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\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
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It is used to kill, harm, repel, or mitigate one or more species of an insect by disrupting the nervous system and damaging their exoskeletons. Insecticides have not only controlled insects, but it also used to control diseases carrier agents and helps in the economy and social benefits through better health and increase food production [1, 2]. After the introduction of neonicotinoids in the 1990s, most widely used against the sap-feeding insect. Among these imidacloprid is the most widely used insecticide in the world. Neonicotinoids currently account for approximately 25% of the total insecticide market and are increasing in use as they replace the organophosphate (OP) and carbamate insecticides, causing less toxicity in birds and mammals than insects. Overwhelming evidence has risen over the past decade regarding potentially harmful risks to humans, nontarget insects, aquatic invertebrates, and side effects on the natural environment following usage of specific classes of insecticides [3, 4].
There is various kind of factors that helps the occurrence and initial successful establishment of neonicotinoids to control, mitigate the especially soft body insect pests. At that time there was no known pesticide resistance in target pests, mainly because of recently synthesized nicotine contain plants, their physicochemical properties included many advantages such as selectivity, target-specific, less residual effect on soil, and metabolism rate fast over previous generations of insecticides (i.e., organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, etc.) they shared an assumed reduced operator and consumer risk [5, 6]. But after some time, due to large and indiscriminate use of the same mode of action insecticides have been responsible for developed resurgence and insecticide tolerance ability increased. The first report of neonicotinoid resistance was published in 1996, describing the low efficacy of imidacloprid against Spanish greenhouse populations of cotton whitefly. There are three major detoxification enzymes involved in the development of resistance against insecticides viz., cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, carboxylesterases, and glutathione S-transferases [1, 7].
Several field problems such as poor selection of chemicals and substandard application practices exacerbated the control failures of insecticides against
In 1970, first-time nithiazine was precursor by Henry Feuer, a reputed chemist at Purdue University [4, 9].
Shell (oil refinery company) researchers found in screening that this precursor showed insecticide activity on insect pest management and refined it to develop nithiazine.
In 1984, the mode of action of nithiazine was found to be as a postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor same as nicotine.
In 1985, Bayer patented imidacloprid as the first commercial neonicotinoid, and till 1990 used at large scale.
The early 2000s, two other neonicotinoids, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam, entered the market, which is drastically changing the thinking of people.
During 2013, virtually all corn planted in the United States was treated with one of these two insecticides. Thiamethoxam among the neonicotinoids has less residual effect and persistence in nature.
Beginning of 2014, about a third of US soybean acreage was planted with neonicotinoid-treated seeds, usually imidacloprid or thiamethoxam [3].
Electrophysiological studies on identified cockroach neurons, and the binding to cockroach nervous system membrane.
Neonicotinoids have been the most commonly used insecticides since the early 1990s as an alternative to older organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. Neonicotinoids are insecticides that exhibit physicochemical properties, rendering them more useful over other classes of insecticides [10]. Over the last few years, neonicotinoids have been combined with pyrethroids in formulated products, and with diatomaceous earth (e.g., Alpine dust insecticide, with dinotefuran) for the control of insect pests. Moderate to high levels of tolerance/resistance to various neonicotinoids showed by insect pests. Romero and Anderson reported that resistance to neonicotinoids may likely be conferred by the increased enzymatic activities found in these populations. Those findings showed that tolerance or even resistance to neonicotinoids is now present in field and storage pest populations [1, 11].
Neonicotinoids show high acute toxicity to honeybees. The neonicotinoid family includes imidacloprid, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam (the latter is metabolized to clothianidin in the plant and the insect). Recently, imidacloprid has been replaced by thiamethoxam and clothianidin in some parts of the world. To date, neonicotinoids have proved the development of resistance, such as
The first report of neonicotinoid resistance was published in 1996, describing the low efficacy of imidacloprid against Spanish greenhouse populations of cotton whitefly. Later-generation, show stronger resistance (up to 17-fold in the first 15 generations, but >80-fold resistance after 24 generations, which has been confirmed in some populations of the whitefly (
All neonicotinoids act on the insect central nervous system as agonists of the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Neonicotinoids act as agonists on the postsynaptic insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), biodegradable substituents which have a much higher affinity on insects than mammals [16, 17]. Neonicotinoid insecticides are highly toxic to many invertebrates, including honey bees, bumblebees, and solitary bees. The neonicotinoids (including imidacloprid, dinotefuran, clothianidin, and thiamethoxam) are nitro functional group (▬NO2) instead of a cyano functional group (▬C〓N) in their molecular structure. This slight difference in their molecular structure affects the toxicity level of neonicotinoids, which bind to an insect receptor site. The nitro-group neonicotinoids are much more toxic to bees than the cyano-group neonics, which include acetamiprid and thiacloprid [11, 13, 18].
During 1990, the global insecticide market was dominated by carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids. In 2008, one-quarter of the insecticide market was neonicotinoid to 27% in 2010 and nearly 30% in 2012. The Overuse of chemical products in different spheres of life not only brings benefits for humanity but also presents a large number of threats against the environment and in consequence to human health. The present graph indicates the maximum use of neonicotinoids insecticide and its application in different countries. Here, thiamethoxam shares maximum contribution in the market (37.6) followed by imidacloprid (33.5), clothianidin (14.7), acetamiprid (7.2), thiacloprid (3.8), dinotefuran (2.9), nitenpyram (0.3), and the area uses maximum in agriculture production in Latin America (29.4), Asia (23.1), and North America (22.1) followed by others unallocated areas (Figure 1).
Agricultural use by region and market share of individual neonicotinoids in percent. Abbreviations: TMX (thiamethoxam), IMD (imidacloprid), CLT (clothianidin), ACT (acetamiprid), TCP (thiacloprid), DNF (dinotefuran), NIT (nitenpyram).
The uses of neonicotinoid are to protect crops and ornamentals against polyphagous insects and mites, urban pest control to target harmful organisms such as cockroaches, ants, termites, wasps, flies, etc., apart from the agricultural uses, it is also applicable in veterinary sciences to reduce the chances of occurrence (fleas, ticks on pet animals) and fish farming infestations. In agriculture as well as horticulture crop, neonicotinoid can be functional in many different ways such as foliar spraying, seed dressing, soil drenching, furrow application, trunk injections in trees, mixing with irrigation water, drenching of flower, soil treatment, granular application, dipping of seedlings, bulbs and application with a brush on the stems of fruit trees. Seed and soil applications denote approximately 60% of their uses globally [16, 19]. The usage of neonicotinoid insecticides has grown considerably since the forerunner of this group, it is first introduced among neonicotinoids in the year 1991 followed by acetamiprid and thiamethoxam. Till now, seven insecticides be in the right place to this chemical class are available to farmers all over the world and classified as Group A within the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) and Mode of Action Classification Scheme. All neonicotinoids are agonists of insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors [18]. In 1941, the first case documented by insects demonstrated resistance to an inorganic resistance; 1987—first reported in First reported on tobacco in vaeck, and later on tomato in Bischoff district. Insect resistance genetically modified crops (primarily cotton and maize), are toxic to certain insects. They are often called Bt crops because the introduction genes were originally identified in a bacterial species called
Several reported cases of neonicotinoid resistance up to 2014. Only those pests with >10 (fold) reported cases are shown.
Resistance is quickly developed due to the selection of highly effective compounds with kill or mitigate to insect, long residual effect, and is regular use of single biochemical target site. The toxicant is converted into a nontoxicant form in the body of an insect by various enzymes. All these enzymatic changes are carried forward and transmitted through genes. Resistance in B- and Q-type has been noticed in
Pesticide resistance can build up in the pest population when a change in the genetic characteristic of the pest population is inherited from one generation to the next.
The various mechanisms that enable insects to resist the action of insecticides can be grouped into several categories:
Resistance to Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) amounts to resistance to several DDT analogs such as methoxychlor, but not to hexa chloro cyclohexane (HCH). Due to excessive and continuous use of the insecticides.
It occurs when resistance to one insecticide or within a group. Eg: organophosphate insecticides, fungicides etc.
It involves multiple, independent resistance mechanisms, which often lead to resistance to chemicals from different families (i.e., organophosphate and carbamate insecticides) [23].
It plays one of the significant roles, in the development of resistance which helps to change the activity of enzyme systems that all insects possess to help them detoxify naturally occurring foreign materials. Enzymes are classified viz., esterases, monooxygenases, and glutathione S-transferases typically fulfill this function. These enzyme systems are often enhanced in resistant insect strains enabling them to metabolize or degrade insecticides before they can exert a toxic effect. Metabolic resistance appliances have been noticed in whitefly, aphid, and Colorado potato beetle populations for all major classes of insecticides, currently also used for soft body insect control including neonicotinoids insecticide [24].
Insecticides generally perform on a specific site within the insect, especially within the nervous system (e.g., OP, carbamate, and pyrethroid insecticides). The site of action can be reformed in resistant strains of insects such that the insecticide no longer binds effectively. This results in the insects being unaffected, or less affected, by the action of insecticide than susceptible insects.
Changes in the insect cuticle or digestive tract linings that avoid or slow the absorption or diffusion of insecticides can be found in some strains of resistant insects. This resistance mechanism can affect a broad range of insecticides. Examples of reduced penetration mechanisms are limited and are often considered a contributing factor to reduced susceptibility.
This resistance illustrates any adjustment in insect behavior that helps to avoid the lethal effects of insecticides [22]. Insecticide resistance in mosquitoes is not always based on biochemical mechanisms such as metabolic detoxification or target site mutations, but may also be conferred by behavioral changes in response to prolonged exposure to an insecticide.
It occurs naturally, genetic mutations allow a small proportion of the population to resist and endure the effects of the insecticide. This occurs due to continually using the same insecticide and horizontal genes. Resistance insects will reproduce and the genetic changes that confer resistance are transferred from parents to offspring so that eventually they become numerous within the population (Table 1).
Mechanism | Species |
---|---|
Enhanced expression of CYP6G1 | |
Enhanced expression of CYP6AY1, CYP6ER1, CYP4CE1, and CYP6CW1 | |
Enhanced expression of glutathione | |
Mutation of Dα1/Dβ2 subunits | |
Deletion of Dα1 subunit | |
Y151 mutation in Nlα1/Nlα3 subunits | |
Reduced expression of Nlα8 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit | |
R81T mutation in Mpβ1 subunit | |
Reduced sensitivity to thiacloprid and acetamiprid due to metabolism by CYP9Q3 | |
Reduced sensitivity to thiacloprid and acetamiprid due to metabolism by CYP9Q4 and CYP9Q6 | |
Reduced sensitivity to thiacloprid due to metabolism by CYP9BU1 and CYP9BU2 |
Mechanisms of neonicotinoid resistance and tolerance in insects.
However, usually pesticide or management measures are used, one of the important factors that influence resistance development. With every use, an advantage is given to the resistance insects inside a population. The speed of increase of resistance in any population can usually be faster within the presence of a lower applicable value.
The period of pesticide persistence remains effective, additionally referred to as its persistence, relies upon the chemical science of the pesticide, the short of formulation, and also the application rate. The product that gives a persistent impact equally gives continuous selection pressure to multiple species. As an example, an area spray can persist for short time and can choose solely against one generation of mosquitoes [22]. In addition, a residual wall application or a bed net treatment can persist for months or years providing choice pressure against several generations of an equivalent insect. It is so vital to frequently follow manufacturer and United Nations agency recommendations once victimization such pesticides.
As we have got identified that usually, insects that have a short life cycle, and high reproductive rate are possible to develop resistance earlier than species that have a lower reproductive rate, as any resistance generation will quickly unfold throughout the population. The homopterans insect has an associate in nursing account for pesticide resistance and is considered by a comparatively short life cycle and high fecundity, with female laying a huge number of eggs throughout their reproductive life. However, the tse-tse fly have shorter life cycle and fecundity comparatively less than hemipterans and comparatively low rate of reproduction, females produce in total fewer approximately 10 offspring.
With vectors of sickness, the goal is common to get rid of all or the bulk of the population, but the larger the choice pressure that is placed on a population, the quicker status could also be lost. Immigration of people possessing susceptible genes from untreated areas can beneficially dilute and contend with the resistance genes within the overall population. Associate in nursing early step during a vector management program should therefore to be to estimate the importance of immigration of untreated insects. As an example, associate in nursing island wherever the whole space was treated would have the next risk of developing resistance as few untreated mosquitoes would be part of the treated population. The hazard of pesticide resistance rising out to be measured once designing resistance management ways [25, 26]. Awareness of and coordination with neighboring vector management programs and agricultural activities should be excited, so the regional impact on the target population is deliberated.
Prolonged exposure to a single insecticide
High selection pressure
Large coverage area
Insects multiplying by asexual means
The selection at every stage of the insect life cycle
Always use products at the recommended label rates and spray intervals with the appropriate application equipment.
Rotation of insecticide group against the rapid selection of resistant population.
Use suitable integrated pest management (IPM) approaches.
Neonicotinoids are used against different pests in the same cultivars.
Repeatable uses of different chemistry of neonicotinoids against more than one pest species in the same crop are less susceptible but need at the local level, to take into account the pest populations dynamics, overlapping of the various species, their relative importance, and each species’ potential risk for developing resistance [2].
Do not control a multigeneration pest exclusively with neonicotinoids.
The use of nonspecific products helps to prevent the development of resistance.
Plan to use neonicotinoid insecticides in such a way that they do not affect the beneficial organisms.
Good agricultural practices should be applied alongside physical and biological pest control methods.
Judicious use of insecticides (need-based and recommended dose).
The use of insecticide synergists.
Window system of pesticide application.
Area-wide management.
Crop pest host management.
Monitor problematic pest populations to detect first shifts insensitivity.
Use other synthetic or naturally occurring chemical insecticides
Biological control with microorganisms
Biological control through farming practices
Use of semiochemicals for mass trapping, mating disruption, repulsion, antifeeding effects, push-and-pull or attract-and-kill techniques
Use other techniques like physical and mechanical methods to minimize insecticidal loads
Genetically improved plant varieties
We used four criteria to rank the alternatives to neonicotinoids—efficacy (E), applicability (A), durability (D), and practicability (P)
The widespread use of synthetic insecticides has given rise to the serious problem of insecticide resistance all over the world. The problem of insecticide resistance is growing in magnitude is no doubt steadily diminishing the choice of effective insecticides for vector control. The frequent change in insecticides involves a substantial increase in cost. The practice with neonicotinoid develops harmful possible impacts on nontarget species and the environment worldwide. This review provides a beneficial means for categorizing regions that may need improved development of best management practices (BMPs) to mitigate the adverse consequences associated with extensive use of insecticides in surface and groundwater. Pesticides must be used judiciously in an IPM program to preserve cost-effective pesticides and maintain susceptible individuals in a pest population. The recent finding that nAChR subunit composition can be switched in insects exposed to sublethal concentrations of neonicotinoids is of considerable interest. To manage pest species effectively while minimizing conditions that lead to the onset of resistance, we need to know how messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) encoding, nAChR subunits, and their associated proteins, as well as enzymes involved in metabolism, are dynamically modified. The challenge of optimizing and implementing such tactics for specific pests depends on a suite of ecological, genetic, operational, and socioeconomic.
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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/117721",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"117721"},fullPath:"/profiles/117721",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()