrian basement rocks are represented by high-grade ortho- and paragneisses and migmatites as well as low-grade volcano-sedimentary—ultramafic assemblages and granitoids [13]. These Precambrian rocks constitute part of the Pan-African Mozambique belt and are distributed in the northern, western, and southern parts of Ethiopia. These formations have undergone prolonged erosion and denudation during Paleozoic that resulted in undulated terrain over which thick Mesozoic sediments (mainly sandstone and limestone) were deposited. The Jurassic sediments cover wide areas of eastern and some places in central and northern Ethiopia. Uplifting of the Afro-Arabian block during Tertiary has resulted in the eruption of a large volume of lava through fractures and covers a substantial part of the country forming elevated terrains. During this period, sediments deposition took place that cover eastern Ethiopia. Meanwhile, the quaternary period is known for the placement of volcanic lava in areas from Afar depression up to the Lakes Region in the central main Ethiopia rift. Thick Quaternary sediments are distributed in Gambela, Borena, Metema, and few other flat lowland areas (Figure 2c).
From the demographic perspective, areas categorized as
The basic objective of this study is to examine the distributions, causative factors, and impacts of landslides and acquire a fundamental understanding enabling to develop effective mitigation measures that help to save life and the economy. Accordingly, its specific objectives are: (a) conduct inventory of landslide occurrences across the nation; (b) map links between the spatial distributions and natural attributes that trigger and/or aggravate landslides; (c) assess impacts of landslides on life and infrastructures; d) produce landslide susceptibility zoning map of Ethiopia.
The methodology used in this study comprises—(a) collection and analyses of geological, engineering geological, and geo-hazard data from published and unpublished reports and research publications [11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. All data are compiled in the geographic coordinate system using WGS84 datum; (b) collection of rainfall data—the Chirps gridded data for the year 2015 available online was used after comparing it with the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) data, which was found almost alike; (c) download land use-land cover map from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) web page; (d) data about past landslides events and their impacts. This includes information about the date and time of occurrences, deaths, injuries, forced resettlements, damages to infrastructure, and possible causes; Government offices, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), private firms, research publications, mass media, and local communities, including elder people with knowledge previous events, have served as sources; (e) 30 m resolution DEM data—important inputs about slope height (elevation), slope gradient, and slope direction (aspect) are extracted. These data are closely linked to rainfall and temperature distributions, soil humidity, soli thickness, vegetation types, and density as well as hydrological features of sloppy areas that determine the scale/rates of mass movements; (f) applying a multi-class scoring system based on assigning of weights to selected parameters contributing to slope failure, produce landslide susceptibility zoning map [24, 25].
This landslide inventory has identified more than 600 locations across the nation, where landslides occurrences are clearly observed, very few of them are even known with a history of repeated events. Moreover, it reflects localities, where potential landslide risks are imminent [7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The distribution of inventory data well correlates with lithology, elevation, structural, rainfall, and seismicity maps. Only considering the patterns, landslides occurrences are tentatively classified into four blocks, Block A–D (Figure 3).
Landslide inventory map (left) and landscape of NE part of Ethiopia (right).
Dese and its surrounding are the most well-known areas, where recurrent landslides cause impacts on settlements, roads, and other properties (Figure 4a and b). At many places, emerging springs from near surfaces are observed which indicate shallow groundwater. So, steep terrain, undercutting of stream banks, slope erosion, and shallow groundwater are key factors that trigger/aggravate displacement of slope materials. Meanwhile, huge volcanic blocks that are almost detached from the parent rocks are observed at the southern end of the block, in Mushmado village, Say-Debir district, about 8 km from Lemi town (Figure 4c). The probability that these blocks would crumble into the valley side is very high if triggered by extreme hydrometeorological, seismic, or other events and will put life, infrastructures, and farmlands in the valley under very high rockfall risk.
Panoramic views of landslides: (a) partial settlement of house foundation, in Dese town; (b) debris slide threatening the Addis Ababa-Dese main road, Kewet district, Debresina town; (c) rockfall risk in Mushmado village, Saya-Debir district, North Shewa zone.
The landslides in the Abay gorge, between Dejen and Gohatsion main road, have long and repeated histories, and this economically vital route passes through the 40 km wide Abay (Nile) valley (Figure 5). Subsurface investigations carried out within this valley revealed the depths to the slip planes mainly vary are the range of 14–25 m [22]. Even though deaths are not reported, unofficial sources disclosed that the cost of monitoring and road maintenance exceeds 1.5 million USD/year.
View of landslide occurred in Kurar village, Dejen side (a), the same route, but on the Gohatsion side (b–d): road under maintenance in June 2010 (b), rockfall and debris slide damaged it in August 2010 (c), the site was visited in September 2019 (d).
Panoramic view of a landslide body in Welaite village, 2 km NE of Gidole town observed in March 2011 (a), and the same body observed in March 2016 (b). Note that in 2011 its width was about 40 m whereas in 2016 it expanded to about 200 m.
This recent occurrence within the deeply excavated zone (up to 25 m) started in 2009 following intensive rainfalls that saturate the subsurface. The road construction intended to connect Gidole with the Arbaminch-Konso main road has affected the toe parts of the old landslide zone and resulted in the release of shallow groundwater that triggered that landslide. To prevent mass movement slope regarding, about 250 m long retaining walls and drainage ditches were constructed. But due to the large extent of the sliding zone these measures did not change the situation, rather doubled the project cost. So, construction across the failed was abandoned in 2013.
The landslide observed in Alem village, Dodota district, in September 2019 has severely damaged a section on the Dera-Asela main road (Figure 7a). The mudflow occurred on May 28, 2018 (Figure 7a and b) following heavy rainfalls has triggered the sudden movement of a huge volume of earth mass from the head of the landslide and buried houses with 22 people in Western Arsi Zone, Tulu-Gola village, of which 14 were from the same family (May 30, 2018, the Ethiopian reporter).
Road collapse at Alem village, Dodota district, along with the Dera-Assela road (a) and mudslide that killed 22 people and domestic animals in Tulu-Gola village, Western Arsi zone (b and c).
In general, this inventory survey has provided tangible information about the spatial distribution, main causative factors, and impacts of landslides. Meanwhile, lack of well-organized records about the types and extents of damages, at this stage it is impossible to give any credible estimations of the economic and environmental losses caused by landslides. Abay A. [30] estimated the losses from 1998 to 2003 to be 135 death, 3500 displaced households, and 1.5 million USD worth of property damages. B. Abebe, et al. [8] stated that landslides that occurred between 1993 and 1998 have claimed hundreds of human lives, damaged over a hundred kilometers of asphalt roads, destroyed many houses, farmlands, and natural vegetations. Similarly, a compilation of data from mass media, newspapers, different reports, and affected communities, (including Fana Broadcasting Corporation; Ethiopian Broadcast Corporation (EBC); Walta Information Center; GSE unpublished technical reports published in 2003–2019) revealed that only between 2016 and 2020 more than 302 people and 1500 domestic animals were killed (Table 1).
Region | Landslide affected district (woredas) | Death |
---|---|---|
Tigray | Hintalo-Wajirat, Hawzen, Atsbi-Wenbera, Degua-Temnbie, Enderta, and Samri-Shart | NR |
Amhara | Harbu, Ambassel, Guba-Lafto, Kalu, Dawint, Delanta, Werebabu, Bati, Bugna, Kutaber, Dese-Zuria, Artuma-Farsina, Jille, Efratana-Gidim, Debresina, Kewet, Wagide, Mafud, Mezezo, Chefie-Golana, Dawe-Rahmedo, Gozamin, Gonch-Siso Ense, Hulet-Ej-Ense, Shebel-Berenta, Adet, Sekela, Awabel, Machakil, Dejen, Lai-Armachoho, Ebinat, Guangua, Quarit | 11 deaths |
Oromiya | Wolmera, Ambo, Guder, Were-Jarso, Kuyu, Jeldu, Tikur, Golelcha, Dodotanasire, Merti, Boset, Aseko, Sude, Dugda-Bora, Wenchi, Welesona Gora, Chela, Chole, Guba-Korcha, Chiro, Dendi, Deder, Kombolcha, Babile, Tullo, Jeju, Daro-Lebbu, Dobba, Seke-Chekorsa, Dedo, Omo-Nada, Goma, Limu-Kosa, Tiro-Afeta, Haromaya, Girawa, Gursum, Chelenko, Bedno, Horo-Guduru | 73 deaths and 20 injuries |
Southern Nations and Nationalities People (SNNP) | Aleta-Wondo, Kokir Gedebano, Ameya, Gorro, Gumer, Enemorna-ener, Soddo, Meskanena-mareko, Silti, Esara-Tocha, Ela, Marekagena, Decha, Gimbo, Aroresa, Bensa, Dale, Yiga Dera, Shebedino, Yirgachefe, Derashe, Arbaminchzuria, Amaro, Gofazuria, Basketo, Bako-Gazer, Gidole, Konso | 102 deaths in one incident |
Others | Addis Ababa | 116 deaths |
Summary of landslide inventory showing affected districts and death and injury reported from 2016 to 2020.
The landslide in different parts of the country is associated related with three distinct geological setups—(a) landslides developed within the Territory volcanic environment where saturated pyroclastic materials and clay are present as intercalations within the volcanic flows that cover a wide area of the Ethiopian highlands; (b) landslides formed within the sedimentary terrain and the presence of siltstone, shale, and marl as intercalations within the limestone sequence. These are common in the Abay (Nile) valley, in areas south of Mekele (Northern Ethiopia); (c) presence of unstable colluvial materials (silt and clay with gravel and boulder matrix) in areas of relatively gentle terrain covering different formations. Overall, the intercalation within the volcanic and sediments acts as rupture surfaces that aggravate easily displacement of landmasses whenever absorb more fluid in the rainy season.
The root causes that initiated or accelerated landslide observed at various locations could be associated with the following factors—(a) presence of physically incompetent (soft) earth materials that make up slope surfaces or elevated terrains and also effects of structural discontinuities in areas; (b) intensity and duration of rainfall and effects flooding, erosion a well as groundwater level fluctuations; (c) slope heights and (elevation) and slope angles, which favor mass movements; (d) poor earthwork practices during infrastructure developments (constructions of roads, bridges, dams/reservoirs), and quarrying for mine exploitations. These works involve the removal of earth masses from one place and dumping it into another place which causes either mass deficiency or excess load or both; the effects destabilize slop balances; (e) demographic factor expressed by fast population growth that accompanied by a continuous struggle for resource share. Such struggles put too much pressure on the natural environment and aggravate slope movements; (f) passiveness to enforce code of land-use practices and make accountable those who violate norms; (g) lack of awareness (illiteracy) among rural communities about the influence of landslides in their livelihoods; (h) absence of alternative means of subsistence for rural youth community who have little access to land ownership. So, they rely on over-using of the natural environment that leads to intensive land degradation. Except the natural factors, the human-related ones seem to be fully manageable if better awareness is created, job opportunities are improved and extreme poverty is reduced, land use and land administration codes and practices are enforced, and traditional community practices on land and forest preservations are fully respected. These measures play their role to improve communities’ resilience to cope up with the impacts of landslides. The spatial associations between landslide and seismicity are explained in different works [4, 31, 32, 33]. In the Ethiopian context, the occurrences of landslides and earthquake epicenters that are practically concentrated within the rift system and surrounding plateaus are found to have very close correlations. But no instrumental records are available that justify the contribution of ground vibrations to triggering landslides.
Landslide susceptibility zoning maps are useful tools to differentiate areas that are suitable for agriculture, infrastructure development, national parks, or other purposes as well as delineate risk-prone areas that should be either protected or rehabilitated before approval of any developmental projects [24, 34, 35]. In Ethiopian landslide, mapping and risk zonation were carried out in specific hazard affected areas, mostly in the highlands and rift regions, using ground survey and remote sensing data [8, 22, 27, 28, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. However, in this work attempt is made to produce a landslide susceptibility zoning map of the country and correlated with the inventory data acquired through extensive fieldworks mainly by the Geological Survey of Ethiopia, where the lead author has been working for a long time. The field observation data was also used for validation purposes. Thus, the parameters for analyses were selected based on the expert’s decision to which weighted values were assigned according to their contributions or influence to slope instabilities [24, 25]. The weights given to involved parameters are as follows: For lithology, elevation, and rainfall—20% each, for slope angle and land use-land cover—15% each, and for aspect—10%. Initially, each of these parameters was sub-divided into five categories, which represent the very low, low, moderate, high, and very high landslide susceptibility zones.
Then using the weighted overlay method in the ArcGIS environment, the map displayed in Figure 8 is generated. The spatial coverage of each class was calculated by multiplying the corresponding raster counts by the grid pixel sizes and dividing a single class value by the total areal coverage and then multiplying by 100%. Accordingly, about 49.1% of Ethiopia’s land surface is susceptible to landslides, of which 39% moderate, 10% high, and 0.1% very high-risk zones. Similarly, 50.9% of the territory is categorized either as very low (5.9%) or low (45%) susceptible zones (Table 2).
Landslide susceptibility zoning map of Ethiopia and known landslide occurrences.
No | Susceptible zone | Areal coverage (sq. km) | Country coverage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Very low | 66,287 | 5.9 |
2 | Low | 504,791 | 45.0 |
3 | Moderate | 437,421 | 39.0 |
4 | High | 112,152 | 10.0 |
5 | Very high | 1448 | 0.1 |
Total coverage | 1,122,104 | 100 |
Landslide susceptibility zoning.
This assessment clearly indicated that landslides are major threats to life, infrastructures, and the natural environment. Natural and human-induced factors (existences of poorly consolidated, easily erodible, saturated and soft earth materials, high slope gradients, intensive or continuous precipitations with subsequent flooding and erosion, scarcity or absence of vegetation cover in sloppy terrains, ground vibrations or seismicity, and continuous growth of population with poor land-use practices) are among the key causes that exposed about 49% of the country to landslide risks. Unfortunately, until the road sector sensed the real challenges posed by a landslide and the ever-increasing rates of fatalities and environmental losses became evident, the issue has never been taken seriously. Hence, it is quite important to proceed with landslide risk assessments to identify and prioritize areas based on their extents, frequency of occurrences, the severity of consequences, as well as nature of different elements exposed to risk. This could be possible through careful considerations of updated landslide inventory data/maps and introducing varieties of risk susceptibility models based on integrated analyses of high-resolution remote sensing and ground observation data, which represent distributions of natural and human-related factors. Ultimately, such comprehensive assessments will play a positive role to ease consequences on life, infrastructures, and the natural environment. It is important to underline that the existing trends of land-use practices are completely inadequate to manage impacts of human-induced landslides that occur very widely. Therefore, implementing zero tolerance for improper land uses through stringent monitoring and enforcement of relevant policies, guidelines, directives, and respecting important social norms must be taken as fundamental tasks of all concerned bodies.
We are very grateful to geoscientists of the Geological Survey of Ethiopia (Leta Alemayehu, Habtamu Eshetu, Yewunesh Bekele, Biruk Abel, Abaynesh Mitiku, Tekaligene Tesfaye, Yekoye Bizuye, Debebe Nida, and many others), Addis Ababa University, Ethiopian Roads Authority, National Disaster Risk Management Commission (NDRMC), and other who put tremendous efforts to travel to various parts areas of the country and collect invaluable data used in this assessment. We also extend our sincere appreciation to those who put direct or indirect contributions to this piece of work.
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The role of various nano/micro-sized reinforcements in altering the structural, mechanical, and thermal properties of the microwave-extruded composites was systematically studied. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns indicated that the main components were Al, SiC, Si3N4, and Al2O3 for the studied Al-SiC, Al-Si3N4,\nand Al-Al2O3 composites, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) elemental mapping confirm the homogeneous distribution of reinforcing particles in the Al matrix. Mechanistic studies revealed that the Al-Si3N4 metal matrix composite exhibited superior hardness, ultimate compression/tensile strength, and Young’s modulus, while having a lower coefficient of thermal expansion compared to other studied Al composites. Findings presented are expected to pave the way to design, develop, and synthesize other aluminum-based metal matrix composites for automotive and industrial applications.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Penchal Reddy Matli, Rana Abdul Shakoor and Adel Mohamed\nAmer Mohamed",authors:[{id:"148964",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M.A",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"a.m.a-mohamed",fullName:"A.M.A Mohamed"},{id:"197398",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Shakoor",slug:"abdul-shakoor",fullName:"Abdul Shakoor"},{id:"198720",title:"Dr.",name:"Penchal Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Matli",slug:"penchal-reddy-matli",fullName:"Penchal Reddy Matli"}]},{id:"55759",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68872",title:"Selective Laser Sintering of Nanoparticles",slug:"selective-laser-sintering-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Selective laser sintering of nanoparticles has received much attention recently as it enables rapid fabrication of functional layers including metal conductors and metal‐oxide electrodes on heat‐sensitive polymer substrate in ambient conditions. 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Experimental results of single-sample and multi-sample sintering of NiZn ferrites and yttrium iron garnet (YIG) were highlighted, and their microstructural consequences on the magnetic properties were also discussed.",book:{id:"5803",slug:"sintering-of-functional-materials",title:"Sintering of Functional Materials",fullTitle:"Sintering of Functional Materials"},signatures:"Ismayadi Ismail, Idza Riati Ibrahim and Rodziah Nazlan",authors:[{id:"185087",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismayadi",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"ismayadi-ismail",fullName:"Ismayadi Ismail"},{id:"197659",title:"Dr.",name:"Idza Riati",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"idza-riati-ibrahim",fullName:"Idza Riati Ibrahim"},{id:"197660",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rodziah",middleName:null,surname:"Nazlan",slug:"rodziah-nazlan",fullName:"Rodziah Nazlan"}]},{id:"55983",title:"Sintering and Reactive Sintering by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS)",slug:"sintering-and-reactive-sintering-by-spark-plasma-sintering-sps-",totalDownloads:1701,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"A wide variety of technological applications, especially in electronics, requires high‐density nanostructured solids, consolidated by sintering from nanoparticles. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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