\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n
\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n
\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6489",title:"Light-Emitting Diode",subtitle:"An Outlook On the Empirical Features and Its Recent Technological Advancements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20818f168134f1af35547e807d839463",slug:"light-emitting-diode-an-outlook-on-the-empirical-features-and-its-recent-technological-advancements",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6242",title:"Hydroxyapatite",subtitle:"Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a18a9b6617ae6d943649ea7ad9655cc",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6124",title:"Micro/Nanolithography",subtitle:"A Heuristic Aspect on the Enduring Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c94caf617c31b349bd3d9dd054a022a3",slug:"micro-nanolithography-a-heuristic-aspect-on-the-enduring-technology",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6124.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5699",title:"Thin Film Processes",subtitle:"Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"164177fc1e3eca542ebad5fd34a79d1e",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9414",title:"Advances in Condensed-Matter and Materials Physics",subtitle:"Rudimentary Research to Topical Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3aebac680de7d3af200eadd0a0b2f737",slug:"advances-in-condensed-matter-and-materials-physics-rudimentary-research-to-topical-technology",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai and Sergey Ivanovich Pokutnyi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9414.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5884",title:"Unraveling the Safety Profile of Nanoscale Particles and Materials",subtitle:"From Biomedical to Environmental Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5811aa0f15ab9d8b6a235e8408875d",slug:"unraveling-the-safety-profile-of-nanoscale-particles-and-materials-from-biomedical-to-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Andreia C. Gomes and Marisa P. Sarria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5884.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146466",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreia",surname:"Ferreira de Castro Gomes",slug:"andreia-ferreira-de-castro-gomes",fullName:"Andreia Ferreira de Castro Gomes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7325",title:"Nanostructures in Energy Generation, Transmission and Storage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e49924dd2c3e28c82fdc115ce04f925",slug:"nanostructures-in-energy-generation-transmission-and-storage",bookSignature:"Yanina Fedorenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7325.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199149",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanina",surname:"Fedorenko",slug:"yanina-fedorenko",fullName:"Yanina Fedorenko"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9322",title:"Hybrid Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Flexible Electronics Materials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"beff6cce44f54582ee8a828759d24f19",slug:"hybrid-nanomaterials-flexible-electronics-materials",bookSignature:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal, Peng He and Shuye Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182114",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vargas-Bernal",slug:"rafael-vargas-bernal",fullName:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9230",title:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1d1af591d87490c9ad728a1352e62d96",slug:"smart-nanosystems-for-biomedicine-optoelectronics-and-catalysis",bookSignature:"Tatyana Shabatina and Vladimir Bochenkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9230.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237988",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",surname:"Shabatina",slug:"tatyana-shabatina",fullName:"Tatyana Shabatina"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49438",title:"Perovskite Nanomaterials – Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications",doi:"10.5772/61280",slug:"perovskite-nanomaterials-synthesis-characterization-and-applications",body:'
1. Introduction
1.1. General introduction to perovskites
The mineral CaTiO3 was discovered by Geologist Gustav Rose in the Ural Mountains in 1839, and it was named perovskite in recognition beholden to Count Lev Alexevich von Perovski, an eminent Russian mineralogist [1–5]. The name perovskite represented any compound that has ABC3 formula where an octahedron of C ions surrounded the B ion. The Earth’s crust contains various types of perovskites and the most abundant ones are MgSiO3 and FeSiO3. Perovskite family includes several types of oxides like transition metal oxides with the formula ABO3. Some examples of ABO3 perovskites and their corresponding properties are summarized in Table 1 [1, 2, 5].
Perovskite oxides exhibit an array of electrical properties and a variety of solid-state phenomena from insulating, semiconducting, metallic, and superconducting characters; therefore, they are very fascinating to be studied and applied in a large scale. Many of ABO3 perovskites are cubic or nearly cubic in structure in their ideal form; however, one or more phase transitions may be achieved particularly at low temperature. In addition, many of them showed magnetic ordering and as a result, large variety of magnetic structures can be found. Some perovskites contained localized electrons, some contained delocalized energy-band states, and the behavior of other perovskites was a transition between these two types. The perovskite structures can incorporate ions of various size and charge showing great flexibility of composition. Moreover, substitutions of ions into the A- and/or B-sites or deviation from ideal stoichiometry resulted in altering the electronic properties of the perovskites. Perovskites exhibit atomic arrangement in the form of 3-dimensional array of corner sharing octahedra. On the other hand, layered perovskites included 2-dimensional layers of corner sharing octahedral separated by cations layers. As a result, the electronic energy bands of perovskites and layered perovskites are very unusual and their structure is unique in properties [1, 2]. Perovskites displayed diversity of electric, optical, and magnetic properties because of the fact that 90% of the elements in the periodic table can be stable in the perovskite structure and the feasibility of partial substitutions of cations in A- and B-sites forming A1-xA′xB1-yB′yO3 [6]. Perovskites showed great interest in several applications due to their wide various and useful properties in photochromic, electrochromic, image storage, switching, filtering, and surface acoustic wave signal processing devices. They were utilized as catalytically active catalyst for several reactions like carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons oxidation, hydrogen evolution reaction and nitrogen oxides, and oxygen reduction reactions. They also have a good impact in many electrochemical applications like sensing, biosensing, photoelectrolysis of water-producing hydrogen, and fuel cells [1, 2].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tInsulating\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMetallic\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMagnetic\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSuperconducting\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SrTiO3 (n-type)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
WO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
ReO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PbCrO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NaxWO3 (t)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NaTaO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NaWO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaCrO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
KxWO3 (t)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SrTiO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
KMoO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CaMnO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
KxWO3 (h)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
BaTiO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SrNbO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaMnO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
RbxWO3 (h)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
KTaO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaTiO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaCoO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CsxWO3 (h)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LiNbO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaWO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LaFeO3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LixWO3 (h)
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Some perovskites and corresponding properties [1].
t; tetragonal, h; hexagonal
1.2. Crystallography of the perovskite structure
In the ABO3 form, B is a transition metal ion with small radius, larger A ion is an alkali earth metals or lanthanides with larger radius, and O is the oxygen ion with the ratio of 1:1:3. In the cubic unit cell of ABO3 perovskite, atom A is located at the body center, atom B is located at the cube corner position, and oxygen atoms are located at face-centered positions (Figure 1). The 6-fold coordination of B cation (octahedron) and the 12-fold coordination of the A cation resulted in the stabilization of the perovskite structure. The perfect perovskite structure was described by Hines et al. as corner linked BO6 octahedra with interstitial A cations [1–10]. Some distortions may exist in the ideal cubic form of perovskite resulted in orthorhombic, rhombohedral, hexagonal, and tetragonal forms (Figure 1) [3–7]. Figure 2 represented the distortion from cubic perovskite to orthorhombic one. In general, all perovskite distortions maintaining the A- and the B-site oxygen coordination was achieved by the tilting of the BO6 octahedra and an associated displacement of the A cation [4].
V.M. Goldschmidt presented much of the early work on the synthetic perovskites and developed the principle of the tolerance factor t, which is applicable to the empirical ionic radii at room temperature [2–9]:
t=(rA+rO)/[21/2(rB+rO)],BB1
\n\t\t\t\t
where rA is the radius of the A-site cation, rB is the radius of the B-site cation, and rO is the radius of oxygen ion O2–. The tolerance factor can be used to estimate the suitability of the combination of cations for the perovskite structure [2]. It is a real measure of the degree of the distortion of perovskite from the ideal cubic structure so the value of t tends to unity as the structure approaches the cubic form [4]. From the equation, the tolerance factor will decrease when rA decreases and/orrB increases. Based on the analysis of tolerance factor value, Hines et al. solely suggested that the perovskite structure can be estimated. For 1.00 < t < 1.13, 0.9 < t < 1.0, and 0.75 < t <0.9, the perovskite structure is hexagonal, cubic, and orthorhombic, respectively. For t < 0.75, the structure was adopted to hexagonal ilmenite structure (FeTiO3) [4].
Generally, two requirements should be fulfilled for perovskite formation:
Electroneutrality; the perovskite formula must have neutral balanced charge therefore the product of the addition of the charges of A and B ions should be equivalent to the whole charge of the oxygen ions. An appropriate charge distribution should be attained in the forms of A1+B5+O3, A4+B2+O3 or A3+B3+O3.
Ionic radii requirements; rA > 0.090 nm and rB > 0.051 nm, and the tolerance factor must have values within the range 0.8 < t < 1.0 [2–8].
Figure 1.
Different perovskite unit cells. Blue spheres represent the A cations, yellow spheres represent the B cations and red spheres represent oxygen anions forming an octahedra [4].
Figure 2.
Perovskite distortion from (a) cubic to (b) orthorhombic [4].
1.3. Typical properties of perovskites
Perovskite exhibited a variety of fascinating properties like ferroelectricity as in case of BaTiO3 and superconductivity as in case of Ba2YCu3O7. They exhibited good electrical conductivity close to metals, ionic conductivity and mixed ionic and electronic conductivity. In addition, several perovskites exhibited high catalytic activity toward various reactions. Table 2 contains a summary of typical properties of perovskites. Several typical properties will be discussed in this section like ferroelectricity, magnetism, superconductivity, and catalytic activity [9].
There are some properties inherent to dielectric materials like ferroelectricity, piezoelectricity, electrostriction, and pyroelectricity. One of the important characteristic of perovskites is ferroelectric behavior, which is obvious in BaTiO3, PdZrO3, and their doped compounds. The ferroelectric behavior of BaTiO3 was strongly related to its crystal structure. BaTiO3 was subjected to three phase transitions; as the temperature increases, it was converted from monoclinic to tetragonal then to cubic. At temperature higher than 303 K, BaTiO3 does not show any ferroelectric behavior as it crystallizes into cubic structure. BaTiO3 showed high dielectric constant based on the anisotropy of its crystal structure resulting in large dipole moment generation in BaTiO3 [9].
1.3.2. Electrical conductivity and superconductivity
One of the obvious properties of perovskites is superconductivity. Cu-based perovskites act as high-temperature superconductors, and La-Ba-Cu-O perovskite was first reported. The presence of Cu in B-site is essential for the superconductivity and various superconducting oxides can be manufactured with different A-site ions. Some examples of high temperature superconductors are YBa2Cu3O7, Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O10, and HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+δ with critical temperature of superconducting transition (Tc) of 130–155 K. The superconductivity is associated with the layers of Cu-O in Cu-based perovskites, and the Tc value is associated with the Cu-O layers number in the crystal lattice. The synthesis of 5 or more Cu-O-layered perovskites did not achieve successfully due to the low chemical stability. One of the highly significant superconductors with great Tc value is YBa2Cu3O7. In addition, the oxygen nonstiochiometry is one of the most significant reasons for the high value of Tc. In YBa2Cu3O7–δ, when the value of δ < 0.5, it crystallizes into orthorhombic structure, which is superconductive. For δ > 0.5, it showed a tetragonal structure that does not show any superconductivity. The crystal structure affected greatly the superconductivity in high Tc oxides, and as a result, high Tc values can be achieved by improving the chemical stability of the perovskite crystal structure. Furthermore, some perovskites exhibited great electronic conductivity similar to that of metals like Cu. LaCoO3 and LaMnO3 are examples of perovskites exhibiting high electronic conductivity, and therefore they are utilized as cathodes in solid oxide fuel cells displaying superior hole conductivity of 100 S/cm. The electronic conductivity of the perovskites can be enhanced by doping the A-site with another cation, which resulted in increasing the quantity of the mobile charge carriers created by the reparations of charge [9].
1.3.3. Catalytic activity
Perovskites showed excellent catalytic activity and high chemical stability; therefore, they were studied in a wide range in the catalysis of different reactions. Perovskites can be described as a model of active sites and as an oxidation or oxygen-activated catalyst. The stability of the perovskite structure allowed the compounds preparation from elements with unusual valence states or a high extent of oxygen deficiency. Perovskites exhibited high catalytic activity, which is partially associated with the high surface activity to oxygen reduction ratio or oxygen activation that resulted from the large number of oxygen vacancies. Perovskites can act as automobile exhaust gas catalyst, intelligent automobile catalyst and cleaning catalyst, etc., for various catalytic environmental reactions. It was reported in the literature that perovskites containing Cu, Co, Mn, or Fe showed excellent catalytic activity toward the direct decomposition of NO at high temperature, which is considered one of the difficult reactions in the catalysis (2NO → N2+O2). Perovskites showed superior activity for this reaction at high temperatures because of the presence of oxygen deficiency and the simple elimination of the surface oxygen in the form of a reaction product. NO decomposition activity was enhanced upon doping. Also, under an atmosphere that is rich with oxygen up to 5%, Ba(La)Mn(Mg)O3 perovskite exhibited superior activity toward the decomposition of NO [9].
Perovskite showed a great impact as an automobile catalyst; intelligent catalyst. Pd-Rh-Pt catalysts was utilized as an effective catalyst for the removal of NO, CO and uncombusted hydrocarbons. There is another catalyst that consists of fine particles, with high surface-to-volume ratio, and can be utilized to reduce the amount of precious metals used. However, these fine particles exhibited very bad stability under the operation conditions leading to catalyst deactivation. Therefore, perovskite oxides can be used showing redox properties to preserve a great dispersion state. Upon oxidation, Pd is oxidized in the form of LaFe0.57Co0.38Pd0.05O3 and upon reduction; fine metallic particles of Pd were produced with radius of 1–3 nm. This cycle resulted in partial replacement of Pd into and sedimentation from the framework of the perovskite under oxidizing and reducing conditions, respectively, displaying a great dispersion state of Pd. Also, this cycle improved the excellent long-term stability of Pd during the pollutants removal from the exhaust gas. Exposing the catalyst to oxidizing and reducing atmosphere resulted in the recovery of the high dispersion state of Pd. This catalyst is known as intelligent catalyst because of the great dispersion state of Pd and the excellent stability of the perovskite structure [9].
2. Methods of perovskite synthesis
2.1. Solid-state reactions
In solid-state reactions, the raw materials and the final products are in the solid-state therefore nitrates, carbonates, oxides, and others can be mixed with the stoichiometric ratios. Perovskites can be synthesized via solid-state reactions by mixing carbonates or oxides of the A- and B-site metal ions corresponding to the perovskite formula ABO3 in the required proportion to obtain the final product with the desired composition. They are ball milling effectively in an appropriate milling media of acetone or isopropanol [11, 12]. Then the obtained product is dried at 100 °C and calcined in air at 600 °C for 4–8 h under heating/cooling rates of 2 °C/min. After that, the calcined samples are ground well and sieved. Then it was calcined again at 1300–1600 °C for 5–15 h under the heating/cooling rate of 2 °C/min to confirm the formation of single phase of perovskite. Again grinding and sieving was carried out for the calcined samples [11, 13, 14]. The synthesis of BaCeO3-based proton conductor perovskites [13] and BaCe0.95Yb0.05O3−δ [11] was achieved through the previous methodology using BaCO3, CeO2, and Yb2O3 as the starting materials and isopropanol as the milling media [10].
2.2. Gas phase preparations
Gas phase reaction or transport can be used for the deposition of perovskite films with a specific thickness and composition. Laser ablation [15], molecular beam epitaxy [16], dc sputtering [17], magnetron sputtering [18], electron beam evaporation [19], and thermal evaporation [20] techniques were developed for gas phase deposition. Gas phase deposition can be categorized into three types: (i) deposition at a low substrate temperature then postannealing at high temperature, (ii) deposition at an intermediate temperature of 873 to 1,073 K then postannealing treatment, and (iii) deposition at the crystallization temperature under suitable atmosphere. YBa2Cu3O7 films can be synthesized by the coevaporation of Y, Cu, and BaF2 then annealing at high temperatures in O2 atmosphere wet with water vapor to reduce the annealing time and substrate interaction [20].
2.3. Wet chemical methods (solution preparation)
These methods included the sol-gel preparation, coprecipitation of metal ions using precipitating agents like cyanide, oxalate, carbonate, citrate, hydroxide ions, etc., and thermal treatment [21], which resulted in a single-phase material with large surface area and high homogeneity. These methods presented good advantages such as lower temperature compared to the solid-state reactions, better homogeneity, greater flexibility in forming thin films, improved reactivity and new compositions and better control of stoichiometry, particle size, and purity. Therefore, they opened new directions for molecular architecture in the synthesis of perovskites. Solution methods were classified based on the means used for solvent removal. Two classes were identified: (i) precipitation followed by filtration, centrifugation, etc., for the separation of the solid and liquid phases and (ii) thermal treatment such as evaporation, sublimation, combustion, etc., for solvent removal. There are several factors must be taken in consideration in solution methods like solubility, solvent compatibility, cost, purity, toxicity, and choice of presumably inert anions [10].
2.3.1. Precipitation
2.3.1.1. Oxalate-based preparation
This method is built on the assimilation of oxalic acid with carbonates, hydroxides, or oxides producing metal oxalates, water, and carbon dioxide as products [22]. The solubility problem is minimized as the pH of the resulting solution is close to 7. An oxidizing atmosphere like oxygen was used during calcination to avoid the formation of carbide and carbon residues [23]. Clabaugh et al. utilized an aqueous chloride solution with oxalic acid to obtain unique and novel complex compound of BaTiO(C2O4)2 4H2O as a precursor for the preparation of finely divided and stoichiometric BaTiO3 [24].
2.3.1.2. Hydroxide-based preparation
This method is often used due to its low solubility and the possible variety of precipitation schemes. The sol-gel process can be used to produce a wide range of new materials and improve their properties. It presented some advantages over the other traditional methods like chemical homogeneity, low calcination temperature, room temperature deposition, and controlled hydrolysis for thin film formation. BaZrO3 powders in its pure crystalline form can be prepared by the precipitation in aqueous solution of high basicity [25]. LaCoO3 was prepared by the simultaneous oxidation and coprecipitation of a mixture containing equimolar amounts of La(III) and Co(II) nitrates producing a gel containing hydroxide then calcination at 600 °C [26].
2.3.1.3. Acetate-based preparation
Different perovskites were prepared by mixing acetate ions alone or together with nitrate ions with the metal ions salts. La1-xSrxCoO3 with x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 [27] was prepared using acetate precursors then calcination at 1,123 K in air for 5 h. La1-xSrxCo1-yFeyO3 [28] was prepared using iron nitrate and strontium, cobalt, and lanthanum acetates then calcination at 1,123 K in air between 5 and 10 h.
2.3.1.4. Citrate-based preparation
Citrate precursors can be used and undergo several decomposition steps in the synthesis of perovskite [29]. These steps included the decomposition of citrate complexes and removal of CO32– and NO3¯ ions. LaCo0.4Fe0.6O3 can be prepared by this method, and the mechanism was investigated by thermogravimetry, XRD, and IR spectroscopy.
2.3.1.5. Cyanide-based preparation
Rare earth orthoferrites (REFeO3) and cobalt compounds (RECoO3) were prepared using cyanides complexes via thermal decomposition of the rare earth ferricyanide and cobalticyanide compounds [30]. LaFe(CN)6 6H2O, LaCo(CN)6 5H2O, and even ferrocyanides such as NH4LaFe(CN)6 5H2O are precipitated from the aqueous solution. This method presented some advantages like control of stoichiometry and low calcination temperature. The same method was used for the preparation of europium and other rare earth hexacyanoferrate compounds [31].
2.3.2. Thermal treatment
2.3.2.1. Freeze-drying
The freeze-drying method can be achieved through the following steps: (i) dissolution of the starting salts in the suitable solvent, water in most cases; (ii) freezing the solution very fast to keep its chemical homogeneity; (iii) freeze-drying the frozen solution to get the dehydrated salts without passing through the liquid phase; and (iv) decomposition of the dehydrated salts to give the desired perovskite powder. The rate of heat loss from the solution is the most important characteristic for the freezing step. This rate should be as high as possible to decrease the segregation of ice-salt. Also, in case of multicomponent solutions, the heat loss rate should be high to prevent the large-scale segregation of the cation components [10, 12, 21].
2.3.2.2. Plasma spray-drying
This method was applicable to various precursors, including gaseous, liquid, and solid materials. It was applied for the preparation of various ceramic, electronic, and catalytic materials. It presented many advantages in terms of economy, purity, particle size distribution, and reactivity. This method was achieved through two steps: (i) injection of the reactants and (ii) generation and interaction of the molten droplets (with substrate or with the previously generated droplets). The thick film of YBa2Cu3Ox covering large areas was prepared via this approach, and the optimum superconducting oxide phase was obtained by varying the preparation conditions like plasma parameters, substrate temperatures, and film postdeposition treatment [32].
2.3.2.3. Combustion
A redox reaction, which is thermally induced, occurs between the oxidant and fuel. A homogenous, highly reactive, and nanosized powder was prepared by this method. When compared with the other traditional methods, a single-phase perovskite powder can be obtained at lower calcination temperatures or shorter reaction times. One of the most popular solution combustion methods is citrate/nitrate combustion, where citric acid is the fuel and metal nitrates are used as the source of metal and oxidant. It is similar to the Pechini process “sol-gel combustion method” to a large extent, but in citrate/nitrate combustion, ethylene glycol or other polyhydroxy alcohols are not used. In addition, in citrate/nitrate combustion, the nitrates are not eliminated in the form of NOx, but they remain in the mixture with the metal-citrate complex facilitating the auto-combustion. Iron, cobalt, and cerium-perovskite can be prepared via citrate/nitrate combustion synthesis [12, 33]. In addition, uniform nanopowder of La0.6Sr0.4CoO3−δ was prepared by the combined citrate–EDTA method, where the precursor solution was made of metal nitrates, citric acid, and EDTA under controlled pH with ammonia [34]. La0.8Sr0.2Co0.2Fe0.8O3−δ [35] and Sr- or Ce-doped La1−xMxCrO3 catalysts [36] were prepared by citrate/nitrate combustion method. Furthermore, the Pechini “citrate gel” process includes two stages: (i) a complex was formed between the metal ions and citric acid, then (ii) the produced complex was polyesterified with ethylene glycol to maintain the metal salt solution in a gel in a homogenous state. This approach presented some advantages like high purity, minimized segregation, and good monitoring of the resulting perovskite composition. LaMnO3 [37, 38], LaCoO3 [39–41], and LaNiO3 [42] were prepared by citric acid gel process producing nanophasic thin films [10].
2.3.2.4. Microwave synthesis
The microwave irradiation process (MIP), evolving from microwave sintering, was applied widely in food drying, inorganic/organic synthesis, plasma chemistry, and microwave-induced catalysis. MIP showed fascinating advantages: (i) fast reaction rate, (ii) regular heating, and (iii) efficient and clean energy. The microwave preparations were achieved in domestic microwave oven at frequency of 2.45 GHz with 1 kW as the maximum output power. Dielectric materials absorbed microwave energy converted directly into heat energy through the polarization and dielectric loss in the interior of materials [43]. The energy efficiency reached 80–90% which is much higher than the conventional routes. MIP was recently utilized to prepare perovskites nanomaterials reducing both the high temperature of calcination (higher than 700 °C) and long time (greater than 3 h) required for pretreatment or sintering [10]. GaAlO3 and LaCrO3 perovskites with ferroelectric, superconductive, high-temperature ionic conductive and magnetic ordering properties, faster lattice diffusion, and grain size with smaller size were prepared in MIP [44–47]. CaTiO3 powders prepared in MIP presented a fast structural ordering than powders dealt in ordinary furnace [48]. Hydrothermal conventional and dielectric heating were utilized to prepare La–Ce–Mn–O catalysts. Hydrothermal MIP leads to formation of La1−xCexMnO3+εCeO2 (x + ε = 0.2) with enhanced catalytic activity [49] while using the conventional heating methods lead to formation of LaMnO3 + CeO2. Moreover, nanosized single-phase perovskite-type LaFeO3 [50], SmFeO3, NdFeO3, GdFeO3, barium iron niobate powders [51], KNbO3 [52], PbWO4 [53], CaMoO4 [54] and MWO4 (M: Ca, Ni) [55], strontium hexaferrite [56], and SrRuO3 [57] were prepared in MIP showing finer particles, higher specific surface areas and shorter time for synthesis of single crystalline powders.
3. Doping of perovskites
The different properties of perovskites and their catalytic activity are highly affected by the method of synthesis, conditions of calcination (time, atmosphere, fuel, temperature, etc.), and A- and/or B-site substitutions. The catalytic activity of the perovskite is highly affected by partial or total substitutions on A- and/or B-site cations because of the oxidation state modification, the variation of the chemical state of the elements at A- and/or B-site, the generation of oxygen vacancies, the mobility of oxygen lattice, and the formation of structural defects [58–60]. The powerful bond between the B-site metal ions and the oxygen ions can be used to determine the basic characters of perovskites, and as a result, the B-site cation is responsible for the perovskite catalytic activity [61, 62]. Therefore, partial substitution of B-site cation with other metals M in AB1-yMyO3 will display the properties of both metals: the main metal B and the dopant one M [62]. On the other hand, the cation A can stabilize the unusual oxidation states of B-site cations by the controlled formation of crystal lattice vacancies, which lead to different catalytic performances [61].
Upon doping A- and/or B-sites in ABO3 perovskite oxides, the catalytic activity, ionic and electronic conductivity, and flexible physical and chemical properties can be altered for utilization in various applications [63–66]. Different cations with different sizes and charges can be hosted in the A- and B-sites of these perovskites; thus, many studies can be performed to utilize doped perovskites in various applications. Multiple cationic substitutions can be accepted in the stable perovskite lattice provided that Goldschmidt tolerance factor ranged between 0.75 and 1 and electroneutrality are preserved [59, 67, 68]. Therefore, variable amounts of different structural and electronic lattice defects can be accommodated in the perovskite structure as a result of their nonstoichiometry. This will further affect the activity of the perovskite and stabilize the unusual valence states of different metal ions [61, 67]. Some physical characteristics of perovskite-type oxides seriously associated with structural characters were affected greatly by the structural deformations from the ideal cubic structure of the perovskite [69].
The type of the metal ion at the B-sites and their partial substitutions can be used to determine the catalytic activity of perovskites. The substitution of B-site metal ion with various metal ions M in the doped perovskite AB1-yMyO3 showed a vast spectrum for the alteration of the catalytic and physical properties of the prepared perovskite [64, 67]. There is an effective synergism between the crystal lattice of the perovskite and the metal ions dissolved in the lattice upon doping. This synergism resulted in enhanced redox reaction and better catalytic activity of the prepared perovskite [70]. As well, a dramatic change in the transport and magnetic properties of the ABO3 perovskite can be achieved upon doping the B-site due to an ionic valence effect and/or an ionic size effect [64]. Furthermore, upon doping the B-site in ABO3 perovskites with transition metals especially noble metals, the stability of the perovskite was improved and the catalytic activity was enhanced greatly [71]. In addition, the incorporation of two different B ions with appropriate various charge and size may be altered the simple perovskite structure. If the two ions in B-site were used with equimolar amounts, the resulted perovskite can be represented as AB0.5B′0.5O3 with unit cell appearing as doubled along the three axes. In addition, if B and B′ have different charges, there is a slight shift of the oxygen toward the highly charged ion in the ordered structure although the octahedral symmetry of B and B′ cations is maintained [5]. Different B-sites doped perovskites were mentioned in the literature showing enhanced catalytic properties like LaNixCo1-xO3 [72], LaB0.9Pd0.1O3 [73], LaMn1−xPdxO3 [74], BaFe1−xYxO3−δ [75], BaFe0.85Cu0.15O3−δ [76], LaNi1-xFexO3 [77], LaFe0.95-xCoxPd0.05O3 [78] and LaCo0.95Pd0.05O3 [79]. On the other hand, (La1-xSrx)yMnO3±δ [80], La1-xCexGaO3, La1-xPrxGaO3 and La1-xNdxGaO3 [81], La1-xCaxMnO3 [82], La1-xNaxMnO3+δ, La1-xCaxMnO3+δ [83], (Ba0.93Fe0.07)TiO3 [84], La1-xSrxNiO3, and La1-xSrxMnO3 [85] are examples of A-site doped perovskites.
4. Characterization of perovskites
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) can be used to differentiate the different phases of the prepared perovskites. Single-crystal XRD is another analysis used to characterize the structure of the perovskite. Thermal stability of the prepared perovskites can be tested using thermal analysis techniques like TGA, DTA, and DSC. On the other hand, scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopies can be utilized to identify the different morphological and surface characteristics of the prepared perovskites. Also, BET can be utilized for surface area measurement. In addition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can be used to completely identify the formed phases [10, 86–88].
4.1. XRD
XRD can be used for the phase identification and the relative percents of different phases of the prepared materials. Also, some structural parameters like particle size, lattice parameters (a, b, and c), lattice volume, and theoretical density can be calculated from the XRD data. Also, XRD can be used to optimize the preparation conditions of the different perovskites [3, 87–89]. Galal et al. prepared SrPdO3 by citrate/nitrate combustion method at different pH values; 2, 7, and 10 at calcination temperature 750 °C for 3 h and the XRD patterns of these samples were shown in Figure 3A. The XRD data were compared with the ICCD card of SrPdO3 (card number 00-025-0908). For pH 2, the experimental data and the theoretical one are well matched and supported the formation of the primary orthorhombic perovskite phase of SrPdO3 (the major diffraction peak 110) and the appearance of secondary phase SrPd3O4 (210). Only SrPd3O4 phase appeared in case of samples prepared at pH 7 and 10 as (110) peak disappeared. Therefore, pH 2 was the optimal pH for SrPdO3 preparation. Also, the type of fuel (citric acid, urea, and glycine) used in the preparation of SrPdO3 can be optimized using XRD (Figure 3B). SrPdO3 was the primary phase in all cases but with different percents of SrPdO3 (110) with respect to SrPd3O4 (210). The high percent was in case of urea and the small one in case of citric acid. Some structural parameters were calculated and summarized in Table 3 with good matching with theoretical data.
Figure 3.
XRD patterns of SrPdO3 prepared by combustion method at different pH values (A) and different fuels (B). Miller indices (h, l,k) are written in black line for SrPdO3, red line for SrPd3O4 and the symbol (*) for SrCl2. 6H2O [89].
Standard SrPdO3\n\t\t\t\t (ICCD card; 00-025-0908)
\n\t\t\t
Orthorhombic
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
a = 3.977 b = 3.530 c = 12.82
\n\t\t\t
179.98
\n\t\t\t
4.47
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
citrate-nitrate method
\n\t\t\t
Orthorhombic
\n\t\t\t
34.0
\n\t\t\t
a = 3.983 b = 3.541 c = 12.80
\n\t\t\t
180.59
\n\t\t\t
4.45
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
urea-nitrate method
\n\t\t\t
Orthorhombic
\n\t\t\t
45.4
\n\t\t\t
a = 3.954 b = 3.563 c = 12.82
\n\t\t\t
180.63
\n\t\t\t
4.45
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
glycine-nitrate method
\n\t\t\t
Orthorhombic
\n\t\t\t
25.7
\n\t\t\t
a = 3.972 b = 3.527 c = 12.83
\n\t\t\t
179.69
\n\t\t\t
4.47
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Structural parameters calculated from XRD data [89].
4.2. SEM and TEM
SEM and TEM can be used to study the morphology and surface characteristics of the perovskite nanomaterials. The preparation conditions, synthesis method, type of A- and B-site metal ions, and doping A- and/or B-sites affected greatly the SEM of the prepared perovskites [88–94]. Galal et al. prepared LaNiO3, LaCoO3, LaFeO3, and LaMnO3 by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720 W as operating power for 30 min under microwave irradiation. The SEM images for the different perovskites were shown in Figure 4 presenting different morphologies depending on the kind of metal ion at B-site, respectively. LaNiO3 showed compact surface with high degree of ordering while LaCoO3 and LaMnO3 showed spherical grains agglomerations with smaller grain size in case of LaMnO3. LaFeO3 showed dissimilar morphology with a porous surface containing particles with bonelike shape. In addition, LaFeO3 presented greater electrocatalytic activity toward hydrogen evolution reaction compared to other types of perovskites [90].
Furthermore, the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) can be used to show the different morphologies and particle characteristics of the different perovskites [86, 88, 95]. HRTEM images for LaNiO3, LaCoO3, LaFeO3, and LaMnO3 by the microwave-assisted citrate method were shown in Figure 5, respectively. The HRTEM images clearly showed orthorhombic phase with high crystallinity in case of LaFeO3, while HRTEM images of LaNiO3, LaCoO3, and LaMnO3 showed hexagonal distorted rhombohedral phases. The diffraction patterns obtained via HRTEM for the different perovskites were comparable with the XRD data [86, 95].
Figure 4.
SEM micrographs of (A) LaNiO3, (B) LaCoO3, (C) LaFeO3 and (D) LaMnO3 prepared by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720 W for 30 min, with a magnification of 35,000 times [90].
Figure 5.
HRTEM micrographs of (A) LaNiO3, (B) LaCoO3, (C) LaFeO3 and (D) LaMnO3 prepared by the microwave-assisted citrate method at 720Wfor 30 min [86].
4.3. BET
The electrochemical performance and electrocatalytic activity of the perovskites are greatly associated with the specific surface area of the materials; therefore, it is necessary to measure the specific surface area of the prepared materials. The surface area values of different perovskites can be measured by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) nitrogen adsorption. The preparation conditions, synthesis method, type of A- and B-site metals, and presence of different dopants can greatly affect the surface area of the prepared perovskites [86, 87, 95]. Biniwale et al. prepared LaFeO3 via different methods, namely, sol-gel, combustion, and coprecipitation and measured the corresponding surface area and the average pore diameter of the prepared perovskites. The order of decreasing the surface area of the prepared LaFeO3 was sol-gel (16.5 m2 g–1) > combustion (9.3 m2 g–1) > coprecipitation method (5.4 m2 g–1). The order of increasing the average pore diameter of the prepared LaFeO3 was sol-gel (119 °A) < coprecipitation method (140 °A) < combustion (205 °A). Sol-gel and combustion methods resulted in porous surface with internal pores contributing to higher surface area, while coprecipitation method resulted in less internal pores and lower surface area due to longer calcination time [87].
4.4. Thermal analysis
Thermal analysis can be utilized to identify the thermal stability and the decomposition temperature of the prepared perovskites. The optimum calcination temperature of any perovskite can be identified using thermal analysis [88, 96, 97]. Galal et al. prepared SrPdO3 for the first time, and its optimum calcination temperature was investigated using TGA and DTG of the citrate complex of Sr and Pd (Figure 6A). The breakdown of the citrate complex occurs at ~330 °C through a smooth weight loss step. SrPdO3 formation was achieved at ~750 °C through a sharp weight loss step [96].
Figure 6.
(A) TG spectrum of Sr and Pd mixed citrate complex, heating rate was 10 °C min−1 [27] and (B) FTIR spectra for LaFeO3 synthesized using (a) co-precipitation method, (b) combustion method and (c) sol–gel method [87].
4.5. FTIR
The chemical bonding and chemical structure of the prepared perovskites can be investigated via FTIR. The FTIR can give structural confirmation similar to that obtained via XRD [87, 97–100]. Biniwale et al. prepared LaFeO3 via different methods: sol-gel, combustion, and coprecipitation, and the FTIR for them was shown in Figure 6B [87]. The FTIR of LaFeO3 showed an absorption band at 558 cm–1 related to the stretching vibration mode of Fe-O. Another band appeared at 430 cm–1 was related to the deformation vibration mode of O-Fe-O. LaFeO3 prepared via coprecipitation method showed a sharp band at 3609 cm–1, which is related to La-O in lanthanum oxide. In case of the other two methods, the band at 3600 cm–1 disappeared indicating the formation of relatively pure perovskite phase. Other bands appeared at 1360 and 1480 cm–1, indicating other phases in case of coprecipitation method. As a result and as mentioned in literature, the absorption peak around 558 cm–1 was related to the stretching modes of metallic oxygen bond [87, 97–100].
4.6. XPS
The surface compositions of the various components of the prepared perovskites can be identified via XPS [101–106]. Lee et al. prepared La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples and identify their structural composition via XPS analysis [102]. Figure 7 showed the XPS spectra of La (3d), Fe (2p), and O (1s) in La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples. The binding energy of La (3d5/2) was 833.5 eV and 833.8 eV in case of LaFeO3 and La0.9FeO3, respectively, corresponding to the La3+ ions in the form of oxide. By contrast, the binding energy of Fe (2p3/2) was 710.2 eV for both samples corresponding to Fe3+ ions in the form of oxide. The Fe (2p) XPS signal cannot distinguish between Fe3+ and Fe4+. The XPS signal of O (1s) was divided into two peaks in case of La0.9FeO3 appearing at 529.9 and 532.1 eV. While for LaFeO3, O (1s) XPS signal was divided into three peaks appearing at 529.4, 531.9, and 534.4 eV. The O (1s) binding energy values at 529.9 and 529.4 eV in both samples are attributed to lattice oxygen species. The peaks at 532.1 and 531.9 eV are ascribed to the chemisorbed oxygen species as OH¯ or O¯. The chemisorbed oxygen species appeared at binding energy higher than that of lattice oxygen species by 2.1–2.5 eV. The peak appeared at 534.4 eV in case of LaFeO3 was ascribed to the adsorbed water species associated with the surface lanthanum oxide which is highly hygroscopic [102].
Figure 7.
XPS spectra of La(3d), Fe(2p) and O(1s) in La0.9FeO3 and LaFeO3 samples [102].
5. Applications of perovskites
Inorganic perovskite-type oxides exhibited attractive physical and chemical characteristics such as electronic conductivity, electrically active structure, the oxide ions mobility through the crystal lattice, variations on the content of the oxygen, thermal and chemical stability, and supermagnetic, photocatalytic, thermoelectric, and dielectric properties. They are fascinating nanomaterials for wide applications in catalysis, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensing. The catalytic activity of these oxides is higher than that of many transition metals compounds and even some precious metal oxides.
Nanoperovskites are recently utilized in electrochemical sensing of alcohols, gases, amino acids, acetone, glucose, H2O2, and neurotransmitters exhibiting good selectivity, sensitivity, unique long-term stability, excellent reproducibility, and anti-interference ability. Moreover, they have been utilized as catalysts in oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions exhibiting high electrocatalytic activity, lower activation energy, and high electron transfer kinetics. In addition, some perovskites are promising candidates for the development of effective anodic catalysts for direct fuel cells showing high catalytic performance.
5.1. Sensors and biosensors
5.1.1. Gas sensors
There are a number of requirements that the materials utilized as gas sensors must satisfy, namely, good resemblance with the target gases, manufacturability, hydrothermal stability, convenient electronic structure, resistance to poisoning, and adaptation with existing technologies. There is a wide variety of materials that can be used as gas sensors like semiconductors, namely, SnO2, In2O3, and WO3, and perovskite oxides, namely, LaFeO3 and SrTiO3. Perovskite oxides are fascinating materials as gas sensors due to their perfect thermal stability, ideal band gap “3–4 eV,” and difference in size between the cations of A- and B-sites, allowing different dopants addition for controlling semiconducting properties and their catalytic properties. Perovskites including titanates, ferrites, and cobaltates were utilized as gas sensors for detecting CO, NO2, methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbons [107–110]. LaCoO3 prepared via high-energy ball milling exhibited the highest amount of grain boundaries, the best CO gas sensing properties, and the smallest crystallite size of 11 nm compared to that prepared via solid-state and sol-gel reactions. The maximum response ratio increased to 26% in case of milling method with maximum response ratio temperature of 125 °C compared to 7% and 17% in case of solid-state reaction and sol-gel method. In addition, the specific surface area increased greatly from 4 m2 g–1 to 66 m2 g–1 by extra milling step, and the mobility of the oxygen was enhanced by growing the extra milling step and surface area [107]. A summary of various perovskite oxides for different gas sensing was given in Table 4.
A summary of different perovskites for gas sensing.
5.1.2. Glucose sensor
It is very important to analytically determine H2O2 and glucose in many fields like food, clinic, and pharmaceutical analyses. H2O2 is considered one of the most important oxidizing agents in chemical and food industries. Glucose is a fundamental metabolite for most of the living organisms and for the clinical examination of diabetes mellitus, a worldwide health problem. As a result, it is very important to construct biosensors for the sensitive determination of H2O2 and glucose [128–137]. Different types of enzymatic glucose sensors were constructed and used in the literature exhibiting the advantages of simplicity and sensitivity. However, enzymatic glucose sensors suffered from the lack of stability and the difficult procedures required for the effective immobilization of enzyme on the electrode surface. The lack of enzyme stability was attributed to its intrinsic nature because the enzyme activity was highly affected by poisonous chemicals, pH, temperature, humidity, etc. As a result, most attention was given for sensitive, simple, stable, and selective nonenzymatic glucose sensor. Different novel materials were proposed for the electrocatalytic oxidation of glucose like noble nanometals, nanoalloys, metal oxides, and inorganic perovskite oxides. Inorganic perovskite oxides as nanomaterials exhibited fascinating properties for glucose sensing like ferroelectricity, superconductivity, charge ordering, high thermopower, good biocompatibility, catalytic activity, and the ability of the perovskite structure to accommodate different metallic ions [128–137]. Zhen Zhang et al. utilized carbon paste electrode modified with Co0.4Fe0.6LaO3 as a promising nonenzymatic H2O2 and glucose sensor. This sensor displayed perfect electrocatalytic activity toward H2O2 and glucose oxidation in alkaline medium due to the presence of large amount of active sites in the modifier. The linear dynamic range for H2O2 at this surface was 0.01 to 800 μM with low detection limit of 2.0 nM. For glucose, two ranges were obtained from 0.05 to 5 μM and from 5 to 500 μM with detection limit of 10 nM. The proposed sensor exhibited rapid response, excellent long-term stability, and anti-interference ability toward ascorbic acid, uric acid, and dopamine [132]. Furthermore, Atta et al. have recently modified SrPdO3 perovskite with a film of gold nanoparticles to be utilized as a nonenzymatic voltammetric glucose sensor. The studied sensor exhibited high electrocatalytic activity toward glucose oxidation exploring the effective synergism between SrPdO3 and gold nanoparticles. SrPdO3 perovskite facilitated the charge transfer process and acted as an effective supporting substrate for gold nanoparticles. The catalytic activity of SrPdO3 was attributed to the deficiency of the surface for oxygen which resulted in enhanced intrinsic reactivity toward glucose oxidation. Another reason for the catalytic activity of SrPdO3 was the matrix effect induced by the stable crystal structure of the perovskite where there is a homogenous distribution of Pd4+ cations in the inert matrix of the perovskite during the reaction. This nanocomposite showed good performance toward glucose sensing in terms of highly reproducible response, high sensitivity, wide linearity, low detection limit, good selectivity, long-term stability, and applicability in real urine samples and blood serum [137]. A summary of different types of perovskites used for enzymatic and nonenzymatic H2O2 and glucose sensing was given in Table 5, exhibiting high sensitivity, wide linear range, low detection limit, anti-interference ability, applicability in real samples, and long-term stability.
A summary of different perovskites for H2O2 and glucose sensing.
5.1.3. Neurotransmitters sensor
Dopamine (DA) is an essential catecholamine neurotransmitter that exists in the mammalian central nervous system. The depletion of DA can lead to Parkinson’s disease; therefore, its determination is very crucial. The interference of ascorbic acid (AA) and uric acid (UA) with DA is the major problem in DA detection [89, 140–143]. Therefore, it is very important to present a modified surface which can be sensitively and selectively detect DA even in presence of high concentration of AA and UA. Atta et al. presented carbon paste electrode modified with SrPdO3 (CpE/SrPdO3) as a promising electrochemical DA sensor in biological fluids with unique long-term stability and low detection limit of 9.3 nmol L−1. CpE/SrPdO3 can simultaneously detect DA in the presence of high concentrations of AA and UA and can successfully detect DA in human urine samples with excellent recovery results in terms of selectivity, accuracy, precision, and detection limit. The proposed sensor showed high sensitivity, good selectivity, and anti-interference ability [89]. Moreover, higher response toward DA oxidation was achieved at CpE/SrPdO3 compared to electrodeposited palladium nanoparticles modified CpE (CpE/Pd) with equivalent loading of Pd4+ salt. The higher catalytic activity at CpE/SrPdO3 was explained in terms of the oxygen–surface interaction between the oxygen atoms of the hydroxyl groups and the transition element in the perovskite. One characteristic of perovskite is the deficiency of its surface for oxygen. As a result, the “dihydroxy”-oxygen adsorb onto perovskite surface with the formation of a “moderate” bond between oxygen atoms and the transition element in the oxide [89]. Furthermore, the descriptor that controls the catalytic process in perovskites is the type of transition metal in the perovskite, which is related to the number of occupied d orbital states of a specific symmetry, for example, of the active metal. This is associated with the surface ability to bond oxygen on the basis of the calculations of the density functional theory. Therefore, the oxygen adsorption energy represented a perfect descriptor for the oxidation of DA at CpE/SrPdO3. A summary of different perovskites used for neurotransmitters sensing was given in Table 6.
A summary of different perovskites for neurotransmitters sensing.
5.2. Solid oxide fuel cells
Fuel cells have come into view as efficient alternatives to combustion engines due to their potential to minimize the environmental influence of the use of fossil fuels. A fuel cell uses certain type of chemical fuel as its energy source, and there is a direct transformation of chemical energy into electrical energy like a battery. Fuel cells are attractive because of their great efficiency, modular and distributed nature, low emissions, zero noise pollution, and role in any future hydrogen fuel economy. There are several types of fuel cells depending on operating temperature, fuel type, electrolyte type, and mobile ions. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid or alkali fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cell are the most common examples of fuel cells [144]. Table 7 contained some fuel cells types and some selected features [144]. Here we will concern on solid oxide fuel cells. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), based on conducting electrolyte in the form of an oxide-ion, can generate electricity and heat and they are considered as energy-saving, environment-friendly, and effective energy conversion devices. SOFCs exhibited several features compared to the other types of fuel cells like high-energy conversion efficiency, cheap materials, low sensitivity to the fuel impurities, low pollution emissions, environmental compatibility, and excellent fuel flexibility [145–160]. Figure 8 showed the working principle of a solid oxide fuel cell [157]. The high temperature of SOFC operation resulted in the difficult choice of the proper materials and the decreased cell durability. Thus, providing materials for SOFCs with good performance at intermediate temperatures (500–800 °C) is very essential so that the cell cost and the startup and shut down time can be reduced and its long-term stability can be improved [148, 155]. Perovskite oxides exhibited fascinating properties like good electrical conductivity similar to that of metals, high ionic conductivity, and perfect mixed ionic and electronic conductivity. Depending on the differences in the electrical conductive characteristics of perovskites, they are chosen as an effective component in SOFC [9]. In addition, mixed-conduction perovskite oxides possess beneficial electrochemical reaction; structural, thermal, and chemical stabilities; high electrical conductivity; high catalytic activity toward the oxygen reduction; and ideal mixed electronic and ionic conductivities to be used as effective component for intermediate temperatures SOFC (IT-SOFC) [147–160]. Shao and Haile utilized Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ as an effective cathode for intermediate SOFC with the fuel of humidified H2 and the cathode gas of air. This cathode exhibited 1010 and 402 mW cm–2 as the maximum power density at 600 and 500 °C, respectively [145]. On the other hand, Goodenough reported the use of double perovskite Sr2MgMnMoO6-δ as an anode material for SOFC with dry methane as the fuel and 438 mW cm–2 as the maximum power density at 800 °C. This anode material showed long-term stability, stability in reducing atmosphere, tolerance to sulfur, and characteristic of oxygen deficiency [161]. Table 8 contained a summary of different perovskites used as anode and cathode for SOFC illustrating the fuel type, the operating temperature, and the maximum power density.
Figure 8.
Schematic diagram showing the working principle of a solid oxide fuel cell [157].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tType\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTemperature °C\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFuel\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tElectrolyte\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMobile ion\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
PEM: polymer electrolyte membrane or proton exchange membrane
Perovskite oxides can be widely used as catalyst in modern chemical industry, exhibiting appropriate solid-state, surface, and morphological properties [6]. Several perovskites exhibited enhanced catalytic activity toward different reactions like hydrogen evolution and oxygen evolution and reduction reactions [9].
5.3.1. Hydrogen evolution reaction
Because of the advantages of high heat of combustion, abundant sources, and no pollution, hydrogen is considered as an ideal fuel. Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is a fascinating reaction in the renewable energy field. This reaction is very important in (i) metal electrodeposition and corrosion in acids, (ii) storage of energy through production of hydrogen, and (iii) as the hydrogen oxidation reaction reverse in low-temperature fuel cells. One of the most studied reactions in electrochemistry is the electrocatalysis in HER. The material used for HER should have (i) intrinsic electrocatalytic activity, (ii) considerable active surface area per unit volume, and (iii) good stability. To reduce the cost of electrolytic HER, the overpotential required for the operation of the electrolyzer at considerable current densities should be reduced. The overpotential reduction can be achieved through the electrode active surface area enhancement or by the selection of electrode materials of high catalytic activity. The steps of the reaction in acidic solutions are as follows:
M + H3O++e–↔MHads+ H2OE1
MHads+ H3O++e–↔H2+ M + H2OE2
MHads+ MHads↔H2+ 2ME3
The first step in HER is the proton discharge (volume reaction, Eq. (1)), which is followed by electrodesorption step (Heyrovsky reaction, Eq. (2)) or proton recombination step, physical desorption, (Tafel reaction, Eq. (3)) [93]. Galal et al. confirmed the high catalytic activity of different perovskite oxides toward hydrogen evolution reaction [90–94, 96]. LnFeO3 perovskites (Ln= Gd, La, Sm, and Nd) were prepared by the microwave assistant-citrate method, and single-phase perovskites were formed with uniform distribution of small average particle size. Tafel and electrochemical impedance measurements were used to study the catalytic activity of LnFeO3 toward HER showing the effect of the type of the lanthanide ion on HER and the partial substitution effect at the La-site in La1-ySmyFeO3. The order of decreasing the catalytic activity toward HER was NdFeO3 > LaFeO3 > SmFeO3 > GdFeO3 based on activation energies calculations and the strength of Fe-O bond, which is related to A-type metal ion. Furthermore, the order of decreasing the catalytic activity in case of doped samples was La0.75Sm0.25FeO3 > La0.5Sm0.5FeO3 > La0.25Sm0.75FeO3 > LaFeO3 > SmFeO3 displaying greater catalytic activity of ternary perovskites compared to that of binary ones [94]. On the other hand, Galal et al. prepared SrPdO3 by the citrate method for the first time showing enhanced catalytic activity toward HER up to 100 times with respect to the unmodified surface with 27.9 kJ mol−1 as the calculated activation energy. The rate-determining step was the hydrogen adsorption on the catalyst and the order of the reaction at the catalyst surface was 0.86 [96]. Table 9 contained a summary of different perovskites used as catalysts for HER with the values of exchange current density at constant overpotential, activation energy, reaction order, and the rate-determining step.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPerovskite\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tExchange current density\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\tj/ μA.cm-2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for HER catalysis.
5.3.2. Oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions
Oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are considered one of the most important electrode reactions in many industrial processes like fuel cells, metal electrowinning, water electrolysis, electro-organic synthesis, cathodic protection, and rechargeable metal air batteries [95, 164–166]. Platinum-based catalysts and precious metal oxides are the most common catalysts for ORR or OER, but they are expensive and scarce. Therefore, it is very important to develop other catalysts for ORR or OER. Mixed metal perovskite oxides of transition and rare earth metals are promising low-cost alternatives to precious metal catalysts for both ORR and OER [165]. Perovskite oxide exhibited unique electronic and magnetic properties, defective structure, and good cation ordering resulting in disorder-free channels of oxygen vacancies and enhanced mobility of oxygen ions [164]. Some perovskite oxides were reported as electrocatalysts for ORR and OER and summarized in Table 10 [95, 164–166]. Ruizhi Yang et al. prepared Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3 by sol-gel method and utilized it as ORR or OER catalyst in basic medium of KOH. The proposed catalyst exhibited higher catalytic activity toward OER than the unmodified electrode [164]. Furthermore, Galal et al. prepared LaFeO3 by microwave-assisted citrate method and studied its catalytic activity toward OER in acid medium of HClO4. LaFeO3 exhibited greater electrocatalytic activity toward OER by about 100-folds compared to the unmodified electrode. The current density at 1.5 V increased from 3.6 × 10−5 in case of unmodified electrode to 1.2 × 10−3 A/cm2 in case of modified one. The calculated activation energy was 20 kJ/mol, which is much lower than that reported for other iron compounds and even some precious metal oxides like RuO2. This was attributed to the matrix effect induced by the stable crystal structure of the perovskite [95]. In addition, La0.6Ca0.4CoO3, prepared by the sol-gel method, showed high catalytic activity and relative stability toward oxygen electrochemistry in basic medium of KOH. La0.6Ca0.4CoO3 exhibited single-phase perovskite structure, high conductivity, and large surface area [165, 166].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPerovskite\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMedium\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tExchange current density\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\tmA.cm-2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
A summary of different perovskites for ORR or OER catalysis.
5.4. Solar cells
Solar energy is a green source of energy that can be used instead of energy sources based on fossil fuels. Solar radiation can be directly converted into electrical energy in a suitable way creating various applications for solar energy. Solar energy can be efficiently converted into electricity using photovoltaic solar cells based on silicon. The obvious disadvantage of silicon-based solar cell is the high price of electricity generated from it so that there is a potential need to develop solar cell with low cost. Recently, attention was paid to solar cells based on organic/inorganic solid-state methylammonium lead halide (CH3NH3PbX3, X=Br, I) hybrid perovskite. This type of solar cells presented effective points such as a conversion efficiency of about 20%; its cost is lower than that of conventional silicon solar cells and the availability of the raw materials. These 3D organometal halide perovskite exhibited excellent intrinsic properties for photovoltaic applications like excellent stability, appropriate band gap (~1.55 eV), high absorption coefficient (1.5 × 104 cm–1 at 550 nm), long hole-electron diffusion length (~100 nm for CH3NH3PbI3 and ~1 μm for CH3NH3PbI3-xClx), high carrier mobility and transport, charge carriers with small effective mass, low temperature of processing, and easy processing steps [167–179]. Figure 9A showed the structure of ABX3 perovskite (X = oxygen, carbon, nitrogen or halogen), where A and B cations are placed in a cubo-octahedral and an octahedral site, respectively. A is usually divalent and B is tetravalent when O2– anion is used. On the other hand, Figure 9B showed the structure of CH3NH3PbI3 halide perovskite where the A-site is occupied by CH3NH3+ (organic component) and B-site cation is occupied by Pb2+. As indicated by the example, halide perovskites contain monovalent and divalent cations in A- and B-sites, respectively, to maintain electrical neutrality [169, 171]. Like oxide perovskite, the tolerance factor of halide perovskite should be as close to one to maintain a stable and symmetrical crystal structure [169].
Figure 9.
(a) ABX3 perovskite structure showing BX6 octahedral and larger A cation occupied in cubo-octahedral site. (b) Unit cell of cubic CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite [171].
The quality of the perovskite film is very crucial for solar cells. Several methods have been used to form perovskite films with high quality such as single step solution method, vapor assistant solution process, sequential deposition of inorganic and organic precursor, and coevaporation of the precursors [167]. CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite film was prepared with high quality by adding small amounts of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and a mixture of g-butyrolactone and dimethylsulfoxide via a solution method. A power conversion efficiency of 11.77% with fill factor of 80.52% was obtained based on the structure of ITO/PEDOT:PSS (poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrenesulfonate)/perovskite/ PCBM (fullerene-derivative phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester)/Ca/Al under one sun illumination (100 mW cm–2) [167]. Table 11 contained a summary of different models based on perovskites used for solar cells applications with the values of power conversion efficiency, fill factor, method of perovskite formation, solar cell composition, cost, and stability.
A summary of different models based perovskites for Solar cells applications
6. Conclusions
Inorganic perovskite-type oxides are excellent nanomaterials for wide applications in catalysis, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensing, exhibiting attractive physical and chemical characteristics. They showed electronic conductivity, electrically active structure, the oxide ions mobility through the crystal lattice, variations on the content of the oxygen, thermal and chemical stability and supermagnetic, photocatalytic, thermoelectric, and dielectric properties. Nanoperovskites have been utilized as catalysts in oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions exhibiting high electrocatalytic activity, lower activation energy and high electron transfer kinetics. In addition, some perovskites are promising candidates for the development of effective anodic catalysts for direct fuel cells showing high catalytic performance. Moreover, they are recently utilized in electrochemical sensing of alcohols, gases, glucose, H2O2, and neurotransmitters. They can enhance the catalytic performance in terms of unique long-term stability, sensitivity, excellent reproducibility, selectivity, and anti-interference ability. In addition, organometallic halide perovskites exhibited efficient intrinsic properties to be utilized as a photovoltaic solar cell with good stability and high efficiency.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from Cairo University through the Vice President Office for Research Funds.
\n',keywords:"Nanomaterials, Perovskites, Sensors, Catalysis, Fuel cells",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/49438.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/49438.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49438",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49438",totalDownloads:9192,totalViews:4402,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:57,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:20,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 31st 2015",dateReviewed:"August 18th 2015",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 3rd 2016",dateFinished:"October 29th 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Inorganic perovskite-type oxides are fascinating nanomaterials for wide applications in catalysis, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensing. Perovskites prepared in the nanoscale have recently received extensive attention due to their catalytic nature when used as electrode modifiers. The catalytic activity of these oxides is higher than that of many transition metals compounds and even some precious metal oxides. They exhibit attractive physical and chemical characteristics such as electronic conductivity, electrically active structure, the oxide ions mobility through the crystal lattice, variations on the content of the oxygen, thermal and chemical stability, and supermagnetic, photocatalytic, thermoelectric, and dielectric properties.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/49438",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/49438",book:{id:"5063",slug:"perovskite-materials-synthesis-characterisation-properties-and-applications"},signatures:"Nada F. Atta, Ahmed Galal and Ekram H. El-Ads",authors:[{id:"30072",title:"Prof.",name:"Nada",middleName:null,surname:"F. Atta",fullName:"Nada F. Atta",slug:"nada-f.-atta",email:"Nada_fah1@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"174033",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Galal",fullName:"Ahmed Galal",slug:"ahmed-galal",email:"galal@sci.cu.edu.eg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"174034",title:"MSc.",name:"Ekram",middleName:null,surname:"El-Ads",fullName:"Ekram El-Ads",slug:"ekram-el-ads",email:"ekram_ads@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"176164",title:"MSc.",name:"Ekram",middleName:null,surname:"Ekram H. El-Ads",fullName:"Ekram Ekram H. El-Ads",slug:"ekram-ekram-h.-el-ads",email:"ekram-ads@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. General introduction to perovskites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Crystallography of the perovskite structure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Typical properties of perovskites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.3.1. Dielectric properties",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.3.2. Electrical conductivity and superconductivity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.3.3. Catalytic activity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"2. Methods of perovskite synthesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.1. Solid-state reactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2. Gas phase preparations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.3. Wet chemical methods (solution preparation)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.1. Precipitation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"2.3.1.1. Oxalate-based preparation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"2.3.1.2. Hydroxide-based preparation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"2.3.1.3. Acetate-based preparation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"2.3.1.4. Citrate-based preparation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"2.3.1.5. Cyanide-based preparation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.2. Thermal treatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"2.3.2.1. Freeze-drying",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"2.3.2.2. Plasma spray-drying",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"2.3.2.3. Combustion",level:"4"},{id:"sec_19_4",title:"2.3.2.4. Microwave synthesis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_23",title:"3. Doping of perovskites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"4. Characterization of perovskites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.1. XRD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.2. SEM and TEM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.3. BET",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.4. Thermal analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"4.5. FTIR",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"4.6. XPS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31",title:"5. Applications of perovskites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"5.1. Sensors and biosensors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"5.2. Solid oxide fuel cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"5.3. Catalyst",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"Table 9.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"Table 10.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_39_2",title:"5.4. Solar cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_41",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_42",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wolfram T, Ellialtioğlu S. Electronic and Optical Properties of d-band Perovskites. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press: New York; 2006. 1 p.'},{id:"B2",body:'Galasso FS. Structure, Properties and Preparation of Perovskite-Type Compounds. In: Smoluchowski R, Kurti N, editors. 1st ed. Pergamon Press: New York; 1969. p. 3–49. Chapter 2.'},{id:"B3",body:'Ali SMM. Synthesis of Nano-particles Using Microwave Technique, the Study of their Physical Properties and Some Applications [PhD thesis]. Faculty of Science Cairo University; 2009.'},{id:"B4",body:'Perovskite Perfect Lattice. Chapter 3. p. 79–114.'},{id:"B5",body:'Johnsson M, Lemmens P. Crystallography and Chemistry of Perovskites. 2005. p. 1–11.'},{id:"B6",body:'Peňa MA, Fierro JLG. Chemical structures and performance of perovskite oxides. Chemical Reviews. 2001;101:1981–2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.10.168.'},{id:"B7",body:'Fu1 D, Itoh M. Ferroelectrics—Material Aspects. In: Lallart M, editor. InTech: Shizuoka University, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan; 2011. p. 413–442. Chapter 20.'},{id:"B8",body:'Porta P, De Rossi S, Faticanti M, Minelli G, Pettiti I, Lisi L, Turco M. Perovskite-type oxides: I. Structural, magnetic, and morphological properties of LaMn1–xCuxO3 and LaCo1–xCuxO3 solid solutions with large surface area. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 1999;146:291–304. DOI: 10.1006/jssc.1999.8326.'},{id:"B9",body:'Ishihara T. Perovskite Oxide for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Energy. In: Ishihara T, editor. Springer Science Business Media, LLC; 2009. p. 1–16. Chapter 1.'},{id:"B10",body:'Lozano-Gorrín AD. Polycrystalline Materials—Theoretical and Practical Aspects. In: Zakhariev Z, editor. Universidad de La Laguna. Spain: InTech; 2012. p 107–124. Chapter 5.'},{id:"B11",body:'Nieto S, Polanco R, Roque-Malherbe R. Absorption kinetics of hydrogen in nanocrystals of BaCe2.95Yb0.05O3-proton conducting perovskite. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2007;111:2809–2818. DOI: 10.1021/jp067389i.'},{id:"B12",body:'Ecija A, Vidal K, Larrañaga A, Ortega-San-Martín L, Arriortua MI. Advances in Crystallization Processes. In: Mastai Y, editor. InTech; 2012. p. 486–506. Chapter 19.'},{id:"B13",body:'Wu J. [PhD thesis]. California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA; 2005.'},{id:"B14",body:'Martinez E, Viches ES, Beltran-Porter A, Beltran-Porter D. Low temperature synthesis of Ba-Fe mixed oxides having perovskite structures. Materials Research Bulletin. 1985;21:511–514. DOI: 10.1016/0025-5408(86)90103-0'},{id:"B15",body:'Dijkkamp D, Venkatesan T, Wu XD, Shaheen SA, Jisrawi N, Min-Lee YH, McLean WL, Croft M. Preparation of Y-Ba-Cu-O oxide superconductor thin films using pulsed laser evaporation from high Tc bulk material. Applied Physics Letters. 1987;51(8):619–621. DOI: 10.1063/1.98366.'},{id:"B16",body:'Webb C, Weng SL, Eckstein JN, Missert N, Char K, Schlom DG, Hellman ES, Beasley MR, Kapitulink A, Harris JS. Applied Physics Letters 1988;51:12.'},{id:"B17",body:'Croteau A, Matsubara S, Miyasaka Y, Shohata N, Ferroelectric lead zirconate titanate (Pb(Zr, Ti)O3) thin films prepared by metal target sputtering. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Part 1. 1990;26:18. DOI: 10.7567/JJAPS.26S2.18.'},{id:"B18",body:'Han Z, Bourget L, Li H, Ulla M, Millman WS, Baun HP, Xu MF, Sarma BK, Levy M, Tonner BP. Single target deposition, post proceeding and electron spectroscopy of perovskite superconductor thin films. AIP Conference Proceedings. 1988;165:66. DOI: 10.1063/1.37082.'},{id:"B19",body:'Naito M, Hammond RH, Oh B, Hahn MR, Hsu JWP, Rosenthal P, Marshall AF, Beasley MR, Geballe TH, Kapitulnik A. Thin film synthesis of the high Tc oxide superconductor yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7) by electron-beam codeposition. Journal of Materials Research. 1987;2:713–725. DOI: 10.1557/JMR.1987.0713.'},{id:"B20",body:'Mankiewich PM, Scofield JH, Skocpol WJ, Howard RE, Dayem AH. Good E., Reproducible technique for fabrication of thin films of high transition temperature superconductors. Applied Physics Letters. 1987;51(21):1753–1755.'},{id:"B21",body:'Tejuca LG, Fiero JLG. Properties and Applications of Perovskite Type-Oxides. Marcel Dekker Inc. Ed. Chemical Industries. 1993;50.'},{id:"B22",body:'Gallagher PK, Fleming DA. Influence of oxygen partial pressure on the synthesis of barium yttrium copper oxide (Ba2YCu3O7) from a novel oxalate precursor. Chemistry of Materials. 1989;1:659–664. DOI: 10.1021/cm00006a019.'},{id:"B23",body:'Gallagher PK, Schrey F. The thermal decomposition of freeze-dried tantalum and mixed lithium–niobium oxalate. Thermochimica Acta. 1970;1:465–476. DOI: 10.1016/0040-6031(70)85017-1.'},{id:"B24",body:'Clabaugh WS, Swiggard EM, Gilchrist RJ. Preparation of barium titanyl oxalate tetrahydrate for conversion to barium titanate of highly purity. Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 1956;56:289–291.'},{id:"B25",body:'Boschini F, Rulmont A, Cloots R, Vertruyen B. Rapid synthesis of submicron crystalline barium zirconate BaZrO3 by precipitation in aqueous basic solution below 100 °C. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 2009;29(8):1457–1462. DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.09.001.'},{id:"B26",body:'Barnard KR, Foger K, Turney TW, Williams RD. Lanthanum cobalt oxide oxidation catalysts derived from mixed hydroxide precursors. Journal of Catalysis. 1990;125(2):265–275. DOI: 10.1016/0021-9517(90)90302-Z.'},{id:"B27",body:'Nakamura T, Misono M, Yoneda Y. Reduction and oxidation and catalytic properties of perovskite type mixed oxide catalysts. Chemistry Letters. 1981;1589.'},{id:"B28",body:'Zhang HM, Shimizu Y, Teraoka Y, Miura N, Yamazoe N. Oxygen sorption and catalytic properties of La1−xSrxCo1−yFeyO3 Perovskite-type oxides. Journal of Catalysis. 1990;121(2):432–440. DOI: 10.1016/0021-9517(90)90251-E.'},{id:"B29",body:'Zhang HM, Teraoka Y, Yamazoe N. Preparation of perovskite type oxides with large surface area by citrate process. Chemistry Letters. 1987:665–668.'},{id:"B30",body:'Gallagher PK. A simple method for the preparation of (RE)FeO3 and (RE)CoO3. Materials Research Bulletin. 1967; 3,225–232. DOI: 10.1016/0025-5408(68)90123-2.'},{id:"B31",body:'Gallagher PK, Prescott B. Further studies of the thermal decomposition of europium hexacyanoferrate(III) and ammonium europium hexacyanoferrate(II). Inorganic Chemistry. 1970;9:2510–2512. DOI: 10.1021/ic50093a026.'},{id:"B32",body:'Cuomo JJ, Guarnieri C, Richard M, Shivashankar SA, Roy RA, Yee DS, Rosenberg R. Large area plasma spray deposited superconducting YBa2Cu3O7 thick films. Advanced Ceramic Materials. 1989;2(3B):422–429.'},{id:"B33",body:'Deganello F, Marcì G, Deganello G. Citrate–nitrate auto-combustion synthesis of perovskite-type nanopowders: a systematic approach. Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 2009;29(3):439–450. DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.06.012.'},{id:"B34",body:'Tao Y, Shao J, Wang J, Wang WG. Synthesis and properties of La0.6Sr0.4CoO3−δ nanopowder. Journal of Power Sources. 2008;185(2):609–614. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.09.021.'},{id:"B35",body:'Park JH, Kim JP, Kwon HT, Kim J. Oxygen permeability, electrical property and stability of La0.8Sr0.2Co0.2Fe0.8O3−δ membrane. Desalination. 2008;233(1–3):73–81. DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2007.09.045.'},{id:"B36",body:'Rida K, Benabbas A, Bouremmad F, Peña MA, Sastre E, Martínez-Arias A. Effect of strontium and cerium doping on the structural characteristics and catalytic activity for C3H6 combustion of perovskite LaCrO3 prepared by sol-gel. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2008;84(3–4):457–467.'},{id:"B37",body:'Hammami R, Aïssa SB, Batis H. Effects of thermal treatment on physico-chemical and catalytic properties of lanthanum manganite LaMnO3+y. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2009;353(2):145–153. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2008.10.048.'},{id:"B38",body:'Li Y, Xue L, Fan L, Yan Y. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. (2008).'},{id:"B39",body:'Popa M, Calderón-Moreno JM. Lanthanum cobaltite thin films on stainless steel. Thin Solid Films. 2009;517(5):1530–1533. DOI: 10.1016/j.tsf.2008.08.187.'},{id:"B40",body:'Ivanova S, Senyshyn A, Zhecheva E, Tenchev K, Nickolov V, Stoyanova R, Fuess H. Mechanochemical synthesis and characterization of nanodimensional iron–cobalt spinel oxides. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2009;485(1):356–361. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.05.107.'},{id:"B41",body:'Wang J, Manivannan A, Wu N. Sol-gel derived La0.6Sr0.4CoO3 nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires and thin films. Thin Solid Films 2008;517(2):582–587. DOI: 10.1016/j.tsf.2008.06.095.'},{id:"B42",body:'Rivas ME, Fierro JLG, Guil-López R, Peña MA, La Parola V, Goldwasser MR. Preparation and characterization of nickel-based mixed-oxides and their performance for catalytic methane decomposition. Catalysis Today. 2008;133–135:367–373. DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2007.12.045.'},{id:"B43",body:'Jin Q. Microwave Chemistry. China Science Press: Beijing; 1999.'},{id:"B44",body:'Selvam MP, Rao K. microwave synthesis and consolidation of gadolinium aluminum perovskite: a ceramic extraordinaire. Advanced Materials. 2000;12:1621–1624. DOI: 10.1002/1521-4095(200011)12:21<1621::AID-ADMA1621>3.0.CO;2-X.'},{id:"B45",body:'Gibbons KE, Blundell SJ, Mihut AI, Gameson I, Edwards PP, Miyazaki Y, Hyatt NC, Jones MO, Porch A. Rapid synthesis of colossal magnetoresistance manganites by microwave dielectric heating. Chemical Communications. 2000;1:159–160. DOI: 10.1039/A907677H.'},{id:"B46",body:'Selvam MP, Rao KJ. Microwave preparation and sintering of industrially important perovskite oxides: LaMO3 (M = Cr, Co, Ni). Journal of Materials and Chemistry. 2003;13:596–601. DOI: 10.1039/B211602B.'},{id:"B47",body:'Yan H, Huang X, Lu Z, Hu H, Xue R, Chen L. Microwave synthesis of LiCoO2 cathode materials. Journal of Power Sources. 1997;68:530–532. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02565-7.'},{id:"B48",body:'Cavalcante LS, Marques VS, Sczancoski JC, Escote MT, Joya MR, Varela JA, Santos MRMC, Pizani PS, Longo E. Synthesis, structural refinement and optical behavior of CaTiO3 powders: a comparative study of processing in different furnaces. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2008;143(1–3):299–301.'},{id:"B49",body:'Kaddouri A, Gelin P, Dupont N. Methane catalytic combustion over La–Ce–Mn–O– perovskite prepared using dielectric heating. Catalysis Communications. 2009;10(7):1085–1089. DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2008.12.063.'},{id:"B50",body:'Farhadi S, Momeni Z, Taherimehr M. Rapid synthesis of perovskite-type LaFeO3 nanoparticles by microwave-assisted decomposition of bimetallic La[Fe(CN)6] 5H2O compound. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2009;471(1–2):L5–L8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2008.03.113.'},{id:"B51",body:'Charoenthai N, Traiphol R, Rujijanagul G. Microwave synthesis of barium iron niobate and dielectric properties. Materials Letters. 2008;62(29):4446–4448. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2008.07.047.'},{id:"B52",body:'Paula AJ, Parra R, Zaghete MA, Varela JA. Synthesis of KNbO3 nanostructures by a microwave assisted hydrothermal method. Materials Letters. 2008;62(17–18):2581–2584. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2007.12.059.'},{id:"B53",body:'Ryu JH, Koo S, Chang DS, Yoon J, Lim CS, Shim KB. Microwave-assisted synthesis of PbWO4 nano-powders via a citrate complex precursor and its photoluminescence. Ceramics International. 2006;32(6):647–652. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2005.04.025.'},{id:"B54",body:'Ryu JH, Koo S, Chang DS, Yoon J, Lim CS, Shim KB. Microwave-assisted synthesis of CaMoO4 nano-powders by a citrate complex method and its photoluminescence property Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2005;390(1–2);245–249. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.07.064.'},{id:"B55",body:'Ryu JH, Yoon J, Lim CS, Oh W, Shim KB. Microwave-assisted synthesis of nanocrystalline MWO4 (M: Ca, Ni) via water-based citrate complex precursor. Ceramics International. 2005;31(6):883–888. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2004.09.015.'},{id:"B56",body:'Fu Y, Lin C. Fe/Sr ratio effect on magnetic properties of strontium ferrite powders synthesized by microwave-induced combustion process. Journal of Alloys and Compounds 2005;386(1–2):222–227. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.04.148.'},{id:"B57",body:'Galal A, Darwish SA, Atta NF, Ali SM, Abd El Fatah AA. Synthesis, structure and catalytic activity of nano-structured Sr–Ru–O type perovskite for hydrogen production. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2010;378:151–159. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.04.148.'},{id:"B58",body:'Li Z, Meng M, Li Q, Xie Y, Hu T, Zhang J. Fe-substituted nanometric La0.9K0.1Co1−xFexO3−δ perovskite catalysts used for soot combustion, NOx storage and simultaneous catalytic removal of soot and NOx. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2010;164:98–105. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2010.08.036.'},{id:"B59",body:'Silva GRO, Santos JC, Martinelli DMH, Pedrosa AMG, Souza MJBd, Melo DMA. Synthesis and characterization of LaNixCo1-xO3 perovskites via complex precursor methods. Materials Sciences and Applications. 2010;1:39–45. DOI: 10.4236/msa.2010.12008.'},{id:"B60",body:'Jahangiri A, Aghabozorg H, Pahlavanzadeh H. Effects of Fe substitutions by Ni in La–Ni–O perovskite-type oxides in reforming of methane with CO2 and O2. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2013;38:10407–10416. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.05.080.'},{id:"B61",body:'Russo N, Palmisano P, Fino D. Pd substitution effects on perovskite catalyst activity for methane emission control. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2009;154:137–145. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2009.05.015.'},{id:"B62",body:'Oishi M, Yashiro K, Sato K, Mizusaki J, Kawad T. Oxygen nonstoichiometry and defect structure analysis of B-site mixed perovskite-type oxide (La, Sr)(Cr, M)O3−δ (M=Ti, Mn and Fe). Journal of Solid State Chemistry.2008;181:3177–3184. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2008.08.015.'},{id:"B63",body:'Liu X, Zhao H, Yang J, Li Y, Chen T, Lu X, Ding W, Li F. Lattice characteristics, structure stability and oxygen permeability of BaFe1−xYxO3−δ ceramic membranes. Journal of Membrane Science. 2011;383:235–240. DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.059.'},{id:"B64",body:'Dho J, Hur NH. Magnetic and transport properties of lanthanum perovskites with B-site half doping. Solid State Communications. 2006;138:152–156. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssc.2006.02.008.'},{id:"B65",body:'Suntivich J, May KJ, Gasteiger HA, Goodenough JB, Shao-Horn Y. A Perovskite Oxide Optimized for Oxygen Evolution Catalysis from Molecular Orbital Principles. Science. 2011;334:1383–1385.'},{id:"B66",body:'Vojvodic A, Nørskov JK. Optimizing Perovskites for the Water-Splitting Reaction. Science. 2011;334:1355–1356. DOI: 10.1126/science.1215081.'},{id:"B67",body:'Alifanti M, Auer R, Kirchnerova J, Thyrion F, Grange P, Delmon B. Activity in methane combustion and sensitivity to sulfur poisoning of La1−xCexMn1−yCoyO3 perovskite oxides. Applied Catalysis, B. 2003;41:71–81. DOI: 10.1016/S0926-3373(02)00194-7.'},{id:"B68",body:'Kida T, Yamasaki A, Watanabe K, Yamazoe N, Shimanoe K. Oxygen-permeable membranes based on partially B-site substituted BaFe1−yMyO3−δ (M=Cu or Ni). Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2010;183:2426–2431. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2010.08.002.'},{id:"B69",body:'Sora IN, Caronna T, Fontana F, Fernàndez CdJ, Caneschi A, Green M. Crystal structures and magnetic properties of strontium and copper doped lanthanum ferrites. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2012;191:33–39. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2012.02.020.'},{id:"B70",body:'Rodrίguez GCM, Saruhan B. Effect of Fe/Co-ratio on the phase composition of Pd-integrated perovskites and its H2-SCR of NOx performance. Applied Catalysis, B. 2010;93:304–313. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.10.004.'},{id:"B71",body:'Ke-bin Z, Hong-de C, Qun T, Bao-wei Z, Di-xin S, Xiao-bai X. Synergistic effect of palladium and oxygen vacancies in the Pd/perovskite catalysts synthesized by the SPC method. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2005;17(1):19–24. PMID: 15900751.'},{id:"B72",body:'Silva GRO, Santos JC, Martinelli DMH, Pedrosa AMG, de Souza MJB, Melo DMA. Synthesis and characterization of LaNixCo1-xO3 perovskites via complex precursor methods. Materials Sciences and Applications, 2010;1:39–45. DOI: 10.4236/msa.2010.12008.'},{id:"B73",body:'Russo N, Palmisano P, Fino D. Pd substitution effects on perovskite catalyst activity for methane emission control. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2009;154:137–141. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2009.05.015.'},{id:"B74",body:'Li C, Jiang B, Fanchiang W, Lin Y. The effect of Pd content in LaMnO3 for methanol partial oxidation. Catalysis Communications. 2011;16:165–169. DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2011.09.028.'},{id:"B75",body:'Liu X, Zhao H, Yang J, Li Y, Chen T, Lu X, Ding W, Li F. Lattice characteristics, structure stability and oxygen permeability of BaFe1−xYxO3−δ ceramic membranes. Journal of Membrane Science. 2011;383:235– 240. DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.08.059.'},{id:"B76",body:'Kida T, Yamasaki A, Watanabe K, Yamazoe N, Shimanoe K. Oxygen-permeable membranes based on partially B-site substituted BaFe1–yMyO3–\n\t\t\t\t\tδ (M= Cu or Ni). Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2010;183:2426–2431. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2010.08.002.'},{id:"B77",body:'Jahangiri A, Aghabozorg H, Pahlavanzadeh H. Effects of Fe substitutions by Ni in LaNiO perovskite-type oxides in reforming of methane with CO2 and O2. International of Hydrogen Energy. 2013;38:10407–10416. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.05.080.'},{id:"B78",body:'Rodrìguez GCM, Saruhan B. Effect of Fe/Co-ratio on the phase composition of Pd-integrated perovskites and its H2-SCR of NOx performance. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2010;93:304–313. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.10.004.'},{id:"B79",body:'Ke-bin Z, Hong-de C, Qun T, Bao-wei Z, Di-xin S, Xiao-bai X. Synergistic effect of palladium and oxygen vacancies in the Pd/perovskites catalysts synthesized by SPC method. Journal of environmental sciences. 2005;17(1):19–24. PMID: 15900751.'},{id:"B80",body:'Poulsen FW. Defect chemistry modelling of oxygen-stoichiometry, vacancy concentrations, and conductivity of (La1-xSrx)MnO3±δ. Solid State Ionics. 2000;129:145–162. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-2738(99)00322-7.'},{id:"B81",body:'Parveen A, Gaur NK. Effect of A-site doping on thermal properties of LaGaO3. Solid State Sciences. 2012;14:814–819. DOI: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2012.03.032.'},{id:"B82",body:'Srivastava A, Gaur NK, Kaur N, Singh RK. Effect of cation doping on low-temperature specific heat of LaMnO3 manganite. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. 2008;320:2596–2601. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmmm.2008.05.042.'},{id:"B83",body:'Malavasi L, Ritter C, Mozzati MC, Tealdi C, Islam MS, Azzoni CB, Flor G. Effects of cation vacancy distribution in doped LaMnO3+δ perovskites. Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 2005;178:2042–2049. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2005.04.019.'},{id:"B84",body:'Lin F, Shi W. Effects of doping site and pre-sintering time on microstructure and magnetic properties of Fe-doped BaTiO3 ceramics. Physica B. 2012;407:451–456. DOI: 10.1016/j.physb.2011.11.013.'},{id:"B85",body:'Wei HJ, Cao Y, Ji WJ, Au CT. Lattice oxygen of La1–xSrxMO3 (M = Mn, Ni) and LaMnO3–αFβ perovskite oxides for the partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas. Catalysis Communications. 2008;9:2509–2514. DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2008.06.019.'},{id:"B86",body:'Abd Al-Rahman YM. Characterization and some applications of nano-inorganic oxides synthesized by microwave technique [MSc thesis]. Faculty of Science Cairo University; 2013.'},{id:"B87",body:'Gosavi PV, Biniwale RB. Pure phase LaFeO3 perovskite with improved surface area synthesized using different routes and its characterization. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2010;119:324–329. DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2009.09.005.'},{id:"B88",body:'Vijayakumar C, Kumar HP, Solomon S, Thomas JK, Warriar PRS, Koshy J. Synthesis, characterization, sintering and dielectric properties of nanostructured perovskite-type oxide, Ba2GdSbO6. Bulletin Materials Science. 2008;31(5):719–722. DOI: 10.1007/s12034-008-0113-2.'},{id:"B89",body:'Atta NF, Ali SM, El-Ads EH, Galal A. Nano-perovskite carbon paste composite electrode for the simultaneous determination of dopamine, ascorbic acid and uric acid. Electrochimica Acta. 2014;128:16–24. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.101.'},{id:"B90",body:'Galal A, Atta NF, Ali SM. Investigation of the catalytic activity of LaBO3 (B = Ni, Co, Fe or Mn) prepared by the microwave-assisted method for hydrogen evolution in acidic medium. Electrochimica Acta. 2011;56:5722–5730. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.04.045.'},{id:"B91",body:'Galal A, Atta NF, Ali SM. Optimization of the synthesis conditions for LaNiO3 catalyst by microwave assisted citrate method for hydrogen production. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2011;409–410:202–208. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2011.10.005.'},{id:"B92",body:'Galal A, Darwish SA, Atta NF, Ali SM, Abd El Fatah AA. Synthesis, structure and catalytic activity of nano-structured Sr–Ru–O type perovskite for hydrogen production. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2010;378:151–159. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2010.02.015.'},{id:"B93",body:'Atta NF, Galal A, Ali SM. The catalytic activity of ruthenates ARuO3 (A= Ca, Sr or Ba) for the hydrogen evolution reaction in acidic medium. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2012;7:725–746. DOI: 71772857.'},{id:"B94",body:'Atta NF, Galal A, Ali SM. The effect of the lanthanide ion-type in LnFeO3 on the catalytic activity for the hydrogen evolution in acidic medium. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2014;9:2132–2148. DOI: 94967196.'},{id:"B95",body:'Ali SM, Abd Al-Rahman YM, Galal A. Catalytic activity toward oxygen evolution of LaFeO3 prepared by the microwave assisted citrate method. Journal of Electrochemical Society. 2012;159(9):F600–F605. DOI: 10.1149/2.063209jes.'},{id:"B96",body:'Galal A, Atta NF, Darwish SA, Abd El Fatah AA, Ali SM. Electrocatalytic evolution of hydrogen on a novel SrPdO3 perovskite electrode. Journal of Power Sources. 2010;195:3806–3809. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.12.091.'},{id:"B97",body:'Ghosh S, Dasgupta S. Synthesis, characterization and properties of nanocrystalline perovskite cathode materials. Materials Science—Poland. 2010;28(2):427–438.'},{id:"B98",body:'Viruthagiri G, Praveen P, Mugundan S, Gopinathan E. Synthesis and characterization of pure and nickel doped SrTiO3 nanoparticles via solid state reaction route. Indian Journal of Advances in Chemical Science. 2013;1(3):132–138.'},{id:"B99",body:'Li S. Preparation and characterization of perovskite structure lanthanum gallate and lanthanum aluminate based oxides [PhD thesis]. Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden; 2009.'},{id:"B100",body:'Pecchi G, Campos CM, Jiliberto MG, Delgado EJ, Fierro JLG. Effect of additive Ag on the physicochemical and catalytic properties of LaMn0.9Co0.1O3.5 perovskite. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2009;371:78–84. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2009.09.031.'},{id:"B101",body:'Lakshminarayanan N, Choi H, Kuhn1 JN, Ozkan US. Effect of additional B-site transition metal doping on oxygen transport and activation characteristics in La0.6Sr0.4(Co0.18Fe0.72X0.1)O3−δ (where X= Zn, Ni or Cu) perovskite oxides. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2011;103:318–325. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2011.01.038.'},{id:"B102",body:'Cho Y, Choi K, Kim Y, Jung J, Lee S. Characterization and catalytic properties of surface La-rich LaFeO3 perovskite. Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society. 2009;30(6): 1368–1372.'},{id:"B103",body:'Pawlak DA, Ito M, Oku M, Shimamura K, Fukuda T. Interpretation of XPS O (1s) in mixed oxides proved on mixed perovskite crystals. Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2002;106:504–507. DOI: 10.1021/jp012040a.'},{id:"B104",body:'Ito A, Masumoto H, Goto T. Microstructure and electrical conductivity of SrRuO3 thin films prepared by laser ablation. Materials Transactions. 2006;47(11):2808–2814.'},{id:"B105",body:'Pradier CM, Hinnen C, Jansson K, Dahl L, Nygren M, Flodstrom A. Structural and surface characterization of perovskite-type oxides; influence of A and B substitutions upon oxygen binding energy. Journal of Materials Science. 1998;33:3187–3191. DOI: 10.1023/A:1004312326617.'},{id:"B106",body:'Wu Q, Liu M, Jaegermann W. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of La0.5Sr0.5MnO3. Materials Letters. 2005;59:1980–1983. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2005.01.038.'},{id:"B107",body:'Ghasdi M, Alamdari H. CO sensitive nanocrystalline LaCoO3 perovskite sensor prepared by high energy ball milling. Sensors and Actuators B. 2010;148:478–485. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.05.056.'},{id:"B108",body:'Ghasdi M, Alamdari H, Royer S, Adnot A. Electrical and CO gas sensing properties of nanostructured La1−xCexCoO3 perovskite prepared by activated reactive synthesis. Sensors and Actuators B. 2011;156:147–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2011.04.003.'},{id:"B109",body:'Ru Z, Jifan H, Zhouxiang H, Ma Z, Zhanlei W, Yongjia Z, Hongwei Q. Electrical and CO-sensing properties of NdFe1–xCoxO3 perovskite system. Journal of Rare Earths. 2010;28(4):591–595. DOI: 10.1016/S1002-0721(09)60160-5'},{id:"B110",body:'Fergus JW. Perovskite oxides for semiconductor-based gas sensors. Sensors and Actuators B. 2007;123:1169–1179. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2006.10.051.'},{id:"B111",body:'Song P, Wang Q, Yang Z. The effects of annealing temperature on the CO-sensing property of perovskite La0.8Pb0.2Fe0.8Cu0.2O3 nanoparticles. Sensors and Actuators B. 2009;141:109–115. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2009.05.040.'},{id:"B112",body:'Doroftei C, Pop PD, Iacomi F. Synthesis of nanocrystalline La–Pb–Fe–O perovskite and methanol-sensing characteristics. Sensors and Actuators B. 2011;161(1):977–981. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2011.11.078'},{id:"B113",body:'Benali A, Azizi S, Bejar M, Dhahri E, Graça MFP. Structural, electrical and ethanol sensing properties of double-doping LaFeO3 perovskite oxides. Ceramics International. 2014;40(9):14367–14373. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2014.06.029.'},{id:"B114",body:'Liu X, Cheng B, Hu J, Qin H, Jiang M. Semiconducting gas sensor for ethanol based on LaMgxFe1−xO3 nanocrystals. Sensors and Actuators B. 2008;129:53–58. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2007.07.102.'},{id:"B115",body:'Wang Y, Chen J, Wu X. Preparation and gas-sensing properties of perovskite-type SrFeO3 oxide. Materials Letters. 2001;49:361–364. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-577X(00)00400-6.'},{id:"B116",body:'Liu X, Hu J, Cheng B, Qin H, Jiang M. Preparation and gas sensing characteristics of p-type semiconducting LnFe0.9Mg0.1O3 (Ln = Nd, Sm, Gd and Dy) materials. Current Applied Physics. 2009;9:613–617. DOI: 10.1016/j.cap.2008.05.014.'},{id:"B117",body:'Najjar H, Batis H. La–Mn perovskite-type oxide prepared by combustion method: Catalytic activity in ethanol oxidation. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2010;383:192–201. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2010.05.048.'},{id:"B118",body:'Sun L, Qin HW, Cao E, Zhao M, Gao F, Hu J. Gas-sensing properties of perovskite La0.875Ba0.125FeO3 nanocrystallinepowders. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 2011;72:29–33. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpcs.2010.10.074.'},{id:"B119",body:'Kong L, Shen Y. Gas-sensing property and mechanism of CaxLa1-xFeO3 ceramics. Sensors and Actuators B. 1996;30:217–221. DOI: 10.1016/0925-4005(96)80052-9.'},{id:"B120",body:'Feng C, Ruan S, Li J, Zou B, Luo J, Chen W, Dong W, Wu F. Ethanol sensing properties of LaCoxFe1−xO3 nanoparticles: effects of calcination temperature, Co-doping, and carbon nanotube-treatment. Sensors and Actuators B. 2011;155:232–238. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.11.053.'},{id:"B121",body:'Khetre SM. Ethanol gas sensing properties of nano-porous LaFeO3 thick film. Sensors and Transducers. 2013;149(2):13–19.'},{id:"B122",body:'Zhang L, Hu J, Song P, Qin H, Jiang M. Electrical properties and ethanol-sensing characteristics of perovskite La1−xPbxFeO3. Sensors and Actuators B. 2006;114:836–840. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.08.002.'},{id:"B123",body:'Martinelli G, Carotta MC, Ferroni M, Sadaoka Y, Traversa E. Screen-printed perovskite-type thick films as gas sensors for environmental monitoring. Sensors and Actuators B. 1999;55:99–110. DOI: 10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00054-4.'},{id:"B124",body:'Carotta MC, Butturi MA, Martinelli G, Sadaoka Y, Nunziante P, Traversa E. Microstructural evolution of nanosized LaFeO3 powders from the thermal decomposition of a cyano-complex for thick film gas sensors. Sensors and Actuators B. 1997;44:590–594. DOI: 10.1016/S0925-4005(97)00177-9.'},{id:"B125",body:'Di Bartolomeo E, Grilli ML, Yoon JW, Traversa E. NOx sensors based on interfacing nano-sized LaFeO3 perovskite-type oxide and ionic conductors. Project of Special Materials for Advanced Technologies—MSTA II. Via della Ricerca Scientifica, 00133 Rome, Italy.'},{id:"B126",body:'Sahner K, Moos R, Matam M, Tunney JJ, Post M. Hydrocarbon sensing with thick and thin film p-type conducting perovskite materials. Sensors and Actuators B. 2005;108:102–112. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2004.12.104.'},{id:"B127",body:'Giang HT, Duy HT, Ngan PQ, Thai GH, Thu DTA, Thu DT, Toan NN. Hydrocarbon gas sensing of nano-crystalline perovskite oxides LnFeO3 (Ln = La, Nd and Sm). Sensors and Actuators B. 2011;158:246– 251. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2011.06.013.'},{id:"B128",body:'Jia F, Zhong H, Zhang W, Li X, Wanga G, Songa J, Cheng Z, Yin J, Guo L. A novel nonenzymatic ECL glucose sensor based on perovskite LaTiO3-Ag0.1 nanomaterials. Sensors and Actuators B. 2015;212:174–182. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2015.02.011.'},{id:"B129",body:'Ye D, Xu Y, Luo L, Ding Y, Wang Y, Liu X, Xing L, Peng J. A novel nonenzymatic hydrogen peroxide sensor based on LaNi0.5Ti0.5O3/CoFe2O4 modified electrode. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2012;89:10–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.08.014.'},{id:"B130",body:'Zhang Z, Gu S, Ding Y, Jin J. A novel nonenzymatic sensor based on LaNi0.6Co0.4O3 modified electrode for hydrogen peroxide and glucose. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2012;745:112–117. DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.07.039.'},{id:"B131",body:'Luque GL, Ferreyra NF, Leyva AG, Rivas GA. Characterization of carbon paste electrodes modified with manganese based perovskites-type oxides from the amperometric determination of hydrogen peroxide. Sensors and Actuators B. 2009;142:331–336. DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2009.07.038.'},{id:"B132",body:'Zhang Z, Gu S, Ding Y, Zhang F, Jin J. Determination of hydrogen peroxide and glucose using a novel sensor platform based on Co0.4Fe0.6LaO3 nanoparticles. Microchim Acta. 2013;180:1043–1049. DOI: 10.1007/s00604-013-1012-9.'},{id:"B133",body:'Wang Y, Zhong H, Li X, Jia F, Shi Y, Zhang W, Cheng Z, Zhang L, Wang J. Perovskite LaTiO3–Ag0.2 nanomaterials for nonenzymatic glucose sensor with high performance. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2013;48:56–60. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.03.081.'},{id:"B134",body:'Wang Y, Xu Y, Luo L, Ding Y, Liu X. Preparation of perovskite-type composite oxide LaNi0.5Ti0.5O3–NiFe2O4 and its application in glucose biosensor. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 2010;642:35–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2010.02.001.'},{id:"B135",body:'Shimizu Y, Komatsu H, Michishita S, Miura N, Yamazo N. Sensing characteristics of hydrogen peroxide sensor using carbon based-electrode loaded with perovskite-type oxide. Sensors and Actuators B. 1996;34:493–498. DOI: 10.1016/S0925-4005(97)80021-4.'},{id:"B136",body:'Anh DTV, Olthuis W, Bergveld P. Sensing properties of perovskite oxide La1-xSrxCoO3-δ obtained by using pulsed laser deposition. MESA+ Research Institute, University of Twente: Enschede, The Netherlands. p. 618–620.'},{id:"B137",body:'El-Ads EH, Galal A, Atta NF. Electrochemistry of glucose at gold nanoparticles modified graphite/SrPdO3 electrode—towards a novel non-enzymatic glucose sensor. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 2015;749:42–52. DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2015.04.033.'},{id:"B138",body:'Wen CY. Study and Application of Composite Materials Based on Perovskite Nanoparticles [MSc thesis]. Jiangsu University of Science and Technology; 2011.'},{id:"B139",body:'Wang B, Gu S, Ding Y, Chu Y, Zhang Z, Ba X, Zhang Q, Li X. A novel route to prepare LaNiO3 perovskite-type oxide nanofibers by electrospinning for glucose and hydrogen peroxide sensing. Analyst. 2013;138(1):362–367. DOI: 10.1039/c2an35989h.'},{id:"B140",body:'Thirumalairajan S, Girija K, Mastelaro VR, Ganesh V, Ponpandian N. Detection of the neurotransmitter dopamine by a glassy carbon electrode modified with self assembled perovskite LaFeO3 microspheres made up of nanospheres. RSC Advances. 2014;4:25957–25962. DOI: 10.1039/C4RA03467H.'},{id:"B141",body:'Atta NF, Ali SM, El-Ads EH, Galal A. The electrochemistry and determination of some neurotransmitters at SrPdO3 modified graphite electrode. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 2013;160(7):G3144-G3151. DOI: 10.1149/2.022307jes.'},{id:"B142",body:'Thirumalairajan S, Girija K, Ganesh V, Mangalaraj D, Viswanathan C, Ponpandian N. Novel synthesis of LaFeO3 nanostructure dendrites: a systematic investigation of growth mechanism, properties, and biosensing for highly selective determination of neurotransmitter compounds. Crystal Growth and Design. 2013;13:291−302. DOI: 10.1021/cg3014305'},{id:"B143",body:'Wang G, Sun J, Zhang W, Jiao S, Fang B. Simultaneous determination of dopamine, uric acid and ascorbic acid with LaFeO3 nanoparticles modified electrode. Microchim Acta. 2009;164:357–362. DOI: 10.1007/s00604-008-0066-6.'},{id:"B144",body:'Haile SM. Fuel cell materials and components. Acta Materialia. 2003;51:5981–6000. DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2003.08.004.'},{id:"B145",body:'Shao Z, Haile SM. A high-performance cathode for the next generation of solid-oxide fuel cells. Nature. 2004;431:170–173. DOI: 10.1038/nature02863.'},{id:"B146",body:'Ding X, Kong X, Wang X, Jiang J, Cui C. Characterization and optimization of Ln1.7Sr0.3CuO4 (Ln = La, Nd)-based cathodes for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2010;502:472–476. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.04.199.'},{id:"B147",body:'Song K, Lee K. Characterization of Ba0.5Sr0.5M1–xFexO3–δ (M = Co and Cu) perovskite oxide cathode materials for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Ceramics International. 2012;38:5123–5131. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.03.015.'},{id:"B148",body:'Conceiçăo LD, Silva AM, Ribeiro NFP, Souza MMVM. Combustion synthesis of La0.7Sr0.3Co0.5Fe0.5O3 (LSCF) porous materials for application as cathode in IT-SOFC. Materials Research Bulletin. 2011;46:308–314. DOI: 10.1016/j.materresbull.2010.10.009.'},{id:"B149",body:'Faro ML, Minutoli M, Monforte G, Antonucci V, Aricó AS. Glycerol oxidation in solid oxide fuel cells based on a Ni-perovskite electrocatalyst. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2011;35:1075–1084. DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.11.018.'},{id:"B150",body:'Ling Y, Lin B, Zhao L, Zhang X, Yu J, Peng R, Meng G, Liu X. Layered perovskite LaBaCuMO5+x (M= Fe, Co) cathodes for intermediate-temperature protonic ceramic membrane fuel cells. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2010;493:252–255. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.12.072.'},{id:"B151",body:'Lianghao Y, Yonghong C, Qingwen G, Dong T, Xiaoyong L, Guangyao M, Bin L. Layered perovskite oxide Y0.8Ca0.2BaCoFeO5+δ as a novel cathode material for intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells. Journal of Rare Earths. 2015;33(5):519–523. DOI: 10.1016/S1002-0721(14)60450-6.'},{id:"B152",body:'Chen Y, Wei Y, Zhong H, Gao J, Liu X, Meng G. Synthesis and electrical properties of Ln0.6Ca0.4FeO3–δ (Ln Pr, Nd, Sm) as cathode materials for IT-SOFC. Ceramics International. 2007;33:1237–1241. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2006.03.035.'},{id:"B153",body:'Tongyun C, Liming S, Feng L, Weichang Z, Qianfeng Z, Xiangfeng C. NdFeO3 as anode material for S/O2 solid oxide fuel cells. 2012;30(11):1138–1141. DOI: 10.1016/S1002-0721(12)60194-X.'},{id:"B154",body:'Takahashl T, Iwahara H. Ionic conduction in perovskite-type oxide solid solution and its applications to the solid electrolyte fuel cell. Energy Conversion. 1971;11:105–111. DOI: 10.1016/0013-7480(71)90121-5.'},{id:"B155",body:'Bonanos N, Knight KS, Ellis B. Perovskite solid electrolytes: Structure, transport properties and fuel cell applications. Solid State Ionics. 1995;79:161–170. DOI: 10.1016/0167-2738(95)00056-C.'},{id:"B156",body:'Skinner SJ. Recent advances in perovskite-type materials for solid oxide fuel cell cathodes. International Journal of Inorganic Materials. 2001;3:113–121. DOI: 10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00004-6.'},{id:"B157",body:'Sun C, Stimming U. Recent anode advances in solid oxide fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources. 2007;171:247–260. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.06.086.'},{id:"B158",body:'Wang F, Chen D, Shao Z. Sm0.5Sr0.5CoO3–δ-infiltrated cathodes for solid oxide fuel cells with improved oxygen reduction activity and stability. Journal of Power Sources. 2012;216:208–215. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.05.068.'},{id:"B159",body:'Li H, Zhao Y, Wang Y, Li Y. Sr2Fe2−xMoxO6−δ perovskite as an anode in a solid oxide fuel cell:Effect of the substitution ratio. Catalysis Today. DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2015.04.025.'},{id:"B160",body:'Raza MA, Rahman IZ, Beloshapkin S. Synthesis of nanoparticles of La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Mn0.5O3−δ (LSCM) perovskite by solution combustion method for solid oxide fuel cell application. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2009;485:593–597. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.06.059.'},{id:"B161",body:'Huang YH, Dass RI, Xing ZL, Goodenough JB. Double perovskites as anode materials for solid-oxide fuel cells. Science. 2006;312:254–257. DOI: 10.1126/science.1125877'},{id:"B162",body:'Tao SW, Irvine JTS. A redox-stable efficient anode for solid-oxide fuel cells. Nature Materials. 2003;2:320–323. DOI: 10.1038/nmat871.'},{id:"B163",body:'Vernoux P, Guillodo M, Fouletier J, Hammou A. Alternative anode material for gradual methane reforming in solid oxide fuel cells. Solid State Ionics. 2000;135:425–431. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00390-8.'},{id:"B164",body:'Jin C, Cao X, Lu F, Yang Z, Yang R. Electrochemical study of Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3 perovskite as bifunctional catalyst in alkaline media. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2013;38:10389–10393. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.06.047.'},{id:"B165",body:'Malkhandi S, Manohar AK, Yang B, Prakash GKS, Narayanan SR. Properties of calcium-doped lanthanum cobalt oxide perovskite electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution in alkaline medium. The Electrochemical Society. Abstract 292, 220th ECS Meeting. 2011.'},{id:"B166",body:'Kahoul A, Hammouche A, Nâamoune F, Chartier P, Poillerat G, Koenig JF. Solvent effect on synthesis of perovskite-type La1–xCaxCoO3 and their electrochemical properties for oxygen reactions. Materials Research Bulletin. 2000;35:1955–1966. DOI: 10.1016/S0025-5408(00)00395-0.'},{id:"B167",body:'Bao X, Wang Y, Zhu Q, Wang N, Zhu D, Wang J, Yang A, Yang R. Efficient planar perovskite solar cells with large fill factor and excellent stability. Journal of Power Sources. 2015;297:53–58. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.081.'},{id:"B168",body:'Bhatt P, Pandey K, Yadav P, Tripathi B, KanthP C, Pandey MK, Kumar M. Investigating the charge carrier transport within the hole-transport material free perovskite solar cell processed in ambient air. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 2015;140:320–327. DOI: 10.1016/j.solmat.2015.04.028.'},{id:"B169",body:'Chen Q, Marco ND, Yang YM, Song T, Chen C, Zhao H, Hong Z, Zhou H, Yang Y. Under the spotlight: the organic-inorganic hybrid halide perovskite for optoelectronic applications. Nano Today. DOI: 10.1016/j.nantod.2015.04.009.'},{id:"B170",body:'Green MA, Ho-Baillie A, Snaith HJ. The emergence of perovskite solar cells. Nature Photonics. 2014;8:506–514. DOI: 10.1038/NPHOTON.2014.134.'},{id:"B171",body:'Park N. Perovskite solar cells: an emerging photovoltaic technology. Materials Today. DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2014.07.007.'},{id:"B172",body:'Schoonman J. Organic-inorganic lead halide perovskite solar cell materials: a possible stability problem. Chemical Physics Letters. DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2014.11.063.'},{id:"B173",body:'Sun H, Ruan P, Bao Z, Chen L, Zhou X. Shell-in-Shell TiO2 hollow microspheres and optimized application in light-trapping perovskite solar cells. Solid State Sciences. 2015;40:60–66. DOI: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2014.12.015.'},{id:"B174",body:'Tripathi B, Bhatt P, KanthP C, Yadav P, Desai B, Pandey MK, Kumar M. Temperature induced structural, electrical and optical changes in solution processed perovskite material: Application in photovoltaics. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 2015;132:615–622. DOI: 10.1016/j.solmat.2014.10.017.'},{id:"B175",body:'Wang X, Li Z, Xu W, Kulkarni SA, Batabyal SK, Zhang S, Cao A, Wong LH. TiO2 nanotube arrays based flexible perovskite solar cells with transparent carbon nanotube electrode. Nano Energy. DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2014.11.042.'},{id:"B176",body:'Werner J, Dubuis G, Walter A, Löper P, Moon S, Nicolay S, Morales-Masis M, Wolf SD, Niesen B, Ballif C. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 2015;141:407–413. DOI: 10.1016/j.solmat.2015.06.024.'},{id:"B177",body:'Yan W, Li Y, Li Y, Ye S, Liu Z, Wang S, Bian Z, Huang C. High-performance hybrid perovskite solar cells with open circuit voltage dependence on hole transporting materials. Nano Energy. DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.07.024.'},{id:"B178",body:'Yang Z, Cai B, Zhou B, Yao T, Yu W, Liu FS, Zhang W, Li C. An up-scalable approach to CH3NH3PbI3 compact films for high-performance perovskite solar cells. Nano Energy. DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.05.027.'},{id:"B179",body:'Yeo J, Kang R, Lee S, Jeon Y, Myoung N, Lee C, Kim D, Yun J, Seo Y, Kim S, Na S. Highly efficient and stable planar perovskite solar cells with reduced graphene oxide nanosheets as electrode interlayer. Nano Energy. DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2014.12.022.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nada F. Atta",address:"Nada_fah1@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ekram H. El-Ads",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5063",type:"book",title:"Perovskite Materials",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterisation, Properties, and Applications",fullTitle:"Perovskite Materials - Synthesis, Characterisation, Properties, and Applications",slug:"perovskite-materials-synthesis-characterisation-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 3rd 2016",bookSignature:"Likun Pan and Guang Zhu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5063.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2245-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6651-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"175680",title:"Dr.",name:"Likun",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"likun-pan",fullName:"Likun Pan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"200419",title:"Dr.",name:"Guang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"guang-zhu",fullName:"Guang Zhu"},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"49424",type:"chapter",title:"Solid-State Mechanochemical Syntheses of Perovskites",slug:"solid-state-mechanochemical-syntheses-of-perovskites",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Piotr Dulian",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176124",title:"Dr.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Dulian",fullName:"Piotr Dulian",slug:"piotr-dulian"}]},{id:"49701",type:"chapter",title:"Synthesis of Perovskite Oxides by Hydrothermal Processing – From Thermodynamic Modelling to Practical Processing Approaches",slug:"synthesis-of-perovskite-oxides-by-hydrothermal-processing-from-thermodynamic-modelling-to-practical-",totalDownloads:2680,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Juan Carlos Rendón-Angeles, Zully Matamoros-Veloza, Karla Lorena\nMontoya-Cisneros, Jorge López Cuevas and Kazumichi Yanagisawa",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"7101",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazumichi",middleName:null,surname:"Yanagisawa",fullName:"Kazumichi Yanagisawa",slug:"kazumichi-yanagisawa"},{id:"110941",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rendon-Angeles",fullName:"Juan Carlos Rendon-Angeles",slug:"juan-carlos-rendon-angeles"},{id:"176195",title:"Prof.",name:"Zully",middleName:null,surname:"Matamoros-Veloza",fullName:"Zully Matamoros-Veloza",slug:"zully-matamoros-veloza"},{id:"176196",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"López-Cuevas",fullName:"Jorge López-Cuevas",slug:"jorge-lopez-cuevas"},{id:"176727",title:"MSc.",name:"Montoya-Cisneros",middleName:null,surname:"Karla Lorena",fullName:"Montoya-Cisneros Karla Lorena",slug:"montoya-cisneros-karla-lorena"}]},{id:"49517",type:"chapter",title:"Fabrication of Yttrium-Doped Barium Zirconate for High Performance Protonic Ceramic Membranes",slug:"fabrication-of-yttrium-doped-barium-zirconate-for-high-performance-protonic-ceramic-membranes",totalDownloads:2432,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"W. Grover Coors, Anthony Manerbino, David Martinefski and\nSandrine Ricote",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"48142",title:"Dr.",name:"W.",middleName:"Grover",surname:"Coors",fullName:"W. Coors",slug:"w.-coors"}]},{id:"49438",type:"chapter",title:"Perovskite Nanomaterials – Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications",slug:"perovskite-nanomaterials-synthesis-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:9192,totalCrossrefCites:24,signatures:"Nada F. Atta, Ahmed Galal and Ekram H. El-Ads",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"30072",title:"Prof.",name:"Nada",middleName:null,surname:"F. Atta",fullName:"Nada F. Atta",slug:"nada-f.-atta"},{id:"174033",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Galal",fullName:"Ahmed Galal",slug:"ahmed-galal"},{id:"174034",title:"MSc.",name:"Ekram",middleName:null,surname:"El-Ads",fullName:"Ekram El-Ads",slug:"ekram-el-ads"},{id:"176164",title:"MSc.",name:"Ekram",middleName:null,surname:"Ekram H. El-Ads",fullName:"Ekram Ekram H. El-Ads",slug:"ekram-ekram-h.-el-ads"}]},{id:"49467",type:"chapter",title:"Perovskite Oxide Nanocrystals — Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization, and Novel Applications",slug:"perovskite-oxide-nanocrystals-synthesis-characterization-functionalization-and-novel-applications",totalDownloads:2896,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Heng Wu and Xinhua Zhu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"7228",title:"Professor",name:"Xinhua",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Xinhua Zhu",slug:"xinhua-zhu"},{id:"175838",title:"Mr.",name:"Heng",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Heng Wu",slug:"heng-wu"}]},{id:"49411",type:"chapter",title:"Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Physical Properties of the Perovskite Iridates",slug:"synthesis-crystal-structure-and-physical-properties-of-the-perovskite-iridates",totalDownloads:2539,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yunqi Cai, Yan Li and Jinguang Cheng",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"175923",title:"Prof.",name:"Jinguang",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Jinguang Cheng",slug:"jinguang-cheng"}]},{id:"49422",type:"chapter",title:"Metal–Insulator Transitions and Non-Fermi Liquid Behaviors in 5d Perovskite Iridates",slug:"metal-insulator-transitions-and-non-fermi-liquid-behaviors-in-5d-perovskite-iridates",totalDownloads:3417,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Abhijit Biswas, Ki-Seok Kim and Yoon Hee Jeong",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"175909",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoon Hee",middleName:null,surname:"Jeong",fullName:"Yoon Hee Jeong",slug:"yoon-hee-jeong"},{id:"177405",title:"Prof.",name:"Ki-Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Ki-Seok Kim",slug:"ki-seok-kim"},{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas"}]},{id:"49673",type:"chapter",title:"Structural, Magnetic and Transport Properties of B-Site Substituted Perovskite La0.7Sr0.3MnO3",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-transport-properties-of-b-site-substituted-perovskite-la0-7sr0-3mno3",totalDownloads:2163,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"J.B. Yang, M.S. Kim, T. F. Creel, H. Zhao, X.G. Chen, W.B. Yelon and\nW.J. James",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"111204",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinbo",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jinbo Yang",slug:"jinbo-yang"},{id:"177647",title:"Dr.",name:"M.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"M.S. Kim",slug:"m.s.-kim"}]},{id:"49723",type:"chapter",title:"Microwave Dielectrics with Perovskite-Type Structure",slug:"microwave-dielectrics-with-perovskite-type-structure",totalDownloads:2858,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Hitoshi Ohsato",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"30328",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ohsato",fullName:"Hitoshi Ohsato",slug:"hitoshi-ohsato"}]},{id:"49759",type:"chapter",title:"ESR and Magnetization Studies of Bi-manganites",slug:"esr-and-magnetization-studies-of-bi-manganites",totalDownloads:1815,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Rajender Singh and Ramesh Ade",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"165795",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajender",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Rajender Singh",slug:"rajender-singh"},{id:"177452",title:"Mr.",name:"Ramesh",middleName:null,surname:"Ade",fullName:"Ramesh Ade",slug:"ramesh-ade"}]},{id:"49587",type:"chapter",title:"Charge Carrier Dynamics in Organometal Halide Perovskite Probed by Time-Resolved Electrical Measurements",slug:"charge-carrier-dynamics-in-organometal-halide-perovskite-probed-by-time-resolved-electrical-measurem",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Carlito S. Ponseca Jr.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"175823",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlito Jr.",middleName:null,surname:"Ponseca",fullName:"Carlito Jr. Ponseca",slug:"carlito-jr.-ponseca"}]},{id:"49589",type:"chapter",title:"Photoexcitations and Emission Processes in Organometal Trihalide Perovskites",slug:"photoexcitations-and-emission-processes-in-organometal-trihalide-perovskites",totalDownloads:3038,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Michele Cadelano, Michele Saba, Nicola Sestu, Valerio Sarritzu,\nDaniela Marongiu, Feipeng Chen, Roberto Piras, Francesco Quochi,\nAndrea Mura and Giovanni Bongiovanni",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"54957",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Quochi",fullName:"Francesco Quochi",slug:"francesco-quochi"},{id:"61327",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Saba",fullName:"Michele Saba",slug:"michele-saba"},{id:"61328",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Mura",fullName:"Andrea Mura",slug:"andrea-mura"},{id:"61329",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Bongiovanni",fullName:"Giovanni Bongiovanni",slug:"giovanni-bongiovanni"},{id:"176071",title:"MSc.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Cadelano",fullName:"Michele Cadelano",slug:"michele-cadelano"},{id:"176072",title:"MSc.",name:"Valerio",middleName:null,surname:"Sarritzu",fullName:"Valerio Sarritzu",slug:"valerio-sarritzu"},{id:"176073",title:"MSc.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Sestu",fullName:"Nicola Sestu",slug:"nicola-sestu"},{id:"176074",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Marongiu",fullName:"Daniela Marongiu",slug:"daniela-marongiu"},{id:"176075",title:"MSc.",name:"Feipeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Feipeng Chen",slug:"feipeng-chen"},{id:"176076",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Piras",fullName:"Roberto Piras",slug:"roberto-piras"}]},{id:"49755",type:"chapter",title:"Optical Absorption, Charge Separation and Recombination Dynamics in Pb and Sn/Pb Cocktail Perovskite Solar Cells and Their Relationships to the Photovoltaic Properties",slug:"optical-absorption-charge-separation-and-recombination-dynamics-in-pb-and-sn-pb-cocktail-perovskite-",totalDownloads:2110,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Shen Qing, Ogomi Yuhei, Toyoda Taro, Yoshino Kenji and Hayase\nShuzi",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"37865",title:"Prof.",name:"Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",fullName:"Qing Shen",slug:"qing-shen"},{id:"41585",title:"Dr.",name:"Taro",middleName:null,surname:"Toyoda",fullName:"Taro Toyoda",slug:"taro-toyoda"},{id:"176254",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuhei",middleName:null,surname:"Ogomi",fullName:"Yuhei Ogomi",slug:"yuhei-ogomi"},{id:"176255",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshino",fullName:"Kenji Yoshino",slug:"kenji-yoshino"},{id:"176256",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuzi",middleName:null,surname:"Hayase",fullName:"Shuzi Hayase",slug:"shuzi-hayase"}]},{id:"49469",type:"chapter",title:"Optical, Excitonic, and Electronic Properties of CH3NH3PbI3 Thin Films and Their Application in Photovoltaics",slug:"optical-excitonic-and-electronic-properties-of-ch3nh3pbi3-thin-films-and-their-application-in-photov",totalDownloads:3012,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Sheng Hsiung Chang, Hsin-Ming Cheng, Sheng-Hui Chen and\nKuen-Feng Lin",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"175984",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheng Hsiung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Sheng Hsiung Chang",slug:"sheng-hsiung-chang"},{id:"175986",title:"Prof.",name:"Hsin-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Hsin-Ming Cheng",slug:"hsin-ming-cheng"},{id:"175987",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheng-Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Sheng-Hui Chen",slug:"sheng-hui-chen"},{id:"177336",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuen-Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Kuen-Feng Lin",slug:"kuen-feng-lin"}]},{id:"49659",type:"chapter",title:"Numerical Simulations on Perovskite Photovoltaic Devices",slug:"numerical-simulations-on-perovskite-photovoltaic-devices",totalDownloads:4629,totalCrossrefCites:12,signatures:"Bernabé Marí Soucase, Inmaculada Guaita Pradas and Krishna R.\nAdhikari",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176126",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernabé",middleName:null,surname:"Marí",fullName:"Bernabé Marí",slug:"bernabe-mari"},{id:"176223",title:"MSc.",name:"Krishna R.",middleName:null,surname:"Adhikari",fullName:"Krishna R. Adhikari",slug:"krishna-r.-adhikari"}]},{id:"49380",type:"chapter",title:"Tantalate-based Perovskite for Solar Energy Applications",slug:"tantalate-based-perovskite-for-solar-energy-applications",totalDownloads:2909,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yiguo Su, Junyu Lang, Chunfang Du and Xiaojing Wang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176181",title:"Prof.",name:"Yiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Su",fullName:"Yiguo Su",slug:"yiguo-su"},{id:"176204",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaojing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xiaojing Wang",slug:"xiaojing-wang"},{id:"176205",title:"Prof.",name:"Chunfang",middleName:null,surname:"Du",fullName:"Chunfang Du",slug:"chunfang-du"},{id:"177339",title:"Dr.",name:"Junyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lang",fullName:"Junyu Lang",slug:"junyu-lang"}]},{id:"49451",type:"chapter",title:"Energy Production, Decontamination, and Hydrogenation Reactions over Perovskite-Type Oxide Catalyst",slug:"energy-production-decontamination-and-hydrogenation-reactions-over-perovskite-type-oxide-catalyst",totalDownloads:1752,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Gina Pecchi, Nestor Escalona, I. Tyrone Ghampson and Ruddy\nMorales",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"175933",title:"Prof.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Pecchi",fullName:"Gina Pecchi",slug:"gina-pecchi"},{id:"175974",title:"Prof.",name:"Nestor",middleName:null,surname:"Escalona",fullName:"Nestor Escalona",slug:"nestor-escalona"},{id:"175975",title:"Dr.",name:"I Tyrone",middleName:null,surname:"Ghampson",fullName:"I Tyrone Ghampson",slug:"i-tyrone-ghampson"},{id:"175976",title:"BSc.",name:"Ruddy",middleName:null,surname:"Morales",fullName:"Ruddy Morales",slug:"ruddy-morales"}]},{id:"49401",type:"chapter",title:"Improvement of Catalytic Performance of Perovskites by Partial Substitution of Cations and Supporting on High Surface Area Materials",slug:"improvement-of-catalytic-performance-of-perovskites-by-partial-substitution-of-cations-and-supportin",totalDownloads:2176,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Fabio Souza Toniolo and Martin Schmal",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176174",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Schmal",fullName:"Martin Schmal",slug:"martin-schmal"},{id:"177318",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Souza Toniolo",fullName:"Fabio Souza Toniolo",slug:"fabio-souza-toniolo"}]},{id:"49475",type:"chapter",title:"Copper-based Perovskite Design and Its Performance in CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol",slug:"copper-based-perovskite-design-and-its-performance-in-co2-hydrogenation-to-methanol",totalDownloads:2070,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Feng Li, Haijuan Zhan, Ning Zhao and Fukui Xiao",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176007",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Feng Li",slug:"feng-li"}]},{id:"49510",type:"chapter",title:"Designing Perovskite Oxides for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells",slug:"designing-perovskite-oxides-for-solid-oxide-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:3372,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Idoia Ruiz de Larramendi, Nagore Ortiz-Vitoriano, Isaen B. Dzul-\nBautista and Teófilo Rojo",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"76000",title:"Dr.",name:"Idoia",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz De Larramendi",fullName:"Idoia Ruiz De Larramendi",slug:"idoia-ruiz-de-larramendi"},{id:"176193",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagore",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Vitoriano",fullName:"Nagore Ortiz-Vitoriano",slug:"nagore-ortiz-vitoriano"},{id:"176194",title:"Prof.",name:"Teofilo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojo",fullName:"Teofilo Rojo",slug:"teofilo-rojo"},{id:"177350",title:"MSc.",name:"Isaen B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dzul-Bautista",fullName:"Isaen B. Dzul-Bautista",slug:"isaen-b.-dzul-bautista"}]},{id:"49597",type:"chapter",title:"Perovskites Used in Fuel Cells",slug:"perovskites-used-in-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:2229,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Diego Pereira Tarragó, Berta Moreno, Eva Chinarro and Vânia\nCaldas de Sousa",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"98457",title:"Dr.",name:"Vânia",middleName:null,surname:"De Sousa",fullName:"Vânia De Sousa",slug:"vania-de-sousa"},{id:"175963",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Tarragó",fullName:"Diego Tarragó",slug:"diego-tarrago"},{id:"176200",title:"Dr.",name:"Berta",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",fullName:"Berta Moreno",slug:"berta-moreno"},{id:"176202",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Chinarro Martín",fullName:"Eva Chinarro Martín",slug:"eva-chinarro-martin"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3633",title:"Solar Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-energy",bookSignature:"Radu D Rugescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3633.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"8615",title:"Prof.",name:"Radu",surname:"Rugescu",slug:"radu-rugescu",fullName:"Radu Rugescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8548",title:"Potential of the Solar Energy on Mars",slug:"potential-of-the-solar-energy-on-mars",signatures:"Dragos Ronald Rugescu and Radu Dan Rugescu",authors:[null]},{id:"8549",title:"Surface-Barrier Solar Cells Based On Monocrystalline Cadmium Telluride with the Modified Boundary",slug:"surface-barrier-solar-cells-based-on-monocrystalline-cadmium-telluride-with-the-modified-boundary",signatures:"P.М. Gorley, V.P. Makhniy, P.P. Horley, Yu.V. Vorobiev and J. González-Hernández",authors:[null]},{id:"8550",title:"Control of a 3KW Polar-Axis Solar Power Platform with Nonlinear Measurements",slug:"control-of-a-3kw-polar-axis-solar-power-platform-with-nonlinear-measurements",signatures:"John T. Agee and Adisa A. Jimoh",authors:[null]},{id:"8551",title:"Silicon Solar Cells: Recombination and Electrical Parameters",slug:"silicon-solar-cells-recombination-and-electrical-parameters",signatures:"Saïdou, Madougou, Mohamadou Kaka and Gregoire Sissoko",authors:[null]},{id:"8552",title:"Efficient Silicon Solar Cells Fabricated with a Low Cost Spray Technique",slug:"efficient-silicon-solar-cells-fabricated-with-a-low-cost-spray-technique",signatures:"Oleksandr Malik and F. Javier De la Hidalga-W.",authors:[null]},{id:"8553",title:"Efficiency of Thin-Film CdS/CdTe Solar Cells",slug:"efficiency-of-thin-film-cds-cdte-solar-cells",signatures:"Leonid Kosyachenko",authors:[null]},{id:"8554",title:"Energy Control System of Solar Powered Wheelchair",slug:"energy-control-system-of-solar-powered-wheelchair",signatures:"Yoshihiko Takahashi, Syogo Matsuo, and Kei Kawakami",authors:[null]},{id:"8555",title:"Uses of Concentrated Solar Energy in Materials Science",slug:"uses-of-concentrated-solar-energy-in-materials-science",signatures:"Gemma Herranz and Gloria P. Rodríguez",authors:[null]},{id:"8556",title:"Solar Chimney Power Plants – Developments and Advancements",slug:"solar-chimney-power-plants-developments-and-advancements",signatures:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",authors:[null]},{id:"8557",title:"Floating Solar Chimney Technology",slug:"floating-solar-chimney-technology",signatures:"Christos D. Papageorgiou",authors:[null]},{id:"8558",title:"Organic Solar Cells Performances Improvement Induced by Interface Buffer Layers",slug:"organic-solar-cells-performances-improvement-induced-by-interface-buffer-layers",signatures:"J. C. Bernède, A. Godoy, L. Cattin, F. R. Diaz, M. Morsli and M. A. del Valle",authors:[null]},{id:"8559",title:"New Trends in Designing Parabolic trough Solar Concentrators and Heat Storage Concrete Systems in Solar Power Plants",slug:"new-trends-in-designing-parabolic-trough-solar-concentrators-and-heat-storage-concrete-systems-in-so",signatures:"Valentina A. Salomoni, Carmelo E. Majorana, Giuseppe M. Giannuzzi, Adio Miliozzi and Daniele Nicolini",authors:[null]},{id:"8560",title:"Charge Carrier Recombination in Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells",slug:"charge-carrier-recombination-in-bulk-heterojunction-organic-solar-cells",signatures:"Gytis Juška and Kęstutis Arlauskas",authors:[null]},{id:"8561",title:"Numerical Simulation of Solar Cells and Solar Cell Characterization Methods: the Open-Source on Demand Program AFORS-HET",slug:"numerical-simulation-of-solar-cells-and-solar-cell-characterization-methods-the-open-source-on-deman",signatures:"Rolf Stangl, Caspar Leendertz and Jan Haschke",authors:[null]},{id:"8562",title:"Amorphous Silicon Carbide Photoelectrode for Hydrogen Production from Water using Sunlight",slug:"amorphous-silicon-carbide-photoelectrode-for-hydrogen-production-from-water-using-sunlight",signatures:"Feng Zhu, Jian Hu, Ilvydas Matulionis, Todd Deutsch, Nicolas Gaillard, Eric Miller, and Arun Madan",authors:[null]},{id:"8563",title:"Contact Definition in Industrial Silicon Solar Cells",slug:"contact-definition-in-industrial-silicon-solar-cells",signatures:"Luis Jaime Caballero",authors:[null]},{id:"8564",title:"Aerostat for Solar Power Generation",slug:"aerostat-for-solar-power-generation",signatures:"G. S. Aglietti, S. Redi, A. R. Tatnall, T. Markvart and S.J.I. Walker",authors:[null]},{id:"8565",title:"Photon Management in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",slug:"photon-management-in-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",signatures:"Silvia Colodrero, Mauricio E. Calvo and Hernán Míguez",authors:[null]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"295",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"Thin-Film Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad5cda9b208fbf385f7cdf7a5c16baae",slug:"solar-cells-thin-film-technologies",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3676",title:"Solar Collectors and Panels",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-collectors-and-panels--theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Reccab Manyala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Reccab",surname:"Manyala",slug:"reccab-manyala",fullName:"Reccab Manyala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8896",title:"Sustainable Mobility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5b28b438521dcd383df9b6e797ec462",slug:"sustainable-mobility",bookSignature:"Bernardo Llamas, Marcelo F. Ortega Romero and Eugenia Sillero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8896.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169368",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardo",surname:"Llamas",slug:"bernardo-llamas",fullName:"Bernardo Llamas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"877",title:"Third Generation Photovoltaics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c3bdfaebac38dab83a69c488bcda219d",slug:"third-generation-photovoltaics",bookSignature:"Vasilis Fthenakis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/877.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68723",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilis",surname:"Fthenakis",slug:"vasilis-fthenakis",fullName:"Vasilis Fthenakis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4479",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"New Approaches and Reviews",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6907a79a7d35f34d0c719d6297a2667",slug:"solar-cells-new-approaches-and-reviews",bookSignature:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"412",title:"Biosensors for Health, Environment and Biosecurity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"biosensors-for-health-environment-and-biosecurity",bookSignature:"Pier Andrea Serra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/412.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6091",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Andrea",surname:"Serra",slug:"pier-andrea-serra",fullName:"Pier Andrea Serra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4624",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Micro and Nanoscale Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9793f3e7640905f75bac8ad7c237752e",slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4624.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5063",title:"Perovskite Materials",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterisation, Properties, and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa79b2307aac87c44aee1b9c4eb26096",slug:"perovskite-materials-synthesis-characterisation-properties-and-applications",bookSignature:"Likun Pan and Guang Zhu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175680",title:"Dr.",name:"Likun",surname:"Pan",slug:"likun-pan",fullName:"Likun Pan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"82751",title:"Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Interaction in Central Neurons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105738",slug:"mitochondria-endoplasmic-reticulum-interaction-in-central-neurons",body:'
1. Introduction
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest intracellular organelle in neurons. It ranges from the nuclear membrane through the axon to presynaptic terminals, and through all dendritic arbors, penetrating into some dendritic spines in the form of thin smooth tubules or their extensions such as spine apparatus [1]. Internally differentiated into smooth (sER) and rough (ribosomal, rER), the ER performs many cellular functions, including the synthesis and transport of essential intracellular molecules. However, the most enigmatic and least explored function of the ER is the storage and transmission of Ca2+ signals from a small compartment called the spine apparatus (SA), which is located mainly in mature, mushroom-type dendritic spines [2]. This is a small multilayer lamellar structure, sometimes connected to the sER in the dendritic shaft by a thin tube passing through the neck of the spine [3]. Localization of the spine apparatus depends on synaptic activity [2]. About 80% of the large dendritic spines have a spacious SA, while only 20% of the small thin (immature) spines contain it [3] since more often the sER network can reach only the neck of the spine or be completely absent [4]. The cytoplasm of the spine has been shown to be composed of actin and actin-regulating proteins that are longitudinally located in the neck of the spine and organized into a dense lattice surrounding the sER, or SA in the head of the spine [5], whose marker is the actin-modulating protein synaptopodin (SP) [6, 7]. There are contradictions in studies involving electron microscopy (EM), which do not allow unequivocal answers to the question of whether the SA is an autonomous structure derived from the ER, indicating the final stage of the “maturity” of the spine, and all other inclusions of the ER in the spine are only transitional stages, or SA formation occurs independently of inclusion of a continuous ER compartment into the spine, and in such a case, they may sometimes coexist [3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Nonetheless, there is a growing number of studies in which the spine apparatus is mentioned as one of the main players in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory mechanisms. [7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
2. Spine apparatus functions
Calcium deposition in the postsynaptic terminal underlies synaptic transmission, driving a wide range of synaptic plasticity mechanisms for efficient learning and memory processing. Excitatory or inhibitory inputs lead to a differentiated local increase of calcium in dendritic spines, which functions as units of biophysical and biochemical computations in the neuron, regulating their duration and distribution [18]. The volume of the SA, also considered an ER store, affects the temporal dynamics of Ca2+, its distribution to neighboring dendrite sites, and binding to numerous Ca2+ − gated signaling pathways [2]. The volume of the spine apparatus positively correlates with the total volume of the spine [6], with the size of the spine head (which is indirectly confirmed in experiments with SP) [19] and may increase due to the activity of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDAR) [2]. Activation of postsynaptic NMDARs by glutamate in CA1 hippocampal neurons triggers the activation of ryanodine receptors (RyR) and Ca2+ − induced release of Ca2+ (CICR) from the store. This release of Ca2+ occurs and is often limited to the head of the spine [2], however, it is able to spread further along the dendrite, penetrating into adjacent spines, especially in young neurons [20]. In young (P8-P17) tissues, hippocampal postsynaptic RyRs CA3-CA1 mediate a propagating Ca2+ signal from active synapses, triggered by NMDAR-mediated Ca2+ influx into the dendrite and adjacent coactive synapses, lowering their induction threshold for plasticity [21]. Immunological experiments show colocalization of SP and RyR in calcium stores [19]. Modeling indicates that RyRs are likely located on the SA at the base of the spine neck and their activation is triggered by the binding of two calcium ions, which move from the head to the neck inside the spine cytoplasm and generate calcium flow from the SA down into the dendritic shaft, which also is verified experimentally [22]. RyR – mediated calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) from stores can lead to either long-term potentiation (LTP) or long-term depression (LTD), depending on the pattern of synaptic activity. The mechanisms of LTP and LTD are the basis of synaptic plasticity and require an increase in postsynaptic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). Caffeine, which releases Ca2+ from stores, increases the number of active α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPARs) in hippocampal cultures, thus enhancing the function of synapses [19] and increasing LTP induction in hippocampal slices [23, 24]. Pharmacological blockade of CICR by RyR impairs LTP induction at hippocampal synapses [2, 11, 25]. In addition to LTP, RyRs also promote LTD, and their genetic ablation inhibits low-frequency stimulation-induced LTD in the same area of the brain [19]. In addition, it has been shown that glutamate-induced growth of new spines in the cortex is also mediated by the release of Ca2+ from calcium stores [26].
SP-positive spines demonstrate stronger responses to glutamate uncaging than SP-negative ones. In addition, SP mediates the accumulation of the GluR1 subunit of the AMPA receptor in the heads of spines [19]. Adult mice have more mature spines containing SA and a larger area of SP inclusions than the young. Hippocampal neurons in SP knockout (SPKO) young mice lack SA and decrease LTP, do not solve cognitive tasks, and lose spatial memory. However, with age, SPKO mice develop compensatory mechanisms for LTP recovery. They demonstrate increased excitability and expression of an activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc), encoded by a member of the immediate-early gene (IEG) family ARC, in hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) granule cells after exposure to a novel environment. Arc mRNA and protein are known to accumulate in dendritic regions that receive high-frequency synaptic inputs [27]. Learning or stress-induced Arc accumulation in dendrites is critical for plasticity and memory consolidation [28]. DG is an area required for spatial learning processes, which in SPKO mice activates more cells than in mice with a normal genotype. Since the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ regulates excitability through the activation of calcium-gated K+ − currents, a decrease in calcium availability as a result of the absence of SP and calcium stores can cause increased excitability in the SPKO brain. Therefore, it is important to compensate for the decrease in [Ca2+]i in postsynaptic sites for synaptic plasticity [29].
In addition to RyR, the release of calcium from ER stores is enhanced by activation of inositol triphosphate receptors (IP3R), which are enriched in dendritic branches [19]. Activation of type I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) on the plasma membrane (PM) causes an increase in the concentration of inositol triphosphate via phospholipase C (PLC). This, in turn, enhances the release of Ca2+ from the stores into the cytoplasm by stimulating the IP3R on the ER membrane. IP3R activation can propagate the calcium wave along the dendritic segment or be limited to postsynaptic microdomains, depending on the ambient level of inositol triphosphate in the cytoplasm. IP3R is able to be co-activated by intracellular Ca2+ and these two mechanisms, RyR-mediated CICR and IP3R-induced release of calcium from the stores, are capable of mutual reinforcement [30]. Thus, the SP -associated Ca2+ − stores in the form of a SA play an important role in the storage and regulation of Ca2+ secretions needed for neuronal plasticity.
In ER stores, Ca2+ is bound to calcium-binding proteins (CBPs), such as calnexin and calreticulin. Each CBP binds to many Ca2+ ions in a low affinity and high-capacity manner. When the Ca2+ store is open, exporters can easily separate Ca2+ from the CBP. The store also maintains the concentration of free Ca2+, which determines the driving force for the release of Ca2+. To compensate for the depletion of the Ca2+ pool, its accumulation in the ER is carried out through the use of Ca2+ pumps of the Ca2+-ATPase family (SERCA) together with a store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) via store-operated calcium channels (SOCs). The functioning of SOCs depends on the Ca2+ concentration inside the store and calreticulin, which accounts for nearly half of total ER Ca2+ binding, acts not only as a Ca2+ buffer but also as an important chaperone and regulator of SERCA pumps. Calcium depletion from ER stores is determined by stromal interaction molecules (STIMs), which are diffusely distributed throughout the resting ER. When the storage is empty, STIM transmembrane calcium sensors accumulate on the membrane of the depleted ER store, closest to PM, where they activate the voltage-independent calcium release-activated protein (Orai), providing an influx of Ca2+ into the store so as to replenish it (Figure 1) [30]. Two homologs of STIM, STIM1 and STIM2, are found in neural tissue but appear to be associated with different functions in developing and mature neurons, although both are associated with the Orai channel. STIM1 clusters predominate in young cells, they are more mobile, and their movement along dendrites triggers local Ca2+ transitions, while STIM2 clusters are active in mature neurons, are more dispersed, and much less mobile. STIM1 plays an important role in the formation and functional maturation of filopodia and growth cones in young cells, and STIM2 binds to SOC under conditions of Ca2+ deficiency, restoring local [Ca2+]i levels and moving into active dendritic spines [31]. Inhibition of SERCA pumps by thapsigargin results in slow Ca2+ leak from the ER, stimulating STIM1 oligomerization and formation of STIM1/Orai1 complexes, and antagonists of STIM/Orai dependent SOCE reduce LTP in hippocampal neurons. Synaptic activity is critical for maintaining the morphology of mature dendritic spines, as blockade of synaptic activity by tetrodotoxin (TTX) causes STIM-associated increases in spontaneous calcium transients and a decrease in the proportion of mature spines versus the proportion of immature filopodium [31, 32].
The STIM/Orai complex is also studied in the context of the development of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Alzheimer’s disease (AD). STIM1 and STIM2 are involved in maintaining Ca2+ homeostasis in neurons and are involved in the production of beta-amyloid peptide (Aβ), which accumulates in AD. Overexpression of these proteins can initiate pathological activation or deactivation of SOCE-dependent mechanisms, disrupting synaptic transmission and thus stimulating neurodegenerative mechanisms [31, 33].
3. Structural plasticity of spines
LTP and LTD are associated with an increase and decrease in spine volume, respectively. Similar to functional plasticity, structural plasticity also requires Ca2+ influx through postsynaptic NMDARs, activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) for recruiting GluR subunits, small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPase) and actin polymerization [34]. What specific interactions are required in local targeting of mRNA and protein synthesis to increase the morphology of active spines? To answer this question, the synaptic tagging and capture (STC) hypothesis was proposed: LTP induction creates a “tag” in potentiated synapses that can capture plasticity-related proteins (PRPs), including Homer protein homolog 1a (Homer1a) and Arс. Homer1a, a postsynaptic scaffold protein, is recruited from the soma into the stimulated spine. A synaptic tag can be a temporary morpho-functional state of the synapse, which is represented by a complex of proteins in interaction with the structures of the actin cytoskeleton. For example, LTP is known to induce the formation of a stable pool of F-actin that can act as a synaptic tag. However, this tag is also found in unstimulated spines. So, after LTP, Arc accumulates in unstimulated spines and is excluded from potentiated ones. The amount of synaptic Arc is negatively correlated with the amount of surface GluA1 at the synapses and promotes AMPAR endocytosis. It is likely that this reverse synaptic labeling helps maintain the synaptic weight contrast between active and inactive spines in areas of high synaptic plasticity such as the hippocampus [27, 34]. This mechanism is especially attractive when the spines are close to each other and are part of the same functional synaptic cluster. It is known that morpho-functional changes correlate among neighboring spines. Decrease in the LTP induction threshold decays along ~10 μm of the dendritic branch, and in young neurons, the repeated release of glutamate from individual spikes reduces the induction threshold in the surrounding area to several minutes [34]. We hypothesize that intra-cluster differentiation of synapses is essential for structural plasticity. For example, after LTP induction, the activity of GTPases Ras and Rho extends to ~5–10 μm along the dendrite with the ability to penetrate into neighboring spines. In addition, single spike activity can also trigger molecular signaling involving calcineurin, IP3R, and metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1), which act on adjacent spines [35]. It is possible that Arc-dependent depotentiation of non-target spines helps de-tag neighboring spines for accurate PRP capture.
The mechanism linking local synaptic events in individual spines and signals entering the nucleus includes such transcriptional regulators as cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and synapto-nuclear protein messenger Jacob, which are translocated into the nucleus in response to synaptic activity. Upon NMDAR activation, Jacob is phosphorylated and dissociated from the spines, translocating to the nucleus in an importin-dependent manner. The presence of phosphorylated Jacob in the nucleus increases CREB phosphorylation, inducing the expression of CRE-dependent genes that are involved in the generation of the protein tag only in potentiated synapses [34]. However, such a tag is likely not so much a complex of protein molecules as a short-term reconfiguration of the spine cytoskeleton due to CaMKII activity, including restructuring of postsynaptic density (PSD) and the number of AMPAR. During LTP, the autophosphorylated form of CaMKII remains active in the PSD even after the Ca2+ concentration returns to baseline levels and such a tagged synapse is able to capture PRP. Such synapse stabilizes its new structural conformation before the tagging state disappears, and thus will retain a change in its synaptic efficiency. Inhibition of CaMKII autophosphorylation disrupts the tag, interfering with structural, but not early functional plasticity [36].
If we also turn to SA as a potential tag of functionally improved synapses, like Ostroff et al., who have shown that the presence of SA in large spines correlates with the presence of polyribosomes in their heads after learning. This may be an indicator of a high degree of spatial specificity of translation in dendrites. Accumulation of polyribosomes in the heads of large spines reflects the enhancement of translation during learning, suggesting a link between structural plasticity and memory consolidation [37].
4. The role of mitochondria
The development, maturation, and maintenance of functioning synapses require the maintenance of ionic balance, proteostasis, and modification of synaptic proteomes at the expense of a significant amount of energy [38]. Of great importance is the local specificity of these processes for plasticity, which has an advantage in comparison with the generalized delivery of proteins from the soma. To meet global and local energy needs, cells regulate mitochondrial movement, fission, fusion, and “parking” mitochondria in every area of the cell. Neuronal mitochondria play a crucial role in maintaining synaptic functions, in particular, by providing local translation both under basic conditions and during plasticity processes [38, 39, 40]. Rangaraju et.al from Schuman’s laboratory used adenosine triphosphate (ATP) inhibitors, local inhibition of mitochondrial compartments, and visualization of newly synthesized proteins, to show that local translation is provided by local mitochondrial clusters. Translation of proteins necessary for morphological plasticity, going on from mRNAs, localized near synapses. Glutamate-inducted LTP was not established in areas containing nonfunctioning mitochondria, preventing the morphological changes characteristic of this mechanism. Also, in mitochondria-free regions, there was a significant decrease in protein synthesis compared to stimulated regions with functional mitochondria, although at basal levels of neuronal activity, the energy needs of local translation are adequately met by global levels of ATP available in the dendrite or ATP produced by neighboring functioning mitochondria [38].
Fluctuations in cytosolic calcium, glucose and ATP levels, synaptic activity, neurotransmitters, and growth factors are able to regulate positioning, mitochondrial transport, and dynamics. Moving these organelles to energy-demanding sites, such as synapses, dendritic spines and axons [41], is essential for their functioning. Mitochondrial morphology differentiates not only depending on cell type but also on localization in a particular cellular compartment and can change with age [42]. In vitro and in vivo imaging of axonal mitochondria often shows them to be short, while dendritic mitochondria have a more elongated morphology and often show greater complexity than axonal [43]. This complexity can be expressed at least in terms of length or volume and tendency to form clusters of mitochondria in the form of tubes, often overlapping with each other in dendritic shafts. For example, in the experiments of Faitg and others, the average volume of individual mitochondria in hippocampal neurons varied between 0.11 and 1 μm3, while axonal mitochondria had an average volume of 0.12–0.27 μm3 and did not reach values >1 μm3; somatic mitochondria occupied intermediate values (0.14–0.16 μm3) [42]. In another study with cortical neurons, the length of dendritic mitochondria varied from 0.52 to 13.28 μm, while the length of axonal mitochondria was much smaller from 0.3 to 1.13 μm [43]. More than 50% of dendritic extensions are filled with mitochondria, but less than in axons 1% are filled [38, 43]. Another study compared mitochondria in the presynaptic bouton and in the postsynaptic dendrites of the hippocampus. The area of presynaptic mitochondria was almost half, on average, 0.077 μm2 versus postsynaptic 0.146 μm2. In addition, presynaptic mitochondria were significantly darker, i.e., had a higher electron density than postsynaptic [44]. It is possible that the elongated morphology of mitochondria in dendrites provides them with a bioenergetic advantage [45], while an increase in density indicates their greatest activity. Tubular mitochondrial stretches in dendrites are observed in hippocampal neurons, the average length of which sometimes even exceeds 10 − 30um in length [38, 46]. These may be called a mitochondrial cluster, since such a structure more likely represents individual mitochondria undergoing longitudinal outer (OMM) and inner mitochondrial membranes (IMM) fusion [47, 48], because normal elliptical mitochondria are smaller under normal conditions (see numbers above). Such clusters can be cleaved by mitochondrial uncouplers such as FCCP or CCCP [49]. Clustering of mitochondria increases their functional stability, optimizing the use of the local mitochondrial pool in cell compartments under basic conditions and during activity. Fusion and fission, the direction of movement and parking of mitochondria in certain areas of neuronal processes are of great importance for meeting the changing energy needs of various areas of the cell.
5. Mitochondrial movement and parking
In neurons, the movement of mitochondria is realized by their attachment to microtubules and it depends on their polarity [50]. In axons, microtubules have a distinct polarity, so that anterograde transport of mitochondria along (+)-terminal microtubules move them toward the growth cone or presynaptic end of the axon using kinesin family proteins (KIFs), while retrograde transport along (−)-terminal microtubules use motor protein complex of dynein, directing mitochondria toward the soma. In dendrites, microtubules can show mixed polarity so that KIFs and dynein motors can drive cargo transport in dendrites either anterograde or retrograde depending on microtubule polarity [50]. There are also reports that the movement of mitochondria over short distances in areas rich in actin cytoskeletons, such as the axon growth cone, presynaptic terminal, and sometimes in large dendritic spines observed in the cortex and hippocampus, is carried out with the help of myosin motors [46, 50]. The share of movement mitochondria varies from 5 to 20 to 35–45% of the mitochondrial pool in a culture of hippocampal neurons, and mitochondrial movement occurs more intensely in axons than in dendrites, where mitochondria can often be relatively immobile both in synaptic and non-synaptic areas. Movement increases during blocking of activity by TTX in all outgrowths, while induced glutamate excitotoxicity induces a persistent increase in [Ca2+]i, slowing down movement and promoting mitochondrial rounding in all neuronal outgrowths [45]. Under physiological conditions, Ca2+ influx occurs in areas of high metabolic demand, such as axon terminals and complexes of postsynaptic structures, where mitochondria tend to accumulate. According to various data, from 36% to ∼50% of presynaptic axon terminals of hippocampal neurons contain mitochondria [38, 45]. Sustained elevation of [Ca2+]i levels in some areas of the cell may be a marker of local activity or ATP deficiency, which will recruit and retain mitochondria to stop in these areas, thus balancing ATP production with local needs [51]. Numerous signaling pathways have been elucidated that are regulated by Ca2+, modulating mobility or inducing arrest of mitochondrial pools. Mitochondrial microtubule-based mobility is mediated by KIF Ca2+-dependent manner, and the OMM-anchored mitochondrial Rho GTPase 1 (Miro1) is a Ca2+ sensor (because it contains two helix-loop-helix EF-hand Ca2+-binding motifs) for mitochondrial localization in synapses, and its association with PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) and recruitment of the Parkin protein is necessary for mitochondrial motility stops [50, 52, 53]. Mitochondrial arrest during neuronal activity is produced by synapse-released glutamate, which activates NMDA receptors and induces Ca 2+ − influx, which binds to Miro1. The miro1-mediated mitochondrial arrest may recruit passing mitochondria to active synapses where ATP and calcium buffering requirements would be higher [53]. In a culture of rat hippocampal neurons, perfusion of 30 μM glutamate (with 1 μM glycine to activate NMDA receptors) for 10 min reduced the number of moving mitochondria by 95% in the presence of extracellular calcium ([Ca2+]o), but only a 28% decrease in movement was observed with absence of [Ca2+]o. In the same study, it was demonstrated that moving mitochondria were stopped in areas that were positive for the synaptic marker synaptophysin and synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2), and the distribution of mitochondria in dendrites to the nearest synapse was reduced after the application of glutamate. All of this indicates that mitochondria are recruited to synaptic zones during activity [53]. In addition to these mechanisms, a positive correlation is also found between anterograde mitochondrial transport in axons and electrical potential through IMM (MtMP, Ψm), increasing ATP production. Thus, the maximum rate of ATP production in isolated mitochondria approximately doubles with an increase in Ψm for every 10 mV [54]. Mitochondria with high membrane potential also tend to accumulate at synapses [55]. It can be concluded that the motility and spatial distribution of mitochondria for ATP production can be dynamically regulated by local [Ca2+]i.
6. The role of mitochondria in Ca2+ buffering and signaling
Mitochondria play an important role in Ca2+ signaling in neurons. They have a buffering capacity for Ca2+ binding that arises from their highly hyperpolarized membrane. Membrane potential values of functioning mitochondria in a culture of rat cortical neurons vary within ≃100 – ≃160 mV [54]. MtMP allows rapid transfer of cytosolic Ca2+ across the IMM along its electrochemical gradient into the organelle by the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU), despite the last low affinity for Ca2+ ions. The mitochondrial matrix accumulates high levels of Ca2+ both during global Ca2+ signals and in response to a moderate local increase in [Ca2+]i [56]. This uptake is balanced by Ca2+ efflux through the Na+/Ca2+ antiporter or, more rarely, through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), these pathways are also sensitive to mitochondrial membrane depolarization [56, 57]. Small transient mitochondrial depolarizations reflect mitochondrial buffering activity in high [Ca2+]i micro-domains. From studies in isolated mitochondria, uptake of 17 μM Ca2+ caused a 2–3 mV mitochondrial depolarization [58], while a much greater loss of MtMP accompanies opening of mPTP, nonselective pores in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Through these any molecule weighing less than 1500 da can penetrate, which can lead to an increase in osmotic pressure, swelling of mitochondria and subsequent rupture of the OMM, or cause depletion of matrix substances, incl. and Ca2+ [55]. Temporary opening of the pore can be caused by Ca2+ overload and is characterized by uncoupling of the oxidative phosphorylation chain, resulting in a decrease in ATP production, but is reversible upon restoration of cellular homeostasis. In contrast, the permanent opening of mPTP triggers mitochondria-mediated apoptosis due to the release of cytochrome C [30, 57]. Mitochondria are able to buffer about 75 μM of Ca2+ before it is released, and this point of maximum buffering seems to depend on the rate of Ca2+ uptake. Rapid mitochondrial depolarization also leads to subsequent calcium release, as shown in experiments with CCCP [59]. Interestingly, the content of Ca2+ in mitochondria is inversely proportional to the rate of mitochondrial movement. Motile mitochondria tend to have a lower intra-mitochondrial Ca2+ signal ([Ca2+]m), however, the [Ca2+]m levels do not affect the direction of movement, and no difference was shown in [Ca2+]m between anterograde and retrograde mitochondrial movement. We have previously said that microtubule-based mitochondrial motility is driven by [Ca2+]i levels, however direct Ca2+ influx into the mitochondrial matrix via the Miro1 mediated MCU is also capable of altering mitochondrial motility. In experiments with mutations in the EF-hand domains of Miro1, mitochondrial movement did not stop, despite an increase in [Ca2+]i levels. Blocking the MCU also allowed mitochondrial movement to be preserved even in the presence of high levels of cytoplasmic [Ca2+]i, but only partially, indicating that [Ca2+]i also makes a significant contribution to mitochondrial mobility. Miro1 can change the level of Ca2+ influx into mitochondria, acting as a [Ca2+]i sensor, similar to STIM ER, influencing the amount of Ca2+ influx into mitochondria and their rate, which can be regulated by the amount of Miro1 protein associated with kinesin motors at a given time, while as soon as the concentration of [Ca2+]m reaches a critical level, the interaction of Miro1 with kinesin complexes is disintegrated and mitochondria stop. The influx of Ca2+ into mitochondria increases ATP production by activating the tricarboxylic acid cycle, as well as increasing the activity of electron transport chain enzymes and the ATP synthase complex, so that ultimately mitochondrial arrest is beneficial near synaptic areas [60].
7. ER-mitochondria interactions
Mitochondrial clusters occupy most of the dendritic branches and are closely associated with the ER, especially at the base of the spines (Figure 1) [18]. However, such a distribution of ER and mitochondria is not constant. Contacts between mitochondria and the ER along the dendrites enable functional inter-organellar communication and play a central role in the regulation of postsynaptic calcium-signaling, and dysregulation of its communication has been demonstrated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases [18]. Contact sites between OMM mitochondria and ERs (Mitochondria-ER Contact Sites, or MERCs), constituting about 2–20% of the mitochondrial surface area, were detected using EM studies, then demonstrated in experiments using dimerization-dependent fluorescent proteins. Membrane constituents from a specific set of protein and lipid complexes that form MERC are called mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAMs). The term MAM is used to describe the results of experiments on the biochemical/functional characterization of isolated contacts between mitochondria and the ER, while the term MERC is used during morpho-functional visualization [61].
MERCs provide a direct route for calcium transfer from the ER to the mitochondria and are required for mitochondrial functions, including ATP production. An increase in MERC surface area increases mitochondrial calcium influx and hence stimulates ATP production [18]. The MERC width is not constitutive and can change depending on the metabolic status of the cell. Excessive expansion, or vice versa, constriction of MERC disrupts the efficient transfer of calcium from the ER to the mitochondria. Ca2+ uptake by the MCU is most effective when the ER membrane faces the OMM at a distance of ≈15 nm, but not more than 30 nm, when calcium will leak and diffuse into the cytoplasm and not less than 10 nm, which is determined by the length of the protruding part of IP3R or RyR [61]. The Ca2+ release from the ER is able to control mitochondrial mobility by locally increasing [Ca2+]i. Inhibition of movement of mitochondria at an optimal distance from active Ca2+ receptor channels from the ER is necessary for mitochondrial calcium buffering, which also serves as a means of stimulating mitochondrial ATP production. Although mitochondria store less Ca2+ than ER, they are important buffers of [Ca2+]i. Voltage-gated anion channels (VDACs) located on the OMM are responsible for the rapid transfer of Ca2+ from the ER to mitochondria, and their function results in the formation of Ca2+-rich microdomains in the mitochondrial intermembrane space [62]. Balance of [Ca2+]m is maintained by influx through the MCU and outflow through the mitochondrial sodium-calcium exchanger (NCLX), but at elevated levels of activity, mitochondria are also able to buffer excess [Ca2+]i due to precipitation inside the matrix in the form of Ca2+ − phosphate [30]. Sigma-1 receptors (σ-1R) found on MAM may influence mitochondrial Ca2+ − signaling. σ-1Rs are able to exhibit chaperone activity, stabilizing IP3R to MAM under conditions when Ca2+ reserves in the ER are depleted, preventing degradation of Ca2+ entry into mitochondria, restoring Ψm and subsequent ATP production (Figure 1) [62].
Figure 1.
Top. Mature mushroom-shaped dendritic spine contains spine apparatus (SA), which is required for synaptic transmission and plasticity. SERCA pump mediates Ca2+ uptake into SA due to synaptic activity or STIM/Orai-dependent store-operated calcium entry mechanism. Excitatory input (lightning) activates calcium influx through postsynaptic NMDAR, which triggers calcium-induced calcium release from SA through RyR. This Ca2+ transient spreads along the spine neck toward the dendrite. In turn, this initial transient trigger molecular signaling leads to the release of Ca2+ from IP3Rs, which are localized on the dendrite-running ER. Calcium released from RyR and IP3R may attract Mobile extrasynaptic mitochondria located within 5–10 μm to the base of the spine. Mobile mitochondria move along microtubules driven by a protein of the kinesin family (KIF). Continuous Ca2+ transients at the base of mature spine dock the mitochondrion by dissociating it from microtubule. Retention and accumulation of mitochondria take place in the area of locally elevated calcium around ER. Calcium originated from IP3R covers an area around voltage-gated anion channels (VDAC), the intermembrane space of mitochondria, and then through the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) moves to the mitochondrial matrix. Stable postsynaptic mitochondria provide ATP-dependent mechanisms of plasticity, the local ribosome-dependent translation of proteins on the base of mRNAs possibly attracted by local Ca2+ gradients. The nearby filopodium does not receive presynaptic inputs and is therefore unable to take part in synaptic plasticity. Bottom. Mature and immature dendritic spines both receive excitatory presynaptic inputs. A more intense postsynaptic response occurs in a mature spine containing both NMDA and AMPA receptors. Synaptic input initiates calcium release from the SA and ER, inducing local translation of plasticity-related proteins (PRPs). PRPs can also penetrate into the adjacent, co-activated but yet immature spine, causing the incorporation of AMPA receptors. A stable postsynaptic mitochondrial cluster sequesters [Ca2+]i, which has been released during activity. This mechanism highly limits calcium distribution along the dendrite, maintaining individual spine autonomy. New mitochondria fuse into a cluster. Their contacts with the ER are maintained by mitofusins (Mfn) 1/2. Sigma-1 receptor (σ-1R) helps to stabilize and attach IP3R to VDAC in mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAM). Ca2+ influx through MCU is also mediated by mitochondrial rho GTPase 1 (Miro1), which is able to function as a [Ca2+]m sensor. Miro1 modulates the level of Ca2+ influx into the mitochondrial matrix. It is also involved in MAM - mitochondria stabilization mechanism. The larger volume of the mitochondrial cluster enables the production of higher levels of ATP for efficient PRP production, promoting functional and morphological plasticity. Individual mitochondria are also shown to be able to enter the heads of the mature spines with large head volume and SA, where they possibly feed local translation mechanisms.
Knockout of Sig-1R in hippocampal neurons results in shorter and smaller mitochondria and also causes a decrease in MtMP and release of cytochrome c, which leads to disruption of cytoskeletal networks loss of mature dendritic spines, and formation of immature dendritic spines [63, 64]. Genetic deletion of σ-1R also impairs MAM stability and leads to a decreased number of MERC [65]. A reduced amount of σ-1R has been observed postmortem in the hippocampi of AD patients, and certain σ-1R gene polymorphisms coexist with the well-known risk factor Alzheimer’s disease apolipoprotein ε4 (APOE ε4) [66].
Mitochondrial fission and fusion can also be regulated by the ER, for example, by Wnt-5a, a member of the Wingless/integrase (Wnt) secreted glycoprotein family, which induces an increase in Ca2+ efflux from the ER via IP3R and RYR. This, in turn, activates Ca2+-dependent signaling molecules, including CaMKII, protein kinase C (PKC), and calcineurin, which may promote phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) associated with increased mitochondrial fragmentation [41]. Although at rest, fragmented dendritic mitochondria are less beneficial for energy production, but they are able to increase ATP production at high levels of arousal through higher H2O2 production [67].
8. Functionally and spatially related clusters of spines are served by mitochondria clusters
Modeling and electrophysiological experiments indicate that neighboring synaptic inputs can sum nonlinearly and turn a dendritic compartment or a cluster of spines into a separate summing unit of activity. The experimentally observed signs of synaptic clustering are expressed in the sharing of synaptic inputs from the same axon by two or more neighboring spines. That is, the formation of synapses and their clustering is a consequence of their relative position with the nearest axon (Figure 2) [35]. The presence of clustering is also evidenced by the above mechanisms of transfer of intracellular signaling molecules by diffusion from the stimulated spine to a certain distance to neighboring dendritic spines, which can “learn” a similar pattern of activity. There is also evidence for intercluster competition: LTP induction in multiple spines on the same dendritic segment can cause spine contraction and weakening of the synapses of neighboring, more distant, unstimulated spines [34].
It can be expected that the united cluster of spines should have its own stable energy source in the form of a mitochondrial cluster, which will limit Ca2+ diffusion and ATP production mainly to this region. The calculations by Rangaraju et al. suggest that mitochondrial clusters spanning about 30 μm of dendritic length are capable of local ATP synthesis to provide energy for 30–300 spines (with a uniform distribution of 1–10 spines per μm of dendrite length) [38]. This co-compartmentalization provides an advantage at the time of obtaining simultaneous excitation for several dendritic spines, in which ATP production from one local mitochondrion or ATP levels in the dendrite would be clearly insufficient, and the expectation of ATP influx from neighboring mitochondria would adversely affect time-dependent plasticity and competitiveness given synaptic cluster. High-frequency excitatory input that leads to a significant increase in the local level of [Ca2+]i also require immediate absorption, which is successfully performed in the case of mitochondrial clustering. Could be supplemented to reformulate Hebbian plasticity into: “Spines that are repeatedly active at the same time with the same inputs will tend to become ‘associated’ so that activity in one will facilitate activity in the other. Together, they represent a cluster unit of information in the brain and it will be provided by the own mitochondrial cluster.”
What are the advantages of such a clustered mitochondrial service structure for a single spine? Modeling shows that ATP availability in dendrites is directly proportional to mitochondrial length [18]. In the case when several spines of the cluster simultaneously receive excitation, it will cause a more extensive total postsynaptic response, and then such a cluster, which has an extended mitochondrial cluster under it, acting, in this case, as a whole, will be provided with more energy. In pathological cases, the breakdown of such a cluster organization can occur: a decrease in the number of mature functional spines, which will lead to disorganization of the synaptic cluster, and a violation of mitochondrial recruitment and mitochondrial clustering will make energy production more chaotic.
Will an individual spine that receives a local signal be “lost” in such a unified structure? It is known that within a cluster, spines may compete for limited resources (Figure 2). After LTP induction, there is a marked loss of small spines, which is accompanied by an increase in the remaining spines, so that the total synaptic surface area per dendrite length remains constant [35]. There are hypotheses, the essence of which is that, despite the apparent morphological integrity of the mitochondrial cluster, the limited spaces represented by the cristae compounds create lateral gradients of critical metabolites and macromolecules within the cristae. Thus, in the mitochondria of the brain, the cristae are connected to the surface of the IMM through narrow long tubular sections. Modeling suggests that such compounds may lead to micro-compartmentation within the mitochondria, which may have important functional implications by creating a barrier to the diffusion of molecules between the cristae and intermembrane spaces. Rearrangements of such barriers change the energy output [68], allowing local ATP targeting.
Figure 2.
Stylization based on a real image of the mitochondria distribution in the dendritic shaft. Two clusters of spines are united, each to their axonal presynaptic input, and compete for motile extrasynaptic mitochondrion (arrow). The more active cluster of spines attracts extrasynaptic mitochondrion as well as more efficiently stabilizes adjacent mitochondrial cluster due to an increase in ATP demand. Active spines receive higher levels of ATP from their local synaptic mitochondrial, compared to spines that do not receive sufficient synaptic inputs. Therefore, both intercluster and intracluster spine competition can be proposed.
9. The role of presenilin-1 in interactions between mitochondria and the ER in the neurodegeneration context
The “MAM hypothesis”, for AD suggests that this disease is a consequence of a disruption of ER-mitochondrial interactions, since studies show an increased expression of MAM-associated proteins in the brain of humans and mice with AD, up to the appearance of Aβ plaques, which precedes the more common “amyloid hypothesis”. For example, fibroblasts obtained from AD patients whose symptoms include impaired lipid metabolism have elongated, up to more than 200 nm MERC and increased lipid traffic [61]. PS1 and PS2 are two highly homologous isoforms of mammalian presenilin, with mutations associated with about 40% of all known cases of familial AD. Their gamma-secretase activity is enriched in MAM where they affect the processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) to form Aβ. PS-1 plays a key role in the interactions between mitochondria and the ER in the area of synaptic contacts. Presenilin-2 (PS2) in the presence of the mitochondrial fusion protein mitofusin 2 (Mfn-2) located in OMM associated with mitofusin 1 (Mfn-1) on the ER membrane promotes mitochondrial binding to the ER [30]. Mutant presenilins have also been implicated in disrupting Ca2+ signaling in neurons due to the release of excess amounts of Ca2+ from the stores with the help of RyR and IP3R. RyR expression levels are elevated in cultured neurons expressing mutant PS1 in 3xTg-AD mice starting at a young age [69].
The most interesting and not related to the gamma-secretase activity of presenilins is their participation in the role of channels of passive leakage of Ca2+ ER in the hippocampus, shown in the laboratory of Bezprozvanny [70]. The increase in resting Ca2+ levels observed in PS1-transfected cells may be due to “leak” storage and the fact that the SERCA pump takes longer to pump the leaked Ca2+ back to the store. Calculations predict that under physiological conditions the SERCA pump reaches thermodynamic equilibrium when [Ca2+]ER is 2.4 mM, however, visualization gives different values, in the range of 100–500 μM [Ca2+]ER. The researchers proposed an explanation for this difference as the presenilin-mediated leak of the ER membrane to Ca2+ ions. Then the stationary intraluminal level of Ca2+ in the ER is determined by the balance between its injection with SERCA and passive leak into the cytosol. However, the PS1-M146V mutant was not able to function as a Ca2+ leak channel, which led to an overflow of Ca2+ stores and an increase in the level of released Ca2+ upon IP3R activation [70].
According to an alternative hypothesis, presenilins do not necessarily directly regulate the leakage of calcium ions from cisterns in the endoplasmic reticulum. It is possible that they serve as regulators of the family of ryanodine receptors (RyR1–3), which in turn are responsible for the leakage due to CICR [71]. Several studies have established close proximity and molecular linkage between these proteins on the ER membrane [71, 72]. The deep functional relationship between presenilins and RyR is highlighted by the fact that violation of control or mutation of PSs leads to increased expression of RyR2 and RyR3 [71]. Increased levels of RyR expression are found in models expressing PS1 mutants, possibly as a compensatory mechanism associated with loss of PS leakage function [71]. It has been also suggested that N-termini fragments of presenilin-1 or -2 interact with RyR, significantly increasing its sensitivity to cytosolic calcium and the opening probability of this channel (Figure 3) [73]. Mutant presenilin can drastically reduce the RyR gating rate and, consequently, the leakage of calcium ions from the ER depo. However, it is important to mention that RyR leakage is directly dependent on cytosolic calcium levels. Consequently, the leak will be enhanced at high synaptic activity and in those locations on the dendritic shaft where synapses are located. In numerous studies, it is noted that the production of ATP by mitochondria is closely related to the release of calcium through RyR in the MAM region [74, 75]. It is likely that a drop of calcium release through RyR in the MAM zone due to presenilin mutation does not provide the mitochondria with a sufficient calcium signal to initiate ATP production, even in areas of high synaptic activity. Moreover, PS mutations have been found to overload the ER with calcium ions, which are “locked” inside due to reduced leakage in mutant PSs, particularly in Alzheimer’s disease (Figure 3) [76, 77].
Figure 3.
PS1, possibly, acts as a channel for passive Ca2+ leakage from SA and/or may increase Ca2+ − induced release of Ca2+ by RyR. The N-terminal fragment of PS1 is proposed to bind directly to RyR, increasing its sensitivity to [Ca2+]i and the probability of channel opening. Calcium ions diffuse toward the synaptic mitochondria, entering the matrix through the VDAC/MCU, where they stimulate ATP production. Mutations of PS1 gene possibly abolish the leak function, leading to an overflow of Ca2+ reserves in SA. Alternatively, mPS1 may drastically reduce the RyR gating rate and restrict leakage of calcium ions from ER store, through yet unknown mechanisms. Significantly lowered calcium levels released from SA are insufficient for local ATP production by the synaptic mitochondria. The observed increase in RyR expression in mutant PS1 may be a compensatory mechanism to increase calcium leakage from the overfilled store in the absence of correct regulation by presenilin.
Postsynaptic areas are among the major consumers of energy, which is used to maintain ionic balance, enzymatic processes, and local protein synthesis. Synapses are associated with large and sharp fluctuations in the levels of calcium ions, which are involved in signaling at the junction of the cytosol, ER, and mitochondria. This signaling is aimed at rapid and fine regulation of ATP levels. The energy supply and trafficking of mitochondrial clusters are vital for maintaining synaptic transmission. Thus, in a study by Du et al. [78], it was found that impairment of functionality, permeability, and trafficking of synaptic mitochondria occurs much earlier than among extrasynaptic mitochondria as well as long before the generation of amyloid plaques in a mouse model of AD. Histopathological hallmarks that occur during brain aging or AD are associated with functional insufficiency of synaptic mitochondria. Damaged mitochondria gradually increase and generalize oxidative stress, synaptic dysfunction, loss of contact, and culminate in neuronal degeneration [79, 80]. Particularly, disruptions of the mitochondrial energy metabolism are associated with proteins responsible for the production of ATP [81]. In all likelihood, it is in disorders of calcium homeostasis between synaptic mitochondrial clusters and regional calcium stores that one should look for the root causes of many, if not all, neurodegenerative pathologies.
10. ER in aging and neurodegeneration
Even in the absence of neurodegeneration, age-related cognitive decline can be observed in association with the loss of synapses in some most active areas of neocortex and hippocampus. Thus, during normal aging, there is a significant decrease in the density of “thin” small-headed spines, which are usually characterized as highly plastic learning spines, in the pyramidal cells of layer III (the most vulnerable cell population in AD) of the prefrontal cortex [82]. The decrease in density, however, has no effect or only minor effect on mushroom spines with normal aging [9]. Whereas in AD, electron microscopy reveals a pathological decrease in the overall density of spines, a decrease in their size along with the presence of abnormally large protrusions in different areas of the brain, as well as morphological abnormalities of the SA and mitochondria (Figure 4) [83].
Possibly that a part of the entire pool of thin plastic spines is enriched with ER due to extensive synaptic activation leading to LTP initiation. In its turn, activation could stabilize spine morphology during LTP processes, and increase the head volume, thus, moving them into the pool of mature spines [84, 85]. The remaining poorly activated group of thin spines that did not receive ER, may be completely eliminated. Moreover, the increased and clustered synaptic inputs of such thin highly plastic spines may partially compensate for the bald spots of the synaptic network and improve test performance in plasticity and cognitive abilities [86]. Expectedly, this requires recruiting more mitochondria through local calcium activity. Calcium dysregulation from ER stores may worsen plasticity indicators, reducing the probability of ER penetration into thin, synaptopodin-negative spines, depriving them of the opportunity to achieve energy and mature, while leaving only the perspective of elimination.
In long-term cultured rat hippocampal neurons (15–21 DIV) that mimic physiological aging, a dramatic decrease in SOCE and Orai1/STIM1 is observed, while calcium content in ER stores and the caffeine-induced Ca2+ release from the ER are elevated on the contrary. A mechanism of age-dependent SOCE suppression may be proposed to explain the loss of mushroom spines in both physiological aging and cognitive decline in AD [14, 87]. Regulation of the mechanism of SOCE by σ-1R is another important factor in the stabilization of large dendritic spines. Thus, instability of large spines in the hippocampus was observed following dysregulation of the normal SOCE mechanism by σ-1R, in several disorders including AD [88].
Impaired transmission of ER-mitochondrial Ca2+ also carries negative physiological consequences for the senescent neurons, since such transmission is necessary to ensure stable ATP flashes from postsynaptic mitochondria upon request. Effective reuptake of Ca2+ leakage from ER drops as a result of mitochondrial depolarization in senescent neurons. As a compensatory mechanism for this, cells may develop an increase in the number of MERC contacts, which paradoxically lead to [Ca2+]m overload, disrupting mitochondrial functions and ATP production, respectively [87]. A similar situation is observed in neurodegeneration when the regulation of Ca2+ leakage from the ER into mitochondria is disrupted by mutant presenilin, which pathologically overloads the stores with calcium [89]. However, abnormally increased levels of calcium, when released upon activation, may become inefficient and even toxic for mitochondria that “tuned themselves” to poor consumption of Ca2+ in MERC. Such disorganization can be superimposed on the already existing aging-induced functional disorders of MERC/MAM and mitochondrial homeostasis (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
The ubiquitous mobile ER in young neurons penetrates the pool of thin highly plastic spines more often, thus transforming into spine apparatus and stabilizing the spines. Mitochondria are extensively recruited toward the dendritic region under active postsynaptic compartments to contact ER and make a targeted ATP release. During normal aging, mitochondria drop their resting membrane potential and the ability of addressed ATP production. Consequently, most stable mushroom spines recruit more mitochondria to compensate the lack of ATP/energy by expanding the MERK regions. During neurodegeneration, dysfunctional mitochondria are unable to provide sufficient ATP inflow and calcium sequestration, causing degradation of mature spines and overflow of ER stores with calcium, which leads to a general disruption of ER, malfunction, and, finally, the cell death.
The multidimensionality of subtle changes in the status of ER stores and their consequences, ER dynamic omnipresence in neurons and close functional relationship with mitochondria as well as other membrane organelles, makes it among the main players in the pathological processes of aging and neurodegeneration.
11. Conclusions
The spine apparatus is a key structure that is assumed to regulate calcium homeostasis in the postsynaptic region of many synapses. It is characterized by the unique localization of ryanodine receptors, which direct the calcium influx toward the dendritic shaft, the SERCA pumps, and the Orai-STIM complex, which pump calcium ions from the postsynaptic density into the nanoscale store.
Synaptic plasticity of many dendritic spines, especially the fraction of the largest ones, depends on stabilization by their spine apparatus. Disturbances in local calcium homeostasis caused by uncoordinated ryanodine/IP3 receptors and machinery for replenishing calcium stores in the ER can lead to the loss of dendritic spines, changes in their morphology, and a decrease in synaptic connectivity.
Synaptic mitochondria are characterized by high spatial stability, most often lying directly under the synapses or, more rarely, penetrating into the heads of some large spines. Synapses are the most active consumers of energy, which is spent on maintaining ion homeostasis, enzymatic processes, and local protein synthesis.
Extrasynaptic mitochondria can be transported toward the most active synapses along microtubules, both in anterograde and retrograde directions. It is likely that postsynaptic calcium gradients play the role of spatial markers for “attracting” extrasynaptic mitochondria.
Calcium ions also play a fundamental role as signaling agents for the production of ATP by mitochondria. Both intracluster and intercluster competition of mitochondria for synaptic calcium signals is assumed.
In all likelihood, calcium gradients arising in the dendritic shaft are pumped into local mitochondria and buffered by them. Rapid and transient calcium gradients occur via release through ryanodine receptors and are regulated by calcium-dependent calcium release mechanisms. These calcium spikelets in synaptic mitochondria can play the role of signals for ATP release, not in a random direction, but toward the source of the gradient.
Synaptic clusters, served by the same axonal branch or by “competing axons” from different neuronal sources, are often associated with a complex and underlying mitochondrial cluster. Particular spines in the cluster may compete for locally released ATP. Moreover, mitochondria can efficiently and rapidly buffer released calcium ions, which highly restrict their spread along the dendrite.
Presenilin-1 and -2 modulate RyR and regulate the levels of calcium leak from the local storage in the area of mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAM). Mutant presenilins drastically reduce calcium leak at MAM. It leads to overexpression of RYR and overloads the store. The lack of calcium signals from the ER prevents mitochondria from receiving sufficient signals to modulate ATP production and release. As a result, “energy starvation” in the synapses begins, which leads to synaptic deficiency, spine pruning, and neurodegeneration.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank prof. Menahem Sehgal for constructive comments during the preparation of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"calcium, ATP, neurodegeneration, presenilin, mitochondria, calcium store, spine apparatus",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82751.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82751.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82751",totalDownloads:6,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2022",dateReviewed:"June 7th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 19th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 19th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The proteins presenilin-1/2 play a key role in the interactions between mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum at synaptic contacts of central neurons. Several novel observations suggest that mutations in presenilin-1 lead to an abnormal energy state, an early sign of neurodegeneration and Alzheimer’s disease. Recent studies suggest that in the postsynaptic region, calcium stores are widely represented in the spine apparatus, which is located in a strategically important compartment - the neck of mature mushroom-shaped dendritic spines. Moreover, in the dendritic shaft area, at the base of the spines, one finds oblong mitochondrial clusters supplying the postsynaptic area and the local protein synthesis with ATP. Calcium signals, generated by the postsynaptic membranes, affect both calcium release from local stores through ryanodine channels and the uptake based on store-operated calcium entry. The entire complex of nanoscale signaling most likely determines the production of ATP. Violation of the functional relationship between mitochondria and reticular calcium depots can lead to disruption of signaling pathways that stimulate ATP production at the stages of increased activity of individual synapses. In this chapter, we will present the signaling mechanisms of interaction between mitochondria, spine clusters, and calcium nano-stores in postsynaptic area.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82751",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82751",signatures:"Liliya Kushnireva and Eduard Korkotian",book:{id:"11674",type:"book",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Spine apparatus functions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Structural plasticity of spines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The role of mitochondria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Mitochondrial movement and parking",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The role of mitochondria in Ca2+ buffering and signaling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. ER-mitochondria interactions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Functionally and spatially related clusters of spines are served by mitochondria clusters",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. The role of presenilin-1 in interactions between mitochondria and the ER in the neurodegeneration context",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. ER in aging and neurodegeneration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Verkhratsky A. Physiology and pathophysiology of the calcium store in the endoplasmic reticulum of neurons. Physiological Reviews. 2005;85(1):201-279. DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00004.2004'},{id:"B2",body:'Padamsey Z, Foster WJ, Emptage NJ. Intracellular Ca2+ release and synaptic plasticity: A tale of many stores. The Neuroscientist. 2019;25(3):208-226. DOI: 10.1177/1073858418785334'},{id:"B3",body:'Popov V, Medvedev NI, Davies HA, Stewart MG. Mitochondria form a filamentous reticular network in hippocampal dendrites but are present as discrete bodies in axons: A three-dimensional ultrastructural study. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 2005;492(1):50-65. DOI: 10.1002/cne.20682'},{id:"B4",body:'Wu Y, Whiteus C, Xu CS, et al. Contacts between the endoplasmic reticulum and other membranes in neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2017;114(24):E4859-E4867. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1701078114'},{id:"B5",body:'Frotscher M, Studer D, Graber W, Chai X, Nestel S, Zhao S. Fine structure of synapses on dendritic spines. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 2014;8:94. DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2014.00094'},{id:"B6",body:'Rosado J, Bui VD, Haas CA, Beck J, Queisser G, Vlachos A. Calcium modeling of spine apparatus-containing human dendritic spines demonstrates an “all-or-nothing” communication switch between the spine head and dendrite. PLoS Computational Biology. 2022;18(4):e1010069. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010069'},{id:"B7",body:'Vlachos A. Synaptopodin and the spine apparatus organelle—Regulators of different forms of synaptic plasticity? Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger. 2012;194(4):317-320. DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2011.10.014'},{id:"B8",body:'Ostroff LE, Cain CK, Bedont J, Monfils MH, LeDoux JE. Fear and safety learning differentially affect synapse size and dendritic translation in the lateral amygdala. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2010;107(20):9418-9423. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913384107'},{id:"B9",body:'Perez-Alvarez A, Yin S, Schulze C, et al. Endoplasmic reticulum visits highly active spines and prevents runaway potentiation of synapses. Nature Communications. 2020;11:5083. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18889-5'},{id:"B10",body:'Sree S, Parkkinen I, Their A, Airavaara M, Jokitalo E. Morphological heterogeneity of the endoplasmic reticulum within neurons and its implications in neurodegeneration. Cell. 2021;10(5):970. DOI: 10.3390/cells10050970'},{id:"B11",body:'Korkotian E, Frotscher M, Segal M. Synaptopodin regulates spine plasticity: Mediation by calcium stores. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2014;34(35):11641-11651. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0381-14.2014'},{id:"B12",body:'Ofer N, Berger DR, Kasthuri N, Lichtman JW, Yuste R. Ultrastructural analysis of dendritic spine necks reveals a continuum of spine morphologies. Developmental Neurobiology. 2021;81(5):746-757. DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22829'},{id:"B13",body:'Deller T, Bas Orth C, Del Turco D, Vlachos A, Burbach GJ, Drakew A, et al. A role for synaptopodin and the spine apparatus in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Annals of Anatomy. 2007;189(1):5-16. DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2006.06.013'},{id:"B14",body:'Segal M, Korkotian E. Roles of calcium stores and store-operated channels in plasticity of dendritic spines. The Neuroscientist. 2016;22(5):477-485. DOI: 10.1177/1073858415613277'},{id:"B15",body:'Jedlicka P, Deller T. Understanding the role of synaptopodin and the spine apparatus in Hebbian synaptic plasticity - new perspectives and the need for computational modeling. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 2017;138:21-30. DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.07.023'},{id:"B16",body:'Maggio N, Vlachos A. Synaptic plasticity at the interface of health and disease: New insights on the role of endoplasmic reticulum intracellular calcium stores. Neuroscience. 2014;281:135-146. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.041'},{id:"B17",body:'Vlachos A, Ikenberg B, Lenz M, et al. Synaptopodin regulates denervation-induced homeostatic synaptic plasticity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2013;110(20):8242-8247. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1213677110'},{id:"B18",body:'Leung A, Ohadi D, Pekkurnaz G, Rangamani P. Systems modeling predicts that mitochondria ER contact sites regulate the postsynaptic energy landscape. NPJ Systems Biology and Applications. 2021;7(1):26. DOI: 10.1038/s41540-021-00185-7'},{id:"B19",body:'Vlachos A, Korkotian E, Schonfeld E, Copanaki E, Deller T, Segal M. Synaptopodin regulates plasticity of dendritic spines in hippocampal neurons. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2009;29(4):1017-1033. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5528-08.2009'},{id:"B20",body:'Lee WC, Bonin V, Reed M, et al. Anatomy and function of an excitatory network in the visual cortex. Nature. 2016;532:370-374. DOI: 10.1038/nature17192'},{id:"B21",body:'Lee KF, Soares C, Thivierge JP, Béïque JC. Correlated synaptic inputs drive dendritic calcium amplification and cooperative plasticity during clustered synapse development. Neuron. 2016;89(4):784-799. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.012'},{id:"B22",body:'Basnayake K, Mazaud D, Bemelmans A, Rouach N, Korkotian E, Holcman D. Fast calcium transients in dendritic spines driven by extreme statistics. PLoS Biology. 2019;17(6):e2006202. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006202'},{id:"B23",body:'Grigoryan G, Segal M. Ryanodine-mediated conversion of STP to LTP is lacking in synaptopodin-deficient mice. Brain Structure & Function. 2016;221(4):2393-2397. DOI: 10.1007/s00429-015-1026-7'},{id:"B24",body:'Segal M. Dendritic spines: Morphological building blocks of memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 2017;138:3-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.06.007'},{id:"B25",body:'Korkotian E, Segal M. Synaptopodin regulates release of calcium from stores in dendritic spines of cultured hippocampal neurons. The Journal of Physiology. 2011;589(Pt 24):5987-5995. DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.217315'},{id:"B26",body:'Kwon HB, Sabatini BL. Glutamate induces de novo growth of functional spines in developing cortex. Nature. 2011;474(7349):100-104. DOI: 10.1038/nature09986'},{id:"B27",body:'Okuno H, Akashi K, Ishii Y, et al. Inverse synaptic tagging of inactive synapses via dynamic interaction of arc/Arg3.1 with CaMKIIβ. Cell. 2012;149(4):886-898. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2012.02.062'},{id:"B28",body:'Kedrov AV, Durymanov M, Anokhin KV. The arc gene: Retroviral heritage in cognitive functions. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2019;99:275-281. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.006'},{id:"B29",body:'Aloni E, Verbitsky S, Kushnireva L, Korkotian E, Segal M. Increased excitability of hippocampal neurons in mature synaptopodin-knockout mice. Brain Structure and Function. 2021;226(7):2459-2466. DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02346-0'},{id:"B30",body:'Yousuf MS, Maguire AD, Simmen T, Kerr BJ. Endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria interplay in chronic pain: The calcium connection. Molecular Pain. 2020;16:1744806920946889. DOI: 10.1177/1744806920946889'},{id:"B31",body:'Kushnireva L, Korkotian E, Segal M. Calcium sensors STIM1 and STIM2 regulate different calcium functions in cultured hippocampal neurons. Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience. 2021;12:573714. DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.573714'},{id:"B32",body:'Chen YF, Chen LH, Shen MR. The distinct role of STIM1 and STIM2 in the regulation of store-operated Ca2+ entry and cellular function. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2019;234(6):8727-8739. DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27532'},{id:"B33",body:'Majewski L, Maciąg F, Boguszewski PM, Kuznicki J. Transgenic mice overexpressing human STIM2 and ORAI1 in neurons exhibit changes in behavior and calcium homeostasis but show No signs of neurodegeneration. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(3):842. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030842'},{id:"B34",body:'Nishiyama J, Yasuda R. Biochemical computation for spine structural plasticity. Neuron. 2015;87(1):63-75. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.05.043'},{id:"B35",body:'Lu J, Zuo Y. Clustered structural and functional plasticity of dendritic spines. Brain Research Bulletin. 2017;129:18-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.09.008'},{id:"B36",body:'Redondo R, Morris R. Making memories last: The synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2011;12:17-30. DOI: 10.1038/nrn2963'},{id:"B37",body:'Ostroff LE, Botsford B, Gindina S, et al. Accumulation of polyribosomes in dendritic spine heads, but not bases and necks, during memory consolidation depends on cap-dependent translation initiation. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2017;37(7):1862-1872. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3301-16.2017'},{id:"B38",body:'Rangaraju V, Lauterbach M, Schuman EM. Spatially stable mitochondrial compartments fuel local translation during plasticity. Cell. 2019;176(1-2):73-84.e15. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.12.013'},{id:"B39",body:'Spillane M, Ketschek A, Merianda TT, Twiss JL, Gallo G. Mitochondria coordinate sites of axon branching through localized intra-axonal protein synthesis. Cell Reports. 2013;5(6):1564-1575. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2013.11.022'},{id:"B40",body:'Rajgor D, Welle TM, Smith KR. The coordination of local translation, membranous organelle trafficking, and synaptic plasticity in neurons. Frontiers in Cell and Development Biology. 2021;9:711446. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.711446'},{id:"B41",body:'Godoy JA, Arrázola MS, Ordenes D, Silva-Alvarez C, Braidy N, Inestrosa NC. Wnt-5a ligand modulates mitochondrial fission-fusion in rat hippocampal neurons. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2014;289(52):36179-36193. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M114.557009'},{id:"B42",body:'Faitg J, Lacefield C, Davey T, White K, Laws R, Kosmidis S, et al. 3D neuronal mitochondrial morphology in axons, dendrites, and somata of the aging mouse hippocampus. Cell Reports. 2021;36(6):109509. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109509'},{id:"B43",body:'Lewis TL, Kwon SK, Lee A, et al. MFF-dependent mitochondrial fission regulates presynaptic release and axon branching by limiting axonal mitochondria size. Nature Communications. 2018;9:5008. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07416-2'},{id:"B44",body:'Freeman DW, Petralia RS, Wang YX, Mattson MP, Yao PJ. Mitochondria in hippocampal presynaptic and postsynaptic compartments differ in size as well as intensity. Matters (Zur). 2017;2017. DOI: 10.19185/matters.201711000009'},{id:"B45",body:'Chang DT, Honick AS, Reynolds IJ. Mitochondrial trafficking to synapses in cultured primary cortical neurons. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2006;26(26):7035-7045. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1012-06.2006'},{id:"B46",body:'Li Z, Okamoto K, Hayashi Y, Sheng M. The importance of dendritic mitochondria in the morphogenesis and plasticity of spines and synapses. Cell. 2004;119(6):873-887. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.11.003'},{id:"B47",body:'Eisner V, Csordás G, Hajnóczky G. Interactions between sarco-endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria in cardiac and skeletal muscle - pivotal roles in Ca2+ and reactive oxygen species signaling. Journal of Cell Science. 2013;126(Pt 14):2965-2978. DOI: 10.1242/jcs.093609'},{id:"B48",body:'Shim SH, Xia C, Zhong G, et al. Super-resolution fluorescence imaging of organelles in live cells with photoswitchable membrane probes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012;109(35):13978-13983. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1201882109'},{id:"B49",body:'Liu X, Weaver D, Shirihai O, Hajnóczky G. Mitochondrial ‘kiss-and-run’: Interplay between mitochondrial motility and fusion-fission dynamics. The EMBO Journal. 2009;28(20):3074-3089. DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2009.255'},{id:"B50",body:'Sheng ZH, Cai Q. Mitochondrial transport in neurons: Impact on synaptic homeostasis and neurodegeneration. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2012;13:77-93. DOI: 10.1038/nrn3156'},{id:"B51",body:'Wang X, Schwarz TL. The mechanism of Ca2+ −dependent regulation of kinesin-mediated mitochondrial motility. Cell. 2009;136(1):163-174. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2008.11.046'},{id:"B52",body:'Wang X, Winter D, Ashrafi G, et al. PINK1 and Parkin target Miro for phosphorylation and degradation to arrest mitochondrial motility. Cell. 2011;147(4):893-906. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.018'},{id:"B53",body:'Macaskill AF, Rinholm JE, Twelvetrees AE, et al. Miro1 is a calcium sensor for glutamate receptor-dependent localization of mitochondria at synapses. Neuron. 2009;61(4):541-555. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.01.030'},{id:"B54",body:'Gerencser AA, Chinopoulos C, Birket MJ, et al. Quantitative measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential in cultured cells: Calcium-induced de- and hyperpolarization of neuronal mitochondria. The Journal of Physiology. 2012;590(12):2845-2871. DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.228387'},{id:"B55",body:'Vos M, Lauwers E, Verstreken P. Synaptic mitochondria in synaptic transmission and organization of vesicle pools in health and disease. Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience. 2010;2:139. DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2010.00139'},{id:"B56",body:'Chamberland S, Moratallaab AZ, Topolnik L. Calcium extrusion mechanisms in dendrites of mouse hippocampal CA1 inhibitory interneurons. Cell Calcium. 2019;77:49-57. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2018.12.002'},{id:"B57",body:'Vianello A, Casolo V, Petrussa E, et al. The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (PTP) — An example of multiple molecular exaptation? Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Bioenergetics. 2012;1817(11):2072-2086. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2012.06.620'},{id:"B58",body:'Duchen MR, Leyssens A, Crompton M. Transient mitochondrial depolarizations reflect focal sarcoplasmic reticular calcium release in single rat cardiomyocytes. The Journal of Cell Biology. 1998;142(4):975-988. DOI: 10.1083/jcb.142.4.975'},{id:"B59",body:'Levy M, Faas GC, Saggau P, Craigen WJ, Sweatt JD. Mitochondrial regulation of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2003;278(20):17727-17734. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M212878200'},{id:"B60",body:'Chang KT, Niescier RF, Min KT. Mitochondrial matrix Ca2+ as an intrinsic signal regulating mitochondrial motility in axons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2011;108(37):15456-15461. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1106862108'},{id:"B61",body:'Giacomello M, Pellegrini L. The coming of age of the mitochondria-ER contact: A matter of thickness. Cell Death and Differentiation. 2016;23(9):1417-1427. DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2016.52'},{id:"B62",body:'Rizzuto R, De Stefani D, Raffaello A, Mammucari C. Mitochondria as sensors and regulators of calcium signalling. Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 2012;13(9):566-578. DOI: 10.1038/nrm3412'},{id:"B63",body:'Weng TY, Tsai SYA, Su TP. Roles of sigma-1 receptors on mitochondrial functions relevant to neurodegenerative diseases. Journal of Biomedical Science. 2017;24:74. DOI: 10.1186/s12929-017-0380-6'},{id:"B64",body:'Ryskamp DA, Zhemkov V, Bezprozvanny I. Mutational analysis of Sigma-1 Receptor’s role in synaptic stability. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2019;13:1012. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01012'},{id:"B65",body:'Zhemkov V, Geva M, Hayden MR, Bezprozvanny I. Sigma-1 receptor (S1R) interaction with cholesterol: Mechanisms of S1R activation and its role in neurodegenerative diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021;22(8):4082. DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084082'},{id:"B66",body:'Jia H, Zhang Y, Huang Y. Imaging sigma receptors in the brain: New opportunities for diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and therapeutic development. Neuroscience Letters. 2019;691:3-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.07.033'},{id:"B67",body:'Dromard Y, Arango-Lievano M, Fontanaud P, Tricaud N, Jeanneteau F. Dual imaging of dendritic spines and mitochondria in vivo reveals hotspots of plasticity and metabolic adaptation to stress. Neurobiology Stress. 2021;15:100402. DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100402'},{id:"B68",body:'Perkins GA, Renken CW, Frey TG, Ellisman MH. Membrane architecture of mitochondria in neurons of the central nervous system. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 2001;66(5):857-865. DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10050'},{id:"B69",body:'Stutzmann GE, Smith I, Caccamo A, Oddo S, Laferla FM, Parker I. Enhanced ryanodine receptor recruitment contributes to Ca2+ disruptions in young, adult, and aged Alzheimer’s disease mice. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2006;26(19):5180-5189. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0739-06.2006'},{id:"B70",body:'Tu H, Nelson O, Bezprozvanny A, et al. Presenilins form ER Ca2+ leak channels, a function disrupted by familial Alzheimer’s disease-linked mutations. Cell. 2006;126(5):981-993. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2006.06.059'},{id:"B71",body:'Del Prete D, Checler F, Chami M. Ryanodine receptors: Physiological function and deregulation in Alzheimer disease. Molecular Neurodegeneration. 2014;9:21. DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-9-21'},{id:"B72",body:'Lee SY, Hwang DY, Kim YK, et al. PS2 mutation increases neuronal cell vulnerability to neurotoxicants through activation of caspase-3 by enhancing of ryanodine receptor-mediated calcium release. The FASEB Journal. 2006;20(1):151-153. DOI: 10.1096/fj.05-4017fje;1'},{id:"B73",body:'Rybalchenko V, Hwang SY, Rybalchenko N, Koulen P. The cytosolic N-terminus of presenilin-1 potentiates mouse ryanodine receptor single channel activity. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. 2008;40(1):84-97. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2007.06.023'},{id:"B74",body:'Gao P, Yan Z, Zhu Z. Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes in cardiovascular diseases. Frontiers in Cell and Development Biology. 2020;8:604240. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.604240'},{id:"B75",body:'De la Fuente S, Sheu SS. SR-mitochondria communication in adult cardiomyocytes: A close relationship where the Ca2+ has a lot to say. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2019;663:259-268. DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2019.01.026'},{id:"B76",body:'Chami M, Checler F. Alterations of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium signaling molecular components in Alzheimer’s disease. Cell. 2020;9(12):2577. DOI: 10.3390/cells9122577'},{id:"B77",body:'Gazda K, Kuznicki J, Wegierski T. Knockdown of amyloid precursor protein increases calcium levels in the endoplasmic reticulum. Scientific Reports. 2017;7(1):14512. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15166-2'},{id:"B78",body:'Du H, Guo L, Yan S, Sosunov AA, McKhann GM, Yan SS. Early deficits in synaptic mitochondria in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2010;107(43):18670-18675. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1006586107'},{id:"B79",body:'Müller WE, Eckert A, Kurz C, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction: Common final pathway in brain aging and Alzheimer’s disease—Therapeutic aspects. Molecular Neurobiology. 2010;41:159-171. DOI: 10.1007/s12035-010-8141-5'},{id:"B80",body:'Smit-Rigter L, Rajendran R, Silva CA, et al. Mitochondrial dynamics in visual cortex are limited In vivo and not affected by axonal structural plasticity. Current Biology. 2016;26(19):2609-2616. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.033'},{id:"B81",body:'Yu H, Lin X, Wang D, et al. Mitochondrial molecular abnormalities revealed by proteomic analysis of hippocampal organelles of mice triple transgenic for Alzheimer disease. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 2018;11:74. DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00074'},{id:"B82",body:'Dumitriu D, Hao J, Hara Y, et al. Selective changes in thin spine density and morphology in monkey prefrontal cortex correlate with aging-related cognitive impairment. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2010;30(22):7507-7515. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6410-09.2010'},{id:"B83",body:'Baloyannis SJ. What has electron microscopy contributed to Alzheimer’s research? Future Neurology. 2015;10(6):515-527. DOI: 10.2217/fnl.15.44'},{id:"B84",body:'Korkotian E, Segal M. Structure-function relations in dendritic spines: Is size important? Hippocampus. 2000;10(5):587-595. DOI: 10.1002/1098-1063(2000)10:5<587::AID-HIPO9>3.0.CO;2-C'},{id:"B85",body:'Basnayake K, Mazaud D, Kushnireva L, Bemelmans A, Rouach N, Korkotian E, et al. Nanoscale molecular architecture controls calcium diffusion and ER replenishment in dendritic spines. Science Advances. 2021;7(38):eabh1376. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abh1376'},{id:"B86",body:'Pereira AC, Lambert HK, Grossman YS, et al. Glutamatergic regulation prevents hippocampal-dependent age-related cognitive decline through dendritic spine clustering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;111(52):18733-18738. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1421285111'},{id:"B87",body:'Calvo-Rodríguez M, García-Durillo M, Villalobos C, Núñez L. In vitro aging promotes endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria Ca2+ cross talk and loss of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) in rat hippocampal neurons. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2016;1863(11):2637-2649. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.08.001'},{id:"B88",body:'Ryskamp DA, Korban S, Zhemkov V, Kraskovskaya N, Bezprozvanny I. Neuronal Sigma-1 receptors: Signaling functions and protective roles in neurodegenerative diseases. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2019;13:862. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00862'},{id:"B89",body:'Sun S, Zhang H, Liu J, et al. Reduced synaptic STIM2 expression and impaired store-operated calcium entry cause destabilization of mature spines in mutant presenilin mice. Neuron. 2014;82(1):79-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.02.019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Liliya Kushnireva",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Brain Sciences, The Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel
Department of Brain Sciences, The Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"11674",type:"book",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"117671",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Mankovskaya",email:"mankovskaya.svetlana@gmail.com",fullName:"Svetlana Mankovskaya",slug:"svetlana-mankovskaya",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Belarusian Medical Academy of Post-Graduate Education",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belarus"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"33333",title:"Papillary Thyroid Cancer in Childhood and Adolescence with Specific Consideration of Patients After Radiation Exposure",slug:"papillary-thyroid-cancer-in-childhood-and-adolescence-with-specific-consideration-of-patients-after-",abstract:null,signatures:"Yuri Demidchik, Mikhail Fridman, Kurt Werner Schmid, Christoph Reiners, Johannes Biko and Svetlana Mankovskaya",authors:[{id:"64537",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuri",surname:"Demidchik",fullName:"Yuri Demidchik",slug:"yuri-demidchik",email:"yu.demidchik@gmail.com"},{id:"117667",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Fridman",fullName:"Mikhail Fridman",slug:"mikhail-fridman",email:"kupriyan@rambler.ru"},{id:"117669",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",surname:"Reiners",fullName:"Christoph Reiners",slug:"christoph-reiners",email:"reiners@nuklearmedizin.uni-wuerzburg.de"},{id:"117671",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Mankovskaya",fullName:"Svetlana Mankovskaya",slug:"svetlana-mankovskaya",email:"mankovskaya.svetlana@gmail.com"},{id:"119304",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Biko",fullName:"Johannes Biko",slug:"johannes-biko",email:"biko@nuklearmedizin.uni-wuerzburg.de"},{id:"119424",title:"Prof.",name:"Kurt",surname:"Werner Schmid",fullName:"Kurt Werner Schmid",slug:"kurt-werner-schmid",email:"KW.Schmid@uk-essen.de"}],book:{id:"822",title:"Updates in the Understanding and Management of Thyroid Cancer",slug:"updates-in-the-understanding-and-management-of-thyroid-cancer",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"45965",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"García-Mayor",slug:"ricardo-garcia-mayor",fullName:"Ricardo García-Mayor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"63713",title:"Prof.",name:"Susannah",surname:"Gal",slug:"susannah-gal",fullName:"Susannah Gal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Binghamton University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"63950",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Krzeslak",slug:"anna-krzeslak",fullName:"Anna Krzeslak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"67673",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetika",surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"geetika-chakravarty",fullName:"Geetika Chakravarty",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tulane University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"68495",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonia",surname:"Rego-Iraeta",slug:"antonia-rego-iraeta",fullName:"Antonia Rego-Iraeta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Complejo Hospitalario de Ourense",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"69024",title:"MSc.",name:"Debolina",surname:"Ray",slug:"debolina-ray",fullName:"Debolina Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Binghamton University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"69025",title:"MSc.",name:"Matthew",surname:"Balmer",slug:"matthew-balmer",fullName:"Matthew Balmer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Binghamton University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"71981",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Weinhaeusel",slug:"andreas-weinhaeusel",fullName:"Andreas Weinhaeusel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"72045",title:"Dr.",name:"Klemens",surname:"Vierlinger",slug:"klemens-vierlinger",fullName:"Klemens Vierlinger",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Austrian Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"131228",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisa",surname:"Perez-Mendez",slug:"luisa-perez-mendez",fullName:"Luisa Perez-Mendez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Servicio Gallego de Salud",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"terms-and-conditions",title:"Terms and Conditions",intro:'
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
1. Terms
\\n\\n
By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\\n\\n
The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n
“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n
“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n
“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\n
All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\n
Any use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\n
2. License
\\n\\n
Unless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\n
3. Cookies
\\n\\n
We employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\n
4. Limitations
\\n\\n
In no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\n
5. Accuracy of Materials
\\n\\n
Intechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\n
6. Links
\\n\\n
IntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\n
We reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\n
If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\n
7. Frames
\\n\\n
Without prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\n
8. Modifications
\\n\\n
IntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\n
9. Governing Law
\\n\\n
These Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\n
Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\n
The following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n
“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n
“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n
“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\n
All Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\n
Any use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\n
2. License
\n\n
Unless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\n
3. Cookies
\n\n
We employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\n
4. Limitations
\n\n
In no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\n
5. Accuracy of Materials
\n\n
Intechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\n
6. Links
\n\n
IntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\n
We reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\n
If you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\n
7. Frames
\n\n
Without prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\n
8. Modifications
\n\n
IntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\n
9. Governing Law
\n\n
These Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\n
Croatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"352625",title:"Dr.",name:"Nanjappa",middleName:null,surname:"Ashwath",slug:"nanjappa-ashwath",fullName:"Nanjappa Ashwath",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003633Y6QAI/Profile_Picture_1616134000897",biography:"Associate Professor Nanjappa Ashwath is a plant scientist researching on mine site rehabilitation and native species over the last 30 years. His speciality is in finding the right plant species to a degraded site to ensure that the established species will survive and provide long term ecosystem services. He has researched on restoring uranium mines, coal mines, metalliferous mines, mangrove habitats, roadside verges and railway embankments. He teaches into Australian Botany and Landscape Ecology & Management. Assoc Prof Ashwath supervises post graduate students on a range of topics, including phytoremediation, phytocapping and mine site restoration. His contribution to research at CQU has won him the Vice Chancellor’s Award for research. He has authored/co-authored over 200 publications and serves in the editorial committees of ~10 journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central Queensland University",country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"131328",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdennasser",middleName:null,surname:"Chebira",slug:"abdennasser-chebira",fullName:"Abdennasser Chebira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131328/images/system/131328.jpg",biography:"Dr. Abdennasser Chebira received his Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences from PARIS XI University, Orsay, France, in 1994. Since September 1994 he works as Professor Assistant at Sénart Institute of Technology of PARIS XII – Val de Marne University. He is a staff researcher at Images, Signal and Intelligent Systems Laboratory (LISSI / EA 3956) of this University. His current research works concern selforganizing neural network based multi-modeling, hybrid neural based information processing systems; Neural based data fusion and complexity estimation.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"262400",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Lopes",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"thiago-lopes-rocha",fullName:"Thiago Lopes Rocha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"327936",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Anli",slug:"mohamed-anli",fullName:"Mohamed Anli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"197120",title:"Mr.",name:"Habib Ur",middleName:null,surname:"Rehman",slug:"habib-ur-rehman",fullName:"Habib Ur Rehman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"328192",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameer",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sameer-kumar",fullName:"Sameer Kumar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Kerala",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1024",title:"Dr.",name:"Keinosuke",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"keinosuke-matsumoto",fullName:"Keinosuke Matsumoto",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka Prefecture University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"66560",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Verrills",slug:"nicole-verrills",fullName:"Nicole Verrills",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Newcastle Australia",country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"197632",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Karolína",middleName:null,surname:"Barinková",slug:"karolina-barinkova",fullName:"Karolína Barinková",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavol Jozef Šafárik",country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"328704",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo-Pérez",slug:"esther-carrillo-perez",fullName:"Esther Carrillo-Pérez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Sonora",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"66816",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwao",middleName:null,surname:"Emura",slug:"iwao-emura",fullName:"Iwao Emura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nagaoka Red Cross Hospital",country:{name:"Japan"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:13389},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:11660},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:4168},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:22334},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:2019},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:33642}],offset:12,limit:12,total:135275},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eb3830b8176caf3d1fd52c32313c5168",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11561",title:"Zeolite From Wastes - New Perspectives on Innovative Resources and Their Valorization Process",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11709",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cc0e61f864a2a8a9595f4975ce301f70",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shilpa Mehta and Dr. Resmy Palliyil Gopi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"342545",title:"Dr.",name:"Shilpa",surname:"Mehta",slug:"shilpa-mehta",fullName:"Shilpa Mehta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11814",title:"Liposomes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"62d8542d18b8cddcf507f7948b2ae74b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajeev K. Tyagi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11814.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11889",title:"Sexual Disorders and Dysfunctions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11867",title:"Echocardiography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11757",title:"Nanorods - Synthesis, Properties, Toxicity and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fb27f444442e8f039b560beae93e6873",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Tejendra Kumar Gupta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11757.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"345089",title:"Prof.",name:"Tejendra Kumar",surname:"Gupta",slug:"tejendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Tejendra Kumar Gupta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11828",title:"Lubrication - Thermal Management and Friction Reduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b900201d5e8a4b13100f49e7c1019447",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11828.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11793",title:"Production, Nutritional and Industrial Perspectives of Barley",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"996125d4599193b3b6b749f5d8aa3cb2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farhan Saeed and Dr. Muhammad Afzaal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11793.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"192244",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhan",surname:"Saeed",slug:"farhan-saeed",fullName:"Farhan Saeed"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:68},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:264},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3737",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"Modelling, Programming and Simulations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"matlab-modelling-programming-and-simulations",bookSignature:"Emilson Pereira Leite",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3737.jpg",editors:[{id:"12051",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilson",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira Leite",slug:"emilson-pereira-leite",fullName:"Emilson Pereira Leite"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4798},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7175,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1981,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2308,editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1473,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",numberOfDownloads:318571,editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",publishedDate:"September 26th 2012",numberOfDownloads:271836,editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",publishedDate:"July 1st 2013",numberOfDownloads:243450,editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1582,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2082,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",publishedDate:"October 17th 2012",numberOfDownloads:256294,editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11328",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7dd05a316001cef143e209eda51387a7",slug:"botulinum-toxin-recent-topics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Suna Sabuncuoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11085",title:"Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",subtitle:"Functional Investigation and Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3066dd3ff29e1fac072fd60b08d4d3e7",slug:"polycystic-ovary-syndrome-functional-investigation-and-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10833",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis and Modulators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f29b575c46128b2da061ef7f9bd1070b",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-and-modulators",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics",parent:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology"},numberOfBooks:156,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:3657,numberOfWosCitations:4735,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2325,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5087,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"20",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11002",title:"Colorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d1a97ef4f3979a9d08d56f8f034dc3c",slug:"colorimetry",bookSignature:"Ashis Kumar Samanta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11002.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42763",title:"Prof.",name:"Ashis Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Samanta",slug:"ashis-kumar-samanta",fullName:"Ashis Kumar Samanta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10966",title:"Acoustic Emission",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4cbf5fe77dcf581393247bd9ac4277a",slug:"acoustic-emission-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10966.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10672",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Nonlinear Nanophotonics and Novel Materials for Nonlinear Optics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",slug:"nonlinear-optics-nonlinear-nanophotonics-and-novel-materials-for-nonlinear-optics",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10921",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c45670ef4b081fd9eebaf911b2b4627b",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10921.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10209",title:"Quantum Computing and Communications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588d044631767881b7490cd9cb2c052b",slug:"quantum-computing-and-communications",bookSignature:"Yongli Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199527",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yongli",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"yongli-zhao",fullName:"Yongli Zhao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10168",title:"Electromagnetic and Acoustic Waves in Bioengineering Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fab55a6aa34e666274aabfdd3dc7f32d",slug:"electromagnetic-and-acoustic-waves-in-bioengineering-applications",bookSignature:"Ivo Čáp, Klára Čápová, Milan Smetana and Štefan Borik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10168.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"314791",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivo",middleName:null,surname:"Čáp",slug:"ivo-cap",fullName:"Ivo Čáp"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"9655",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Technology and Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26b9e7dade717a5ffdc2dbcfaa1ea43d",slug:"bioluminescence-technology-and-biology",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki and Katsunori Ogoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10674",title:"Topics on Quantum Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7481712cff0157cd8f849cba865727d",slug:"topics-on-quantum-information-science",bookSignature:"Sergio Curilef and Angel Ricardo Plastino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10205",title:"Quantum Chromodynamic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d9403b5c874f6e63b0686cd7c432e00",slug:"quantum-chromodynamic",bookSignature:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67836",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Szadkowski",slug:"zbigniew-piotr-szadkowski",fullName:"Zbigniew Piotr Szadkowski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10767",title:"Fiber Optics",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b8ef72a4a369383a4b719bba2a4",slug:"fiber-optics-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10481",title:"Practical Applications of Laser Ablation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9f235e98a88813c08a9dba80525b195",slug:"practical-applications-of-laser-ablation",bookSignature:"Dongfang Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10481.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang Yang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10017",title:"Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e20f25706d03f0c52ac852f7fa2375e7",slug:"optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Mike Haidar Shahine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10017.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102474",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike Haidar",middleName:null,surname:"Shahine",slug:"mike-haidar-shahine",fullName:"Mike Haidar Shahine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:156,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32842",doi:"10.5772/34901",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74823,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"49652",doi:"10.5772/61720",title:"Sample Preparations for Scanning Electron Microscopy – Life Sciences",slug:"sample-preparations-for-scanning-electron-microscopy-life-sciences",totalDownloads:8761,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:84,abstract:"Sample preparations are essential in scanning electron microscopy. Flawed sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to equip researchers, post graduate students and technicians with essential knowledge required to prepare samples for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations in the life sciences.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"176330",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogana",middleName:"Das",surname:"Murtey",slug:"mogana-murtey",fullName:"Mogana Murtey"},{id:"181159",title:"Mr.",name:"Patchamuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"patchamuthu-ramasamy",fullName:"Patchamuthu Ramasamy"}]},{id:"26791",doi:"10.5772/28067",title:"Optical Vortices in a Fiber: Mode Division Multiplexing and Multimode Self-Imaging",slug:"optical-vortices-in-a-fiber-mode-division-multiplexing-and-multimode-self-reproducing",totalDownloads:4552,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"2018",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research"},signatures:"S.N. Khonina, N.L. Kazanskiy and V.A. Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6804,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"49655",doi:"10.5772/61830",title:"Electrical Discharge in Water Treatment Technology for Micropollutant Decomposition",slug:"electrical-discharge-in-water-treatment-technology-for-micropollutant-decomposition",totalDownloads:5027,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Hazardous micropollutants are increasingly detected worldwide in wastewater treatment plant effluent. As this indicates, their removal is insufficient by means of conventional modern water treatment techniques. In the search for a cost-effective solution, advanced oxidation processes have recently gained more attention since they are the most effective available techniques to decompose biorecalcitrant organics. As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. Nikiforov and Christophe Leys",authors:[{id:"49112",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Leys",slug:"christophe-leys",fullName:"Christophe Leys"},{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"},{id:"176862",title:"Mr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Vanraes",slug:"patrick-vanraes",fullName:"Patrick Vanraes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49562",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4805,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4325,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6112,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10155,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"20",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83061",title:"Dipole Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinear Responses",slug:"dipole-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defocusing-quintic-nonlin",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106207",abstract:"Stability dynamics of dipole solitons have been numerically investigated in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity by the squared-operator method. It has been demonstrated that solitons can stay nonlinearly stable for a wide range of each parameter, and two nonlinearly stable regions have been found for dipole solitons in the gap domain. Moreover, it has been observed that instability of dipole solitons can be improved or suppressed by modification of the potential depth and strong anisotropy coefficient.",book:{id:"10958",title:"Vortex Dynamics - From Physical to Mathematical Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10958.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Melis Turgut, Nalan Antar and İlkay Bakırtaş"},{id:"82984",title:"Feedback Linearization Control of Interleaved Boost Converter Fed by PV Array",slug:"feedback-linearization-control-of-interleaved-boost-converter-fed-by-pv-array",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106355",abstract:"One of the powerful methods of nonlinear control is the feedback linearization technique. This technique consists of input state and input-output linearization methods. In this chapter, the feedback linearization technique, including input state and input-output linearization methods, is described. Then, input-output linearization method is used for output voltage control of interleaved boost converter. Firstly, mathematical model of the interleaved boost converter is derived after that the method is applied. Besides, the interleaved boost converter is fed by a PV array under irradiation level and ambient temperature change. As a result of the simulation study, output voltage control of interleaved boost converter under reference voltage change is realized as desired.",book:{id:"11499",title:"Nonlinear Systems - Recent Developments and Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11499.jpg"},signatures:"Erdal Şehirli"},{id:"82973",title:"Compact Incoherent Multidimensional Imaging Systems Using Static Diffractive Coded Apertures",slug:"compact-incoherent-multidimensional-imaging-systems-using-static-diffractive-coded-apertures",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105864",abstract:"Incoherent holographic imaging technologies, in general, involve multiple optical components for beam splitting—combining and shaping—and in most cases, require an active optical device such as a spatial light modulator (SLM) for generating multiple phase-shifted holograms in time. The above requirements made the realization of holography-based products expensive, heavy, large, and slow. To successfully transfer the holography capabilities discussed in research articles to products, it is necessary to find methods to simplify holography architectures. In this book chapter, two important incoherent holography techniques, namely interference-based Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) and interferenceless coded aperture correlation holography (I-COACH), have been successfully simplified in space and time using advanced manufacturing methods and nonlinear reconstruction, respectively. Both techniques have been realized in compact optical architectures using a single static diffractive optical element manufactured using lithography technologies. Randomly multiplexed diffractive lenses were manufactured using electron beam lithography for FINCH. A quasi-random lens and a mask containing a quasi-random array of pinholes were manufactured using electron beam lithography and photolithography, respectively, for I-COACH. In both cases, the compactification has been achieved without sacrificing the performances. The design, fabrication, and experiments of FINCH and I-COACH with static diffractive optical elements are presented in details.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Vijayakumar Anand, Soon Hock Ng, Tomas Katkus, Daniel Smith, Vinoth Balasubramani, Denver P. Linklater, Pierre J. Magistretti, Christian Depeursinge, Elena P. Ivanova and Saulius Juodkazis"},{id:"82958",title:"Electromagnetic Relations between Materials and Fields for Microwave Chemistry",slug:"electromagnetic-relations-between-materials-and-fields-for-microwave-chemistry",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106257",abstract:"We consider the application of microwave energy to a material. The effects of the electromagnetic field on the material and of the material on the electromagnetic field will be described, focusing on the dielectric relaxation phenomenon of the liquid. The dielectric permittivity of mixtures is discussed by extending Debye relaxation to explain how the material behaves with respect to an electric field. We will also consider the energy that the electric field imparts to the material, both thermally and nonthermally. We will develop this relation and describe what form it should take if there is a nonthermal effect in the chemical reaction field under microwave irradiation.",book:{id:"11494",title:"Electric Field in Advancing Science and Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg"},signatures:"Sugiyama Jun-ichi, Sugiyama Hayato, Sato Chika and Morizumi Maki"},{id:"82961",title:"Mixed Reality Applications in Business Contexts",slug:"mixed-reality-applications-in-business-contexts",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106582",abstract:"Mixed reality is becoming increasingly relevant in business. In the corporate environment, such as logistics or maintenance, the use of data glasses allows extensive possibilities for process optimization and quality assurance. In the area of construction, virtual models either as augmentation of reality or mapped in virtual reality offer new approaches to experience ability. The goal of this paper is to show the manifold possibilities of mixed reality in the enterprise environment. For this purpose, selected application scenarios with corresponding realization stages will be shown and analyzed regarding their added value.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Anett Mehler-Bicher, Lothar Steiger and Dirk Weitzel"},{id:"82951",title:"Decoupling Techniques for Coupled PDE Models in Fluid Dynamics",slug:"decoupling-techniques-for-coupled-pde-models-in-fluid-dynamics",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105997",abstract:"We review decoupling techniques for coupled PDE models in fluid dynamics. In particular, we are interested in the coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow and the fluid structure interaction (FSI) models. For coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow, we present decoupled preconditioning techniques, two-level and multilevel methods, Newton-type linearization-based two-level and multilevel algorithms, and partitioned time-stepping methods. The main theory and some numerical experiments are given to illustrate the effectiveness and efficiency of these methods. For the FSI models, partitioned time-stepping algorithms and a multirate time-stepping algorithm are carefully studied and analyzed. Numerical experiments are presented to highlight the advantages of these methods.",book:{id:"11862",title:"The Essence of Large-Eddy Simulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11862.jpg"},signatures:"Mingchao Cai, Mo Mu and Lian Zhang"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:43},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}},{id:"82777",title:"Sustainability and Social Investment: Community Microhydropower Systems in the Dominican Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105995",signatures:"Michela Izzo, Alberto Sánchez and Rafael Fonseca",slug:"sustainability-and-social-investment-community-microhydropower-systems-in-the-dominican-republic",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82387",title:"Kept Promises? The Evolution of the EU Financial Contribution to Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105541",signatures:"Cecilia Camporeale, Roberto Del Ciello and Mario Jorizzo",slug:"kept-promises-the-evolution-of-the-eu-financial-contribution-to-climate-change",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Mario",surname:"Jorizzo"},{name:"Cecilia",surname:"Camporeale"},{name:"ROBERTO",surname:"DEL CIELLO"}],book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82524",title:"Italy’s Small Exporting Companies: Globalization and Sustainability Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105542",signatures:"Roberta Pace and Francesca Mandanici",slug:"italy-s-small-exporting-companies-globalization-and-sustainability-issues",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10897",title:"Food Systems Resilience",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",slug:"food-systems-resilience",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros, Daniel S. Tevera, Luís F. Goulao and Lucas D. Tivana",hash:"ae9dd92f53433e4607f1db188dc649b4",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Food Systems Resilience",editors:[{id:"171036",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana I.",middleName:null,surname:"Ribeiro-Barros",slug:"ana-i.-ribeiro-barros",fullName:"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171036/images/system/171036.jpg",biography:"Ana I. Ribeiro-Barros, Ph.D., is the director of the Tropical College, University of Lisbon (ULisboa). She obtained a Ph.D. in Plant Molecular Biology from Wageningen University, the Netherlands. She is also a senior researcher, head of the lab, and professor at the School of Agriculture, ULisboa, and an invited professor at Nova University Lisbon (NOVA), Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), and Gorongosa National Park (GNP). She is a member of the Coordination and Scientific Committees of the doctoral program “Tropical Knowledge and Management” (NOVA), Master in Biotechnology (UEM), and Master in Conservation Biology (GNP); and a national expert for Food and Nutrition Security and Sustainable Agriculture - High-Level Policy Dialogue EU-Africa. Her research expertise and interests are centered on biodiversity, environmental sustainability, agro-ecological approaches, and food and nutritional security.",institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hassan M.",surname:"Heshmati"}],book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81576",title:"Carotenoids in Thermal Adaptation of Plants and Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104537",signatures:"Ivan M. Petyaev",slug:"carotenoids-in-thermal-adaptation-of-plants-and-animals",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Ivan",surname:"Petyaev"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81358",title:"New Insights on Carotenoid Production by Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103919",signatures:"Tiago P. Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. Roseiro and Luís Alves",slug:"new-insights-on-carotenoid-production-by-gordonia-alkanivorans-strain-1b",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81290",title:"Musculoskeletal Abnormalities Caused by Cystic Fibrosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104591",signatures:"Mark Lambrechts",slug:"musculoskeletal-abnormalities-caused-by-cystic-fibrosis",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Advances in Skeletal Muscle Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81246",title:"Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102750",signatures:"Arslan Ahmad, Sakhawat Riaz, Muhammad Shahzaib Nadeem, Umber Mubeen and Khadija Maham",slug:"role-of-carotenoids-in-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81226",title:"Computational Methods for the Study of Peroxisomes in Health and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103178",signatures:"Naomi van Wijk and Michal Linial",slug:"computational-methods-for-the-study-of-peroxisomes-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:6,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9525",title:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9525.jpg",slug:"insights-into-drug-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amjad Aqib",hash:"98bb6c1ddb067da67185c272f81c0a27",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Insights Into Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",editors:[{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9614",title:"Advances in Candida albicans",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9614.jpg",slug:"advances-in-candida-albicans",publishedDate:"November 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xinhui Wang",hash:"31d6882518ca749b12715266eed0a018",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Advances in Candida albicans",editors:[{id:"296531",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinhui",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xinhui-wang",fullName:"Xinhui Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/296531/images/system/296531.jpg",institutionString:"Qinghai Normal University",institution:{name:"University of Luxembourg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Luxembourg"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9528",title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9528.jpg",slug:"current-topics-and-emerging-issues-in-malaria-elimination",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"7f178329cc42e691efe226b32f14e2ea",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7981",title:"Overview on Echinococcosis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7981.jpg",slug:"overview-on-echinococcosis",publishedDate:"April 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fethi Derbel and Meriem Braiki",hash:"24dee9209f3fd6b7cd28f042da0076f0",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Overview on Echinococcosis",editors:[{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:30,paginationItems:[{id:"425474",title:"Mr.",name:"Jasper",middleName:"Okoro Godwin",surname:"Okoro Godwin Elechi",slug:"jasper-okoro-godwin-elechi",fullName:"Jasper Okoro Godwin Elechi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/425474/images/19990_n.jpg",biography:"Mr. Elechi is an innovative and passionate food professional and educator who can collaborate across boundaries with an integrated aspiration of innovation to provide good, sustainable, and healthy food solutions that promote human health and conserve planetary health. He has a special interest in innovative food product development, nutrition, indigenous food products, biotechnology, bioeconmy, sustainable global food systems transformation, food safety Nanotechnology, and Nanomaterials. He has carried out independent research and publications in these areas. He possesses comprehensive knowledge and technical know-how on nutritional formulation and production of healthy and sustainable foods from locally available underutilized Cereal-Legume crops for combating food security and malnutrition in developing communities.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"307387",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Camporeale",slug:"cecilia-camporeale",fullName:"Cecilia Camporeale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Agency For New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"296882",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Jorizzo",slug:"mario-jorizzo",fullName:"Mario Jorizzo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Agency For New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"307388",title:"Dr.",name:"ROBERTO",middleName:null,surname:"DEL CIELLO",slug:"roberto-del-ciello",fullName:"ROBERTO DEL CIELLO",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Agency For New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"437647",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"fernando-teixeira",fullName:"Fernando Teixeira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"423338",title:"Dr.",name:"Harjeet",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"harjeet-singh",fullName:"Harjeet Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chitkara University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"443635",title:"Dr.",name:"Suruchi",middleName:null,surname:"Jindal",slug:"suruchi-jindal",fullName:"Suruchi Jindal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Punjab Agricultural University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"426265",title:"Mrs.",name:"Inonge",middleName:null,surname:"Chibua",slug:"inonge-chibua",fullName:"Inonge Chibua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Botswana",country:{name:"Botswana"}}},{id:"426266",title:"Ms.",name:"Mesha",middleName:null,surname:"Mbisana",slug:"mesha-mbisana",fullName:"Mesha Mbisana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Botswana",country:{name:"Botswana"}}},{id:"426264",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Raditloko",slug:"samuel-raditloko",fullName:"Samuel Raditloko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Botswana",country:{name:"Botswana"}}},{id:"426394",title:"Dr.",name:"Mags",middleName:null,surname:"Adams",slug:"mags-adams",fullName:"Mags Adams",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Central Lancashire",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"441182",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"neil-wilson",fullName:"Neil Wilson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Central Lancashire",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"425171",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Tanya",middleName:null,surname:"Zerbian",slug:"tanya-zerbian",fullName:"Tanya Zerbian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Central Lancashire",country:{name:"Cyprus"}}},{id:"424714",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke",middleName:null,surname:"Stedefeldt",slug:"elke-stedefeldt",fullName:"Elke Stedefeldt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"425244",title:"Dr.",name:"Rayane",middleName:"Stephanie Gomes",surname:"Stephanie Gomes De Freitas",slug:"rayane-stephanie-gomes-de-freitas",fullName:"Rayane Stephanie Gomes De Freitas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"424688",title:"Dr.",name:"Bart",middleName:null,surname:"de Steenhuijsen Piters",slug:"bart-de-steenhuijsen-piters",fullName:"Bart de Steenhuijsen Piters",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Wageningen University & Research",country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},{id:"429404",title:"Dr.",name:"Emma",middleName:null,surname:"Termeer",slug:"emma-termeer",fullName:"Emma Termeer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Wageningen University & Research",country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},{id:"429407",title:"Dr.",name:"Herman",middleName:null,surname:"Brouwer",slug:"herman-brouwer",fullName:"Herman Brouwer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Wageningen University & Research",country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},{id:"429406",title:"Dr.",name:"Hubert",middleName:null,surname:"Fonteijn",slug:"hubert-fonteijn",fullName:"Hubert Fonteijn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Wageningen University & Research",country:{name:"Netherlands"}}},{id:"427504",title:"Dr.",name:"Kriengsak",middleName:null,surname:"Chareonwongsak",slug:"kriengsak-chareonwongsak",fullName:"Kriengsak Chareonwongsak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"423333",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Shivani",middleName:null,surname:"Sood",slug:"shivani-sood",fullName:"Shivani Sood",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"452297",title:"Mr.",name:"Cornelius",middleName:null,surname:"Smah Adamu",slug:"cornelius-smah-adamu",fullName:"Cornelius Smah Adamu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"452296",title:"Mr.",name:"Ikechukwu",middleName:null,surname:"U. Nwiyi",slug:"ikechukwu-u.-nwiyi",fullName:"Ikechukwu U. Nwiyi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"423395",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Adane",middleName:null,surname:"Atara Debessa",slug:"adane-atara-debessa",fullName:"Adane Atara Debessa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"426267",title:"Mr.",name:"Banyaladzi",middleName:null,surname:"Paphane",slug:"banyaladzi-paphane",fullName:"Banyaladzi Paphane",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"483388",title:"Dr.",name:"Berhanu",middleName:null,surname:"Denu",slug:"berhanu-denu",fullName:"Berhanu Denu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"483387",title:"Dr.",name:"Degefa",middleName:null,surname:"Tolossa",slug:"degefa-tolossa",fullName:"Degefa Tolossa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"426059",title:"Dr.",name:"Dikabo",middleName:null,surname:"Mogopodi",slug:"dikabo-mogopodi",fullName:"Dikabo Mogopodi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"422909",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorcas Stella",middleName:null,surname:"Shumba",slug:"dorcas-stella-shumba",fullName:"Dorcas Stella Shumba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"429405",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Bakker",slug:"deborah-bakker",fullName:"Deborah Bakker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9493",title:"Periodontology",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Clinical Features",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9493.jpg",slug:"periodontology-fundamentals-and-clinical-features",publishedDate:"February 16th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Petra Surlin",hash:"dfe986c764d6c82ae820c2df5843a866",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Periodontology - Fundamentals and Clinical Features",editors:[{id:"171921",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"petra-surlin",fullName:"Petra Surlin",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institution:{name:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9588",title:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9588.jpg",slug:"clinical-concepts-and-practical-management-techniques-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Aneesa Moolla",hash:"42deab8d3bcf3edf64d1d9028d42efd1",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8202",title:"Periodontal Disease",subtitle:"Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8202.jpg",slug:"periodontal-disease-diagnostic-and-adjunctive-non-surgical-considerations",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif",hash:"0aee9799da7db2c732be44dd8fed16d8",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Periodontal Disease - Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",editors:[{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/117671",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"117671"},fullPath:"/profiles/117671",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()