\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. He was a former Rotarian, Citizen Ambassador, and was selected for the Ford Foundation Fellowship.",institutionString:"University of Benghazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Benghazi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Libya"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6934",title:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",slug:"psycho-social-aspects-of-human-sexuality-and-ethics",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7163",title:"Infertility, Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Hormone Assays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6db6e4ccb7088f17f819121f7eb6424d",slug:"infertility-assisted-reproductive-technologies-and-hormone-assays",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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1. Introduction and background
\n
1.1. Definition, pathophysiology, and epidemiology
\n
Extra-axial tumors are lesions, neoplastic and not, which are external to the brain parenchyma and can originate in the skull, meninges, cranial nerves, and brain appendages such as the pituitary gland. From a surgical point of view, it is important to understand their relationship with the subarachnoid spaces because it is in this space that nerves and vessels travel to and from the brain; hence, avoiding injury to these structures rests on a clear understanding of their relationships with the tumor. Lesions that originate outside the dura such as chordomas, chondrosarcomas, and paragangliomas are easy to understand as they are usually separated from neurovascular structures by an intact arachnoidal membrane. Pituitary adenomas are intradural but extra-arachnoidal lesions. Meningiomas and cranial nerve schwannomas are usually covered by an arachnoidal layer but from a surgical point of view are extra-arachnoidal lesions, while epidermoid, dermoid, and craniopharingiomas are intra-arachnoidal and in the case of craniopharyngiomas occasionally intrapial lesions [1, 2].
\n
They represent about one-third of all intracranial primary neoplasms in adults and about one-quarter of brain tumors in children [3].
\n
They can be classified according to their site in supratentorial and infratentorial tumors.
\n
The most common benign extra-axial lesions are meningiomas, pituitary adenomas, craniopharyngiomas, and cranial nerve schwannomas.
\n
\n
1.2. Clinical presentation
\n
Because of their slow growth, the onset of symptoms can be insidious.
\n
Supratentorial tumors can present with progressive focal deficits, mental status changes, or seizures. Infratentorial tumors can present with decreased hearing, gait disturbances, ataxia, vertigo, diplopia, multiple cranial nerves deficit, and long-tract abnormalities (if there is a brain stem involvement).
\n
Common symptoms of both supratentorial and infratentorial masses are headache, nausea, and vomiting due to the increased intracranial pressure (ICP) [4, 5].
\n
\n
1.3. Diagnosis and imaging
\n
Radiological imaging is of primary importance for a preoperative diagnosis.
\n
Computerized tomography (CT) scan, without and with contrast, is usually the first diagnostic step and it can provide a better identification of tumors involving the bone and the presence of calcification.
\n
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered the gold standard because it provides a greater resolution for soft tissues and better identifies the margins and extent of the tumor, its relationship with nerves and vessels, and also affords optimal imaging of lesions about the skull base. Imaging features that are consistent with a benign tumor are usually homogeneous enhancement, smooth-rounded margins, no associated brain edema, and no satellite lesions.
\n
Rising numbers of MRI studies performed during evaluations for different diseases caused a significant increase in the number of incidentally found brain tumors.
\n
Conventional cerebral angiography is at times useful in the preoperative management of patients with meningiomas, occasionally for embolization purposes and more often to ascertain the patency of major sinuses and the alternative venous drainage when the lesion abuts or involves major dural sinuses [6].
\n
\n
1.4. Treatment options and alternatives
\n
Different factors, patient and tumor related, are involved in the decision-making process. They can influence the possibility and extent of surgical resection or the choice of a nonsurgical treatment.
\n
Factors can be classified as follows:
\n
Patient factors: neurologic conditions, comorbidities, age, and life expectancy;
Tumor factors: location, size, vascular and neural involvement, and, in cases of recurrence, prior surgery or radiation therapy.
\n
Conservative approach is based on monitoring the patient clinically and with serial MRI scans. It can be proposed for asymptomatic tumors (including incidental findings) with no evidence of growth or in elderly people with a high surgical risk [7, 8].
\n
Age is becoming more and more of a relative concept with many papers demonstrating the safety of surgery—when indicated—in elderly people [9].
\n
Surgery provides a diagnosis and can be the first step in the treatment.
\n
Tumor excision improves symptoms related to increased intracranial pressure or those related to brain parenchyma/cranial nerves compression. When choosing surgery as a treatment, we should consider the access and the approach to the lesion, involvement of major vessels or cranial nerves, and risks for potential postoperative minor or major complications. Because of the benign nature of these tumors, the evaluation of the risk/benefit of a total resection versus a subtotal resection will be guided by the basic principle of “do no harm”. Whenever a total resection presents a significant risk of morbidity (such as a neurological deficit or a fatal bleeding), part of the tumor can be left in situ and the patient can be submitted to clinical and radiological follow-up and eventually to surgery or focused beam radiation therapy in single or multiple fractions if tumors start re-growing or symptoms progress.
\n
In cases where surgery is medically contraindicated, technically difficult, or high risk, primary radiation therapy may be considered as a definitive treatment option [10].
\n
Radiation therapy for residual benign neoplasms is still somewhat controversial, although there is good evidence that subtotal excision plus radiotherapy produces local control and overall survival that is superior to subtotal removal alone. Timing of radiation therapy in cases of subtotal resection of a benign neoplasm is also somehow controversial with some authors using it only if and when there is evidence of tumor progression. The problem of arachnoid scarring created by radiotherapy makes reoperation for recurrence much more challenging. This concern needs to be balanced against the risk of earlier recurrence.
\n
Finally, medical treatment can be considered for prolactinomas, who usually have a good response to dopamine agonist such as bromocriptine or cabergoline. For meningiomas, chemotherapies and hormonal therapies have been limited for the treatment of tumors that recur after surgery and when radiotherapy options are exhausted [11, 12]. They are considered generally ineffective, although somatostatin analogs may have therapeutic potential. There is also increasing interest in targeted molecular therapies. Agents inhibiting platelet-derived growth factor receptors and epidermal growth factor receptors have shown little efficacy, but molecular agents inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor receptors appear to have some promise [13].
\n
Although interest in pharmacotherapies against vestibular schwannoma is increasing [14], none are Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved [15].
\n
\n
1.5. Goal and advantages of selected surgical approaches
\n
When choosing a surgical approach, several considerations come into play:
\n
Exposure of the tumor and its margins, of its main arterial feeders, of its venous drainage and of the adjacent neurovascular structures. Clearly in large tumors all of these goals are unattainable;
Adequate operative space to comfortably perform surgical maneuvers;
Exposure of the lesions from multiple angles so as to be able to use different surgical corridors as needed;
Minimize violation/trauma of the normal cerebral parenchyma at the expense of bone or extra-cerebral tissues removal;
Respect as much as possible patient’s aesthetics.
\n
\n
1.6. Indications
\n
Indications for surgical treatment are as follows:
\n
Symptoms attributable to tumor compression of nearby structures;
Demonstrated growth with sequential scans;
Significant peritumoral edema;
Need for diagnosis.
\n
\n
1.7. Contraindications
\n
High surgical risk related to the patient\'s age, clinical status, and comorbidities;
Small asymptomatic tumors with no evidence of growth.
\n
\n
\n
2. Operative details and preparation
\n
2.1. Preoperative planning and special equipment
\n
Good surgical results are not just dependent on surgeon’s ability and skills but also on an accurate preoperative planning.
\n
The side and site of the tumor and patient position has to be communicated to the operating room personnel in advance to properly position instruments and equipment before patient’s arrival. Thromboembolism of the lower limbs has to be prevented using elastic or pneumatic stockings. Intraoperative-evoked potential, electroencephalogram, or other specialized monitoring devices are required in selected surgeries.
\n
Navigation systems are helpful in planning skin and bone flaps, and in showing the relationships of the tumor to the bone and neurovascular structures of the skull base. When using neuronavigation for microsurgery of skull base tumors, the hand-held pointer needs to be replaced by the microscope/navigation integration where the microscope focal point becomes the tip of the virtual pointer. Indeed, using hand-held pointers is cumbersome and is not conducive to a smooth flow of the operation.
\n
In selected cases, when cranial nerves or eloquent areas are involved by the tumor, intraoperative stimulation in and around a tumor will identify the functional tissue, and its preservation will minimize the risk of permanent postoperative deficit. In that regard, facial nerve stimulation in vestibular schwannoma surgery is fundamental in maximizing the chances of facial nerve preservation and functional integrity. It is important to remember that cranial nerve monitoring is only as good and helpful as the person who is able to read their traces and to critically interpret their changes as not to have under- or over-readings.
\n
The role of endoscopic-assisted microsurgery relies on the seminal work of Perneczsky [16] and on the often-quoted sentence that “endoscopes allow visualization around the corners”. While it is possible to introduce the endoscope in a microneurosurgical environment at the present time, its use may be made more efficient by the development and refining of good-quality display of the endoscopic image in the microscope oculars.
\n
2.2.1. Microsurgical instruments
\n
Bipolar coagulation: the coagulation is localized and causes no current spread or radiation of heat to the surrounding tissues. The size, shape, weight, and balance of the bipolar forceps are important features of their design. A bayonet shape allows a better field of vision avoiding the block of the surgeon’s hand. Bipolar forceps can also be used for dissection.
Retractors: brain retraction has to be both minimized and properly used to prevent injuries. However, sometimes self-retaining retractors are useful to improve operative surgical angles or to reach deeper locations. Blades of different widths may be needed depending on the site and size of the lesion. One or more retractor blades are attached to a flexible arm near the resection site. Once the blade is on the desired position, the arm can be tightened. Retractor placement is a technical skill that needs to be mastered.
Suction: the tip has to be smooth and atraumatic. The suction tube can also be used as a retractor or for a blunt dissection. Different diameters and lengths are available to better fit the depth and size of the surgical field.
Tumor knives and forceps.
Scissors: with fine blades on straight and bayonet handles are frequently used. Cutting should be done by the distal half of the blade. The blades can be straight or curved.
Dissectors: divided in macro- and microdissector. Straight, rather than bayonet, dissectors are preferred for most intracranial operations because rotating the handles of the straight dissector does not alter the position of the tip. For transsphenoidal surgery, dissectors with bayonet handles are preferred because the surgeon\'s hand is prevented from blocking the view [17]. Different kinds of microdissector are as follows: round, spatula, flat, and micro-Penfield, nerve hook, angled and straight needle dissectors, microcurette, and teardrop dissectors.
\n
Ultrasonic aspirators present the advantage to rapidly debulk tumors. Thanks to ultrasound waves, they fragment and aspirate tumor tissue. Care must be taken because they can quickly open through the surface of a tumor capsule and damage contiguous nerves and vessels.
\n
Carbon dioxide laser produces energy that vaporizes tissues containing fluid. Because the beam cannot pass through fluid, its maximal effect is on the surface [17]. It is mainly used to debulk large tumors.
The key point in the removal of benign extra-axial neoplasm is the preservation of the arachnoidal plane that separate the tumor from the subarachnoid space and from the neurovascular structures contained in it. In the majority of cases, this plane may be preserved and at the end of the surgical procedures an intact layer of arachnoid where the tumor was may be recognized. To accomplish this key step, it is necessary to identify the tumor arachnoid interface. In large tumor, this may only be accomplished once the tumor size has been significantly decreased by internal (intracapsular) decompression (debulking) [1, 5].
\n
Centripetal retraction of the tumor, away from the brain, rather than retract the brain parenchyma away from the tumor is considered another mainstay of microsurgical dissection.
\n
The arachnoid must be grabbed with medium-size bayonet forceps and gently lifted off away from the tumor. The use of microbayonet, which are sharper than macrobayonet, will inevitably lead to violation of this interface. The use of curved tumor dissectors is helpful in further developing this plane even in areas that are not directly visualized, provided that the surgeon’s hand recognizes and properly interprets the proprioceptive feedbacks coming from the distal end of the instrument. Once separation has been accomplished, cottonoids of different sizes are introduced in the space created to maintain and identify it. Bipolar coagulation at this interface needs to be minimized because coagulation coalesces this interface and makes impossible atraumatic development of this plan. En bloc resection of large-size tumor is often impossible and dangerous; en bloc resection of medium-size tumor while tempting must be resisted for the sake of the principles discussed above. Annoying oozing from some area of the tumor may be controlled with topical hemostatic agents and gentle cottonoid applications while the attention of the surgeon goes to another area of the surgical field. Much has been made of early devascularization of large meningiomas; however, in many cases the main vascular pedicle is not accessible at the early stage of an intracranial procedure, and misguided attempts at accomplishing it may result in undue brain damage, often due to retraction. Meticulous attention has to be paid to all veins and attempts need to be made to preserve them, no matter their size.
\n
Gentle retraction of the brain is one of the decisive general factors in minimizing postoperative complications. Again, brain retraction is a skill that needs to be mastered and studied. In general, it is better to work in a channel that is kept open by a properly placed retractor than to use in-and-out suction retraction. Positioning, administration of diuretics, drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and hyperventilation are commonly used techniques that can help in reducing brain retraction. When the brain has to be retracted continuously, the retractor should be moved every few minutes to another part of the cortical surface or released for a while.
\n
For tumors with potential involvement of the venous sinuses and draining veins, a preoperative MR venography or angiography will help the surgeon decide whether total excision is possible and which vessels can be sacrificed.
\n
Microvascular Doppler can be used to localize major arteries that clearly need to be spared.
\n
\n
\n
2.3. Key steps of the procedure
\n
2.3.1. Patient positioning
\n
When choosing the patient position, the following criteria have to be considered:
\n
Safety: the patient has to be secured and prevented from falling if the operating table needs to be moved during the surgery;
Body compression sites have to be carefully inspected and protected with soft materials;
Venous drainage has to be guaranteed: always place the head on higher level than the heart and avoid neck flexing that compresses jugular veins;
Skin incision has to be completely visible and accessible;
Gravity helps in brain relaxation.
\n
\n
2.3.2. Skin incision
\n
When choosing the skin incision, the following criteria have to be considered:
\n
Maximal tumor exposure in the center of the surgical field minimizing the risk of injury to the surrounding neurovascular structures. Best results can be achieved with the use of neuronavigation.
Vascular supply to the skin flap: in a wide flap, the base of the skin incision has to be proportional to its height. Careful evaluation of previous skin incision that can alter the normal vascularization of the skin flap is required.
Avoidance of visible cosmetic defects.
\n
\n
2.3.3. Tumor excision
\n
To decide the craniotomy and the dural opening, neuronavigation can be used. The tumor has to be exposed as much as possible, minimizing normal brain parenchyma exposure. If there is cerebral edema, a wide bone and dural opening prevent cerebral compression and damage.
Tumor devascularization has to be performed in the first stages whenever possible. It helps in reducing the blood loss and guarantees an easier tumor removal.
General microneurosurgical concepts (already discussed) have to be followed.
\n
\n
2.3.4. Hemostasis
\n
When the tumor excision has ended, the hemostasis of the surgical field has to be very accurate to prevent postoperative bleeding.
\n
The following steps need to be followed:
\n
Generous washing of the surgical cavity to remove all blood clots;
Bipolar coagulation of all the active bleeding points;
Avetin is microfibrillar bovine collagen that favors the platelet aggregation at the site of oozing. It is helpful in control oozing from raw brain parenchyma. Flowseal ,Gelfoam, and Surgicel may also be used;
Once hemostasis has been achieved, perform a Valsalva maneuver to make sure there is no occult bleeding;
Dural suspensions to control epidural bleeding.
\n
\n
2.3.5. Closure
\n
The dura has to be closed to avoid CSF leaks. If the patient dura is not available, galea or synthetic dural substitutes can be used.
\n
A 4-0-silk stitches can be used to perform a continuous suture. At the end, fibrin glue can be spread all over the dura to increase the sealing. An onlay Duragen or a similar material may be used to reinforce the dural closure.
\n
The bone can be fixed with titanium screws and plates. If the patient’s bone is not available, bone substitutes can be used.
\n
Muscle reconstruction is very important. In frontotemporal approaches, the temporal muscle has to be reconstructed properly to avoid mastication problems and cosmetic defects. In posterior fossa muscle layers reconstruction represents a further barrier for CSF leaks.
\n
Management of intracranial air containing spaces: if the frontal sinus mucosa is violated, then complete exenterating of the frontal sinus and its mucosa is usually recommended. The nasofrontal ducts are plugged with fat and fibrin glue. A more generous fat graft may be needed if a large dead space is present or to supplement the dural closure when needed. Entered mastoid cells are plugged with bone wax, fat, and fibrin glue.
\n
Skin flap has to be properly closed to avoid subcutaneous haemorrhages, CSF leaks, and cosmetic defects.
\n
\n
\n
2.4. Surgical approaches
\n
For supratentorial tumors, the most common approaches are as follows:
\n
Monolateral or bilateral subfrontal approaches: for the access to the anterior cranial fossa and anterior midline structures, posterior orbit and apex [18], the bifrontal approach is preferred when treating larger or purely midline lesions because of its better angle of view. When dealing with tumors such as olfactory groove meningiomas, a direct access to anterior ethmoid arteries is possible. Their coagulation reduces the dural blood supply to these lesions. Moreover, the position of the head in the subfrontal approaches reduces the intraoperative brain retraction taking advantage of gravity. The use of lumbar drain is often helpful when dealing with large lesions that preclude early access to CSF spaces.
Frontotemporal/pterional approach: for tumors located in the anterior and middle cranial fossa, in the sphenoid, parasellar, and cavernous sinus regions, this approach forms a pyramidal-shaped working space whose apex is directed toward the limen insulae [1]. Splitting the Sylvian fissure allows the frontal lobe to fall away from the temporal lobe with minimal or no retraction. Early brain relaxation can be achieved opening the basal cisterns. The pterional approach allows the access and control of vital structures such as carotid artery and its main branches, cranial nerves, and the cavernous sinus region.
Fronto-orbito-zygomatic approach: it offers a wide angle of exposure and a greater rostral trajectory for the management of lesions involving the cavernous sinus, parasellar region, upper clivus, and adjacent neurovascular structures. Removing the zygomatic arch enables the temporalis muscle to be displaced inferiorly, allowing a better subtemporal visualization. However, one should keep in mind that the periorbita is an unyielding structure that should not be unduly compressed. Hence, the advantage of removing the orbital roof is marginal.
Basal interhemispheric approach: for tumors of the sagittal midline arising deep to the flax.
Transsphenoidal approach: for pathologies involving the sella, suprasellar space, and sphenoid bone. It provides excellent visualization of the pituitary and is minimally traumatic to the brain, and avoids brain retraction and visible scars. It can be performed by the use of an operative microscope (with the advantage of a three-dimensional (3D) viewing) or by an endoscope (who enlarges the surgeon’s field of view).
\n
For infratentorial tumors, the most common approaches are as follows:
\n
Suboccipital median/paramedian/lateral approach: for tumors located in the posterior fossa and cerebello-pontine angle (CPA). The suboccipital lateral approach gives access to the CPA and allows early identification of various neurovascular structures. The surgical exposure extends from the trigeminal nerve and tentorium superiorly to the foramen magnum and jugular foramen inferiorly [19].
Far lateral approach: for tumors located in the vertebro-basilar junction. Adding a C1 laminectomy to the standard suboccipital craniectomy provides adequate visualization of approximately 270° of the circumference around the medulla.
Subtemporal and Kawase’s approach: for tumors located in the middle fossa and in the petroclival region. It provides a lower manipulation of cranial nerves. Adding the anterior petrosectomy gives access to the internal acoustic meatus and both middle and posterior fossa. Surgical adjuncts such as division of the tentorium and zygomatic osteotomy can provide additional working space and versatility.
Translabyrinthine or transcochlear petrosal approach: for tumors located in the CPA, when hearing is already compromised. It gives a wide exposure and surgical space, avoiding cerebellar retraction.
\n
\n
2.5. Avoidances/hazards/risks
\n
When choosing a surgical treatment, we should consider its indications and the balance of associated risks and reasonable goals. When considering hazards and risks, patient factors such as age, life expectancy, neurologic condition, and general medical conditions should be taken into account. In addition, tumor factors should be considered. Higher risks include the following:
\n
Location: tumor located close to eloquent areas;
Infiltration of dural sinuses;
Infiltration of major arteries;
Cranial nerve involvement.
\n
\n
2.6. Salvage and rescue
\n
It is important to have a clear preoperative plan. However, more important is the ability to modify the preoperative plan based on the operative findings. Indeed, it is impossible to know preoperatively what is the tumor consistency, which is a major determinant, everything else being equal, of the challenges associated with its removal. It is important to keep in mind that the majority, the overwhelming majority of extra-axial tumors, have a benign clinical course and that most of them respond to focused radiotherapy, in single or multiple fractions.
\n
\n
\n
3. Outcomes and postoperative course
\n
3.1. Complications
\n
Postoperative fastidious patient monitoring can detect early complications.
\n
In general, increasing headache in the postoperative period should not be treated symptomatically unless and until a postoperative complication has been ruled out by a CT/MRI.
\n
These are the most common complications and their management:
\n
Bleeding:\n
in the tumor bed;
Subdural;
Epidural;
Subcutaneous.
The management strictly depends on the entity of the bleeding and on the compression on the brain parenchyma or neurovascular structures. The patient can be clinically or radiologically monitored or may need a surgical evacuation of the hematoma.
CSF leaks: more common in posterior fossa approaches. A conservative management consists of wound medication and a spinal CSF drainage placement. If the leak still persists, there is a higher risk of infection and surgery with a wound revision has to be performed.
Infections: patients with CSF leaks, or comorbidities, present a higher risk. The infection can involve just the superficial layers and in these cases it can be managed by an antibiotic therapy. If the bone, dura, or the surgical field is involved, a surgical wound revision is needed.
Neurological deficits: they can be caused by brain parenchyma injury, edema or ischemia (for a vessel occlusion), or by cranial nerves damage. The management is conservative in most of the case with anti-edema therapy and brain protection. The neurological deficit can be temporary and the patient can recover in few months. If there is a persistent damage to the facial nerve, a hypoglossofacial nerve anastomosis can be indicated.
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism: higher risk for patients who develop neurological deficit or present a complicated postoperative course. Treatment is based on anticoagulant therapy. In cases of a massive pulmonary embolism, an endovascular treatment can be indicated.
\n
\n
3.2. Outcomes and prognosis
\n
Outcomes depend on the kind of tumor and its location, on the kind of removal (if total or subtotal), and on the presence of intraoperative or postoperative complications.
\n
Since these are benign tumors, prognosis is good in most of the cases and can be little modified by the amount of surgical excision.
\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"benign extra-axial tumors, surgical techniques, meningiomas, schwannomas, surgical approaches",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51447.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51447.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51447",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51447",totalDownloads:1691,totalViews:513,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:67,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 19th 2015",dateReviewed:"May 12th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 28th 2016",dateFinished:"June 28th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Extra-axial tumors are lesions, neoplastic and not, which are external to the brain parenchyma and can originate in the skull, meninges, cranial nerves, and brain appendages such as the pituitary gland. Surgery provides a diagnosis and can be the first step in the treatment. When chosen as a treatment, we should consider the access and the approach to the lesion, the adequate operative technique, and related skills, minor or major complications. Because of the benign nature of these tumors, the evaluation of the risk/benefit in submitting a patient to a surgical treatment has to be considered. We would like to give an overview about benign extra-axial tumors and surgical operative techniques and tools that can be applied to improve patient’s outcome.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51447",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51447",book:{id:"5234",slug:"from-bench-to-bedside-trauma-tumors-spine-functional-neurosurgery"},signatures:"Mario Ammirati and Alba Scerrati",authors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",email:"a.scerrati@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182614/images/system/182614.jpeg",institution:{name:"University of Ferrara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"183033",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Ammirati",fullName:"Mario Ammirati",slug:"mario-ammirati",email:"Mario.Ammirati@osumc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction and background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Definition, pathophysiology, and epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Clinical presentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Diagnosis and imaging",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4. Treatment options and alternatives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5. Goal and advantages of selected surgical approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"1.6. Indications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"1.7. Contraindications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"2. Operative details and preparation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.1. Preoperative planning and special equipment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.1. Microsurgical instruments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.2. Microsurgical concepts: expert suggestions/comments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.3. Key steps of the procedure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.1. Patient positioning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.3.2. Skin incision",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.3. Tumor excision",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.4. Hemostasis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.5. Closure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"2.4. Surgical approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"2.5. Avoidances/hazards/risks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"2.6. Salvage and rescue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"3. Outcomes and postoperative course",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.1. Complications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.2. Outcomes and prognosis",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yasargil GM. Operative anatomy in Microneurosurgery. Vol. 1.Pag.14. Thieme Stratton, 1984 ISBN0865771413, 9780865771413.'},{id:"B2",body:'Ciric I1, Rosenblatt S, Zhao JC. Transsphenoidal microsurgery. Neurosurgery. 2002 Jul;51(1):161–9 (pub-id: 12182414)'},{id:"B3",body:'Osborne AG. Extra-Axial Neoplasms, Cysts and Tumor-like lesions. In Gourtsoyiannis NC, Ros PR, ed. Radiologic-Pathologic Correlations from Head to Toe. Understanding the Manifestations of Disease. Pag.27–33.Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 ISBN 978-3-540-26664-8.'},{id:"B4",body:'Greenberg MS. Brain Tumors – General Clinical Aspects . In Greenberg MS, ed. Handbook of Neurosurgery.(pag. 404–405) Thieme; 6 edition (2004).'},{id:"B5",body:'Ammirati M, Zarzour H. Overview of Skull Base Tumors. In Win HR, ed. Youmann’s Neurological Surgery. Vol. 2.6th ed. (pag. 1569–1586) Philadelphia, PA : Saunders/Elsevier, 2011.'},{id:"B6",body:'Cernov M, DeMonte F. Skull Base Tumors. In Levin VA, ed. Cancer in the Nervous System. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press 2003.'},{id:"B7",body:'Jadid KD, Feychting M, Höijer J, Hylin S, Kihlström L, Mathiesen T. Long-term follow-up of incidentally discovered meningiomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2015 Feb;157(2):225–30 (pub-id: 25503298).'},{id:"B8",body:'Stangerup SE, Caye-Thomasen P, Tos M, Thomsen J. The natural history of vestibular schwannoma. Otol Neurotol. 2006 Jun;27(4):547–52 (pub-id: 16791048).'},{id:"B9",body:'Chen ZY, Zheng CH, Tang Li, Su XY, Lu GH, Zhang CY, Xiao SW, Tan YF. Intracranial meningioma surgery in the elderly (over 65 years): prognostic factors and outcome. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2015 Sep;157(9):1549–57; discussion 1557 (pub-id: 26170189).'},{id:"B10",body:'Berger MS, Prados MD. Treatment Principles. In Berger MS, Prados MD, ed. Texbook of Neuroncology, pag.342.Saunders; 1 edition 2004.'},{id:"B11",body:'McMullen KP, Stieber VW. Meningioma: current treatment options and future directions. Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2004 Dec;5(6):499–509 (pub-id:15509483).'},{id:"B12",body:'Sioka C, Kyritsis AP. Chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and immunotherapy for recurrent meningiomas. J Neurooncol. 2009 Mar;92(1):1–6 (pub-id:19023520).'},{id:"B13",body:'Wen PY, Quant E, Drappatz J, Beroukhim R, Norden AD. Medical therapies for meningiomas. J Neurooncol. 2010 Sep;99(3):365–78 (pub-id: 20820875).'},{id:"B14",body:'Plotkin SR, Merker VL, Halpin C, Jennings D, McKenna MJ, Harris GJ, Barker FG. Bevacizumab for progressive vestibular schwannoma in neurofibromatosis type 2: a retrospective review of 31 patients. Otol Neurotol. 2012 Aug;33(6):1046–52 (pub-id: 22805104).'},{id:"B15",body:'Dilwali S, Briët MC, Kao SY, Fujita T, Landegger LD, Platt MP, Stankovic KM. Preclinical validation of anti-nuclear factor-kappa B therapy to inhibit human vestibular schwannoma growth. Mol Oncol. 2015 Aug;9(7):1359–70 (pub-id: 25891780).'},{id:"B16",body:'Perneczky A, Fries G. Endoscope-assisted brain surgery: part 1 evolution, basic concept, and current technique. Neurosurgery. 1998 Feb;42(2):219–24; discussion 224–5 (pub-id: 9482171).'},{id:"B17",body:'Rhoton AL Jr. General Principles of and Instrumentation for Cranial Surgery. In Fessler RG, Sekhar LN, ed. Atlas of Neurosurgical Techniques, pag. 3–42. Thieme; 1 edition, 2006.'},{id:"B18",body:'Kawakami K, Yamanouchi Y, Kubota C, Kawamura Y, Matsumura H. An extensive transbasal approach to frontal skull-base tumors: technical note. J Neurosurg 1991;74:1011–3 (pub-id: 2033437).'},{id:"B19",body:'Mostafa BE, El Sharnoubi M, Youssef AM. The keyhole retrosigmoid approach to the cerebello-pontine angle: indications, technical modifications, and results. Skull Base. 2008 Nov;18(6):371–6.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mario Ammirati",address:"Mario.Ammirati@osumc.edu",affiliation:'
The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
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1. Introduction
There are different ways in which a person can learn, not only because of the circumstances in which it occurs but also because of the cognitive structures of each person [1]. In this sense, individual differences emerge as a key element that supports the idea that each person has a different pace and way of learning. Therefore, everyone cannot be taught the same way [2]. Individual differences include aspects beyond the cognitive area; For example, some differences can be detected with the naked eye, such as height, weight, complexion, skin color, eye color or hair type. Other differences, such as attitudes, personality traits or preferences, may not be readily apparent unless a person is asked about them [3].
In a specific school setting, such as the classroom, student preferences may go beyond cognitive ones. In other words, a learner may prefer to work individually, but the teacher requests that they work in small teams. There will be a difference between what you prefer and what you get in a classroom. Herein lies the importance of recognizing the particular learning preferences of students. Not all students have the same learning preferences, just as not all teachers have the same teaching preferences.
Preferences and tendencies have been pointed out as common features to differentiate learning styles from cognitive styles [4]. Preferences have been classified in various ways. Dunn & Dunn’s work identifies what they call stimuli but refer directly to preferences: environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. The first has to do with sound (those who like to study in silence or with some noise or music), light (those who prefer white light or darkness), temperature (those who like cold places or temperate) and how the classroom is arranged (desks in a row or a half circle) [5]. On the other hand, tendencies have been associated with cognitive processes with two poles [6]. Several authors do not agree to discriminate learning styles from cognitive ones. The evidence indicates that most theories of cognitive styles refer to two opposite poles: the works of Witkin and Goodenough with field dependence/independence, and Kagan’s proposal with reflection/impulsivity, to mention a few examples [4].
This chapter is intended to show the relationship and importance of learning styles in what has been called active learning. Since there are many learning style theories, we will try to rescue various concepts from some of them to illustrate their possible applications in an instructional model that addresses the active mode of learning.
2. What is a learning style? How can it be used in the teaching-learning process?
Learning style is a common personal and preferred method of acquiring, processing and maintaining new data and skills [7], more recently defined as a combination of distinctive cognitive, affective and psychological variables that indicate how an apprentice observes and interacts with a learning environment [8].
Style is defined as a set of preferences, tendencies and dispositions that a person has to do something and that manifests itself through a behavioral pattern and different strengths that make it stand out from others [4]. Learning styles also can be defined as cognitive, affective, physiological traits, preferences for the use of the senses, environment, culture, psychology, comfort, development and personality. These serve as relatively stable indicators of how people perceive, relate and respond to their learning environments and their methods or strategies in their way of learning [9, 10].
The learning styles have a huge influence on the educational field, and one of its main goals is to improve the results of the teaching-learning process, both in the short and long term [11]. These characteristics play an important role in electing the most suitable methods and learning strategies [12]. Also, the comprehension of these styles enhances the elaboration and development of more effective curricula and programs [13].
These styles considerably impact teachers’ creation of material, instruction alternatives, evaluations and students’ class material process. Therefore, it is important to connect learning styles and teaching practices, for example, through music, visuals or experiential activities [14]. Employing a set of teaching methods is founded on the postulation that, to some extent, some of the course content should be provided in a way that suits every type of learner [15].
Learning styles could provide a basis and a profitable framework that captures students’ diverse cognitive and affective characteristics. This framework may serve to encourage differences among students [16].
Another important issue consists of the implications of these preferences in educational environments. A transition from traditional settings to environments that consider the different learning styles is necessary. The individual variations in educational environments must consider the student’s differences and teachers’ diversity due to the important role of these factors in the teaching-learning settings [17].
Although most of the time learning styles are widely related to sensory preferences (visual, auditory and kinesthetic), it is important to highlight that there are a large number of theories that have focused on different types of preferences, like the Dunn & Dunn model [18]. Some conceive models of learning styles in packages of four; among them are the works of Anthony Gregorc [19], David Kolb [20], Honey and Mumford [21], Catalina Alonso and Domingo Gallego [22] and Berenice McCarthy [23], to mention a few. Others establish packages of five and six, as is the case of Anthony Grasha [24] and Richard Felder and Linda Silverman [25], respectively. Furthermore, others propose up to 16 styles, as is the case of Myers et al. [26].
Learning styles theories have been classified by different authors. The first was proposed by Lynn Curry [27, 28] with the metaphor of the layers of an onion. The first layer refers to instructional preferences: how the student likes to receive a lesson or learn content in a classroom (Grasha’s model and Dunn & Dunn’s model fit very well here). The layer that follows has to do with social interaction preferences, that is, those individuals who like to interact with others or who prefer to remain isolated (the MyersBriggs and Dunn & Dunn models are clear examples). The third layer has to do with information processing preferences, that is, whether learners learn by steps or by intuitive jumps, whether they acquire information in isolation or together, etc. (Theories that allude to processes of perception and information processing appear here, such as the models of Kolb, Gregorc, Alonso and Gallego and McCarthy). The last layer has to do with personality preferences, that is, if a learner is introverted or extroverted and other similar characteristics that model the personality of an individual (the MyersBriggs model fits here).
Another proposal for classifying theories was proposed by Sternberg and Grigorenko [29]. His classification of the different style theories responds to those that existed before the 1990s. The first approach is centred on cognition, which located the theories of cognitive styles. Among them were authors such as Witkin (dependence - field independence), Kagan (reflection - impulsiveness), Smith and Klein (flexible control - constrictor control). Most of these theories shared the fact that styles were seen as trends rather than preferences. A typical characteristic of this conglomerate was that since it contained only two style possibilities, its values could be visualized in a continuum, in such a way that a person could move in the line without having one hundred per cent of a particular style.
The second approach is focused on personality. This approach can include the theory of the sixteen styles of Myers-Briggs [26], which in turn had been based on the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung’s model of types. Not only how an individual learns is identified but also attitudes, roles and lifestyle. Also, in this group, the model of Gregorc can be located [19]. The third and final approach is activity-focused. Here are many theories of learning styles that, from the point of view of Sternberg and Grigorenko [29], do not have the same theoretical weight as the two previous approaches. They mention Dunn’s model and Kolb’s.
Some theories of learning styles for virtual environments have appeared in recent years. One of these theories was proposed by Melaré-Vieira [30], which identifies four styles in the use of virtual space. The first style is participatory and likes discussion forums and chats, and it is proactive and risky. The second style is called search and investigation, and it likes to investigate, organize content and synthesize information. The third style is structuring and planning, it likes theory, enjoys projects and is methodical and farsighted. Finally, the last style is called concrete and production, It likes to discover new software, enjoys social networks, multitasks and likes to do things online (electronic banking, hotel reservations, etcetera.).
For their part, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and Valenzuela-González [31] proposed a model that considers preferences related to the use of computer equipment. In addition to chronobiological, sensory, psychological and dependency preferences, a section was included to consider technological preferences. From this attempt, Lozano-Rodríguez, Tijerina-Salas and García-Cué [32] proposed another instrument to measure learning styles in online environments. The difference with the previous one was that this initiative rescued the essence of attendance. However, the set of specified preferences could be applied to face-to-face and virtual environments alike. The proposal included four types of preferences: perception, autonomy, orientation and sensory preferences.
3. What is active learning?
Active learning does not have a singular definition. Karamustafaoglu [33] mentions that this concept can be defined ‘as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process’ (p. 28). This practice implies active involvement in the learning process and not a passive attitude [34]. Also, active learning activities require students to think about what they are doing. The teacher’s role in the student’s active learning should not be overlooked. It is important to keep it in the setting where the teaching-learning process takes place.
The word ‘active’ implies activities requiring students’ involvement beyond mere reception, such as listening to an explanation or narration. Being active involves the student manipulating something, moving the body, executing different movements or doing something more than just contemplatively or passively watching something [35, 36].
Active learning has often been related to teaching techniques, such as problem-based learning or project-oriented learning [37, 38, 39]. The underlying idea is that these techniques involve collaborative learning as an active way of learning. Students are encouraged to interact with each other by exchanging points of view and perspectives on a particular issue.
Interaction in small groups entails applying different social skills, such as negotiation, conflict resolution, argumentation and agreement [40, 41]. Each student learns based on her active participation in the discussion. Usually, problem-based learning includes a series of steps or stages that students go through until they reach the point of preparing a final report. On the other hand, in project-oriented learning, students focus on the product they must deliver at the end of the day.
Other teaching techniques involving active learning are challenge-based learning [42, 43] case study, and collaborative learning per se [44]. In the first one, students sometimes analyze a challenge, which can be a situation that previously occurred in a given setting or was invented by the teacher. The purpose here is to solve a difficult situation in a real or imaginary scenario.
In the second one, students address the case as an independent study phase and then a small group discussion leading up to a plenary discussion. In the third one, collaborative work can be reflected in the approach to a challenge, problem, project or case. In other words, collaborative learning is the common denominator of the four previous teaching techniques (see Figure 1). In the same way, it was found that medical students who worked with team-based learning had better academic performance than those who did not [45]. In addition, there was an involvement of the students in their learning.
Figure 1.
Teaching techniques for active learning.
The notion of representing a type of active learning in the form of didactic techniques mentioned above is equivalent to the fact that the passive aspect of the student, where he/she acts as a receptacle of information or knowledge. The same dynamic of interaction involved in each technique avoids this feature. There is an activation of knowledge, reflection, connections with other prior knowledge and, most importantly, social exchange of ideas encourages active participation [46].
In addition to teaching techniques, the construction of models and mock-ups is a clear example of how to promote student learning in an active and participatory way. A study was designed where medicine and nutrition of students worked with the elaboration of models to illustrate the different processes of human physiology [47]. Through presentations in small teams, students had the opportunity to visualize concepts more clearly that could be more abstract than they seemed.
The practical aspect highlighted in the experience of building models and mock-ups fosters the understanding and recall of the information learned. The inclusion of games in non-playful contextual environments is another way of visualizing a form of active learning. Alsawaier [48] highlights the importance of gamification as an alternative to increasing motivation and engagement. Students see their participation increase due to the adrenaline of wanting to beat others or obtain a characteristic badge of this modality. In the same way, another study was designed with active learning experiences through the use of puzzles for teaching dentistry [49]. The experimental group students were exhorted to work with crosswords and word search puzzles. Their results suggest an increase in student participation versus those in the control group who did not use them. Students became more excited by using a resource that had not been used before.
The use of concept maps can also evidence a form of active learning since the student puts into play their acquired knowledge in the form of representing it on a map. A study with pathology students suggests that the implementation of concept maps favored academic achievement [50]. Besides the teacher’s oral presentations, the students made a concept map each week as a closing learning activity. Also, Clarkson [51] points out that using IPad in the classroom promotes a more collaborative and authentic learning experience and improves critical thinking. According to this author, active learning strategies focus on the student, facilitate collaboration and reflect workplace practices that can help develop the necessary skills. Finally, Rodis and Locsin [52] applied a series of active learning strategies based on peer-learning and peer-teaching in English-language dental students from Japan. The students reported that the activities had contributed significantly to their training as dentists and they preferred active learning styles.
On the other hand, empirical evidence shows that active learning techniques do not necessarily increase academic achievement [36]. However, it has been shown that active learning positively influences the student’s involvement in what he/she learns, and his/her motivation is also increased [53]. Considering that not all students prefer the active mode of learning, it is possible to assume that active learning techniques do not necessarily work the same way for everyone. For example, in the theory of learning styles of sensory preferences, kinesthetic students will like activities that require them to move or manipulate objects. In contrast, visual or auditory students prefer to be spectators of a demonstration or an explanation. It sounds logical? The truth is that the same type of student cannot be generalized for any instructional technique, whether active or not.
4. Types of active learning activities
Not all active learning activities are the same. There are differences in the intentions, the cognitive demands and the involvement that students can have. Chi [54] proposes a difference between learning activities classified into active, constructive and interactive categories. The first ones fit the concepts that have been previously mentioned about active learning; that is, when the student physically executes something or manipulates objects, there is direct involvement. The second one is focused on the construction of things or products. Writing a sentence, writing a story or generating a product are examples of construction. The latter refers to students exchanging points of view, opinions and perspectives with their peers. In fact, the interactivity part is more than evident in the didactic techniques. Learning acquires a social nuance that accompanies individual participation.
An alternative proposal would have to do with the nature of the learning activities in terms of the cognitive demands placed on the student. So far, we have talked about teaching techniques involving collaborative learning, learning activities involving gamification, concept maps, crossword puzzles and models and mock-ups. To the above, theatrical performances, body language exercises, debates and the flipped classroom, to name a few, could also be integrated (see Table 1). It is important to mention that this list is not exhaustive and that it is intended to serve as a reference framework for instructional designs.
Types of active learning activities
Type
Activities
Category
Teaching techniques
Problem-based learning
Interactive
Project-oriented learning
Case study
Challenge-based learning
Collaborative learning
Use of electronic resources
Interactive videoclips
Gamification
Active
Flipped classroom
Puzzles
Constructive
Crosswords and Word Search
Physical resources and actions
Models and mock-ups making
Handicraft
Concept maps and mind maps
Written products (reports, essays, narratives, etcetera)
Role-playing
Interactive
Theatrical performances
Debates
Guided discussions
Peer-teaching
Table 1.
Types of active learning activities.
The instructional design of a specific course should consider the inclusion of active learning activities. However, selecting which type of activity is required will depend on the nature of the discipline to be taught and the educational level. The examples that will be addressed below have a lot to do, mainly with the areas of medicine and health.
5. The intersection between active learning and learning styles
Some learning style theories include styles that consider the active factor. For example, in perceptual preferences, the kinesthetic style refers to the possibility that the student can move or perform actions aimed at the learning process. Boctor [55] points out that nursing students are kinesthetic learners. They prefer a hands-on, movement involvement, active approach to education. However, in that sense, what happens with the other styles of learning? Are visual and aural learning styles out of the active learning? The answer could be affirmative, as long as the student’s activity is limited to passive viewing or listening, but it is not the case all the time. What happens when there are possibilities to make active what is considered passive? For instance, Palis and Quiros [56] observed that traditional classes in medical school, where the teacher explains a topic or a concept, could be enriched with some learning principles such as the needs of the student, the interaction in the classroom and the connection of the new knowledge with the old. The lectures can be classified as passive, but the difference in making them active lies in their learning principles-based complements. According to medical students, lecturers can promote deeper learning since reflection during lectures may be encouraged through debates, dialogs and questions.
In learning the laws of Physics through WebQuest, students who show active learning styles have better results in terms of their academic achievement, especially when it comes to science or mathematics subjects [57]. It is important to note that students who exhibit passive learning styles can still be encouraged to participate in active learning activities unless there is a physical difficulty or disability. Added to this, it was pointed out that also, in learning geometry through a creative process, students with an active learning style had a certain performance [58]. However, there was no way to compare it to other learning styles that were not active.
Research in computer science indicates that students in this area are inclined to be visual/intuitive learners. In these cases, an active environment is essential for the mastery of learning material. Based on this idea, a laboratory course was created to stimulate an active learning environment using techniques, such as frequent in-class problem solving, lab sheets and discussions. The results showed improved student grades and greater satisfaction with the course [59].
Having a passive learning style and turning it into an active one depends on many factors. Can it be achieved? It was found that some pharmacology residents changed their learning styles as they moved into practice outside of the residency [60]. However, the study suggests that an opportunity is needed to guide pharmacists towards more active learning preferences through residency curricula, learning facilitation and mentoring.
One of the learning styles theories, which has undoubtedly had a profound impact on conceptualizing the different preferences for learning in a cyclical model (through perception and processing of information), is referred to by David Kolb [20]. Initially, this author distinguished only four learning styles: diverging, assimilating, accommodating and converging. The first and the last style had to do with concrete experience, where manipulation and social interaction have a lot to do with it. In terms of action, these styles are suitable for active learning. The second and third styles had more to do with contemplation and abstract abstraction; here, only reflective observation is highlighted. On the contrary, these styles are more related to passive ways of learning. However, more recently, this theory was upgraded to a nine-style scheme, proposed by Kay Peterson, Lisa DeCato and David Kolb [61]. In this new proposal, elements of effort are included and indicated in a continuum with two opposite values. These comprise the flow that goes from the free one to the restricted one, the weight that goes from the light one to the heavy one, the time that goes from the gradual one to the urgent one and an approach that goes from the indirect way to a direct one. At least five styles in this new model have to do with active learning.
It is important to highlight that almost half of the learning styles of this or other style models consider the possibility of carrying out activities that lead to an active character [18, 20, 24]. However, it has also been seen that there are styles that prefer passivity at all times in their learning process. The underlying idea is to realize the importance of inviting those students to explore styles other than their own.
Sternberg [62] already pointed out that styles can change over time and that they could also be socialized. If a student is invited by his/her teacher to explore new ways of learning, he/she will likely have no choice but to follow the recommendation. Many students discover new learning possibilities and make them their own, while others prefer to stay in their comfort zone. The teacher’s figure is also important because many students take him as a role model.
One of the first ideas that emerges from the relationship between learning styles and active learning is the necessity to identify students who really like active learning activities (see Figure 2). In other words, those students will voluntarily enjoy active learning activities. Those who present passive styles should be encouraged and persuaded to participate. In a second moment, the teacher faces the challenge of convincing these students to get involved with their own learning in a style that is not their own. Several models of learning styles propose that students activate all their styles when they are in a learning activity since no one has an absolute style but rather a collection of several [5, 62].
Figure 2.
Teaching steps considering learning styles in active learning.
The teacher’s intervention could be necessary when he/she detects that certain students are presenting difficulties in their learning process [63]. Sometimes it is not enough to observe them directly during their performance in some activity, but ask them directly if they have problems advancing in their objectives. In the end, an evaluation process will be required to identify areas of opportunity for subsequent activities.
The model of learning styles chosen will depend on the educational level and the characteristics of the class. As already mentioned, the variety of theories is very wide and should not be restricted to sensory preferences only.
6. Conclusions
The design of active learning activities must consider, at all times, the learning styles of the students. In this way, teaching efforts can be capitalized on to obtain the best results in terms of academic achievement. In this sense, applying an instrument to measure learning styles is highly recommended. Teacher knows the learning styles of their students is a powerful tool to be able to influence the teaching-learning process.
On the other hand, the inclusion of individual and team activities should have a similar weight throughout a course. In other words, not all activities are individual, nor are they all collective. Implementing teaching techniques is highly desirable, but so is the possibility that students alone can face a learning situation that challenges their intellect, imagination, creativity and critical thinking. Concept maps, mind maps, crossword puzzles and the creation of models and mock-ups are some recommendations.
In addition, with an overview of the class on the types of learning styles that students have, the teacher can make more organized combinations of students distributed in teams. Instructors can also pinpoint which students need more attention to achieve the course objectives, support those with more passive learning styles and encourage more active ones. Only this way can there be better results in terms of learning.
In summary, learning styles can be a great ally in the design of active learning activities, not only because they can enhance the result obtained but also because it allows students to enjoy the learning process more. The more the learning activities are adjusted to the styles of the students, the greater the possibility of academic achievement.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our educational leader, Dr. María Luisa Madueño-Serrano as well as our principal Dr. Guadalupe De la Paz Ross-Arguelles who gave us the support to do this project. We are really thankful to them.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"active learning, learning style, educational settings, technology, strategies",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82610.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82610.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82610",totalDownloads:11,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 11th 2022",dateReviewed:"June 20th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Active learning has a wide range of definitions, depending on the authors who define it. However, it can be understood as an instructional method that involves students in the learning process. Learning styles refer to the preferences that students have in their learning process. Learning styles emerge due to our genetics, life experiences and the demands of our current environment. These preferences can be classified and applied in activities that actively and passively require the participation of students. This chapter will attempt to describe active learning and learning styles separately. After that, the theoretical-practical intersections of active learning and learning styles are presented. Students’ learning preferences may (or may not) be accommodated by active learning practices. Sometimes the nature of the style results in an innate passivity in the student. What follows is the teacher’s action to engage students in a more active learning environment despite their predominant style. Based on research, some suggestions are presented in this regard.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82610",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82610",signatures:"Armando Lozano-Rodríguez, Fernanda Inez García-Vázquez and José Luis García-Cué",book:{id:"11481",type:"book",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-357-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-356-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-358-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Dr.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What is a learning style? How can it be used in the teaching-learning process?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. What is active learning?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Types of active learning activities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The intersection between active learning and learning styles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bilbao N, López de la Serna A, Tejada E, Romero A. Analysis of learning styles (Kolb) in students of the degrees in early childhood education and primary education within the Faculty of Education. TEM Journal. 2021;10:724-731. DOI: 10.18421/TEM102-29'},{id:"B2",body:'Price L. Individual differences in learning: Cognitive control, cognitive style, and learning style. Educational Psychology. 2004;24:681-698. 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Moving and learning: Expanding style and increasing flexibility. The Journal of Experimental Education. 2014;38:228-244. DOI: 10.1177/1053825914540836'},{id:"B62",body:'Sternberg RJ. Thinking Styles. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1997. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511584152'},{id:"B63",body:'Cooper P. Teacher strategies for effective intervention with students presenting social, emotional and behavioral difficulties: An international review. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 2011;26:71-86. DOI: 10.1080/08856257.2011.543547'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Armando Lozano-Rodríguez",address:"armando.lozano@itson.edu.mx",affiliation:'
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"José Luis García-Cué",address:null,affiliation:'
Postgraduate College, México
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IntechOpen books are published online and are accessible for free.
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However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through FREE DHL Express delivery.
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For a quote or assistance please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
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Our entire portfolio of over 5,500 books is also available through Amazon.
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Hardcover, Printed Full Colour
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Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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All IntechOpen contributors can buy the print copies of books for an Author Exclusive price with discounts from 30% to 50% on retail price. Log in to your Author Panel to purchase a book at the discounted price.
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Libraries are offered a 20% discount.
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When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
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IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
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In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
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General Handling and Delivery Info
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The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
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Tax and Customs
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P.O. Boxes
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P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
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Restricted Countries
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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Print On Demand (POD)
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IntechOpen Books are printed specifically for your order
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Ordered, printed, and delivered in 7-15 business days
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Available for purchase at any time no minimum or maximum threshold on book order quantity
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IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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Prices and Discounts
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IntechOpen books retail price range is:
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100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\n
Discounts available:
\n\n
\n\t
All IntechOpen contributors can buy the print copies of books for an Author Exclusive price with discounts from 30% to 50% on retail price. Log in to your Author Panel to purchase a book at the discounted price.
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Libraries are offered a 20% discount.
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Bulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
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There is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
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Terms and Conditions
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Payment Terms
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Orders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
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We currently accept the following payment options:
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Credit Card
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PayPal
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Bank Transfer
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When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
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IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n
In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\n
General Handling and Delivery Info
\n\n
The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\n
If you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Tax and Customs
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Tax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Customs: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\n
P.O. Boxes
\n\n
P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\n
Restricted Countries
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IntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
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When ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
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Restricted Ship-to Countries:
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Afghanistan
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Belarus
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Central African Republic
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Cote d'Ivoire
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Congo
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Cuba (US only)
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Eritrea
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Iran, Islamic Republic of
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Iraq
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Korea, DPR
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South Sudan
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Sudan
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Syria
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Yemen
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Return Policy
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POD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\n
Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Representatives
\n\n
Print copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\n
Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\n
Books International
\n\n
Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\n
China Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\n
Representative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\n
India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
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Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"316",title:"Lepidopterology",slug:"lepidopterology",parent:{id:"31",title:"Animal Biology",slug:"animal-biology"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:32,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"316",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9666",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce459c86bb01bb59fc01a6edd6504ad4",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",bookSignature:"Vonnie D.C. Shields",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9666.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82613",title:"Dr.",name:"Vonnie D.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shields",slug:"vonnie-d.c.-shields",fullName:"Vonnie D.C. Shields"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6156",title:"Lepidoptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5d586ee7920aa6388b521b833916453",slug:"lepidoptera",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56325",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70098",title:"Contact-Mediated Eyespot Color-Pattern Changes in the Peacock Pansy Butterfly: Contributions of Mechanical Force and Extracellular Matrix to Morphogenic Signal Propagation",slug:"contact-mediated-eyespot-color-pattern-changes-in-the-peacock-pansy-butterfly-contributions-of-mecha",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Butterfly wing color patterns are developmentally determined by morphogenic signals from organizers in the early pupal stage. However, the precise mechanism of color-pattern determination remains elusive. Here, mechanical and surface disturbances were applied to the pupal hindwing of the peacock pansy butterfly Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758) to examine their effects on color-pattern determination. Using the forewing-lift method immediately after pupation, a small stainless ball was placed on the prospective major eyespot or background of the developing dorsal hindwing to cause a wing epithelial distortion, resulting in deformation of the major eyespot. When the exposed dorsal hindwing was covered with a piece of plastic film or placed on a surface of a glass slide, an adhesive tape, or a silicone-coated glassine paper, the major eyespot was effectively reduced in size without a direct contact with the covering materials. The latter two treatments additionally induced the size reduction of the minor eyespot and proximal displacement and broadening of parafocal elements through a direct contact, being reminiscent of the temperature-shock-type modifications. These results suggest the importance of mechanical force and physicochemical properties of planar epithelial contact surface (i.e., extracellular matrix) to propagate morphogenic signals for color-pattern determination in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"}]},{id:"56320",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70050",title:"Synergistic Damage Response of the Double-Focus Eyespot in the Hindwing of the Peacock Pansy Butterfly",slug:"synergistic-damage-response-of-the-double-focus-eyespot-in-the-hindwing-of-the-peacock-pansy-butterf",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Eyespot color patterns in butterfly wings are determined by the putative morphogenic signals from organizers. Previous experiments using physical damage to the forewing eyespots of the peacock pansy butterfly, Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758), suggested that the morphogenic signals dynamically interact with each other, involving enhancement of activation signals and interactions between activation and inhibitory signals. Here, we focused on the large double-focus fusion eyespot on the hindwing of J. almana to test the involvement of the proposed signal interactions. Early damage at a single focus of the prospective double-focus eyespot produced a smaller but circular eyespot, suggesting the existence of synergistic interactions between the signals from two sources. Late damage at a single focus reduced the size of the inner core disk but simultaneously enlarged the outermost black ring. Damage at two nearby sites in the background induced an extensive black area, possibly as a result of the synergistic enhancement of the two induced signals. These results confirmed the previous forewing results and provided further evidence for the long-range and synergistic interactive nature of the morphogenic signals that may be explained by a reaction-diffusion mechanism as a part of the induction model for color-pattern formation in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Mayo Iwasaki and Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"},{id:"208071",title:"MSc.",name:"Mayo",middleName:null,surname:"Iwasaki",slug:"mayo-iwasaki",fullName:"Mayo Iwasaki"}]},{id:"75753",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96637",title:"Managing a Transboundary Pest: The Fall Armyworm on Maize in Africa",slug:"managing-a-transboundary-pest-the-fall-armyworm-on-maize-in-africa",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) invaded Africa in 2016, and has since spread to all countries in sub-Saharan Africa, causing devastating effects on mainly maize and sorghum. The rapid spread of this pest is aided by its high reproductive rate, high migration ability, wide host range and adaptability to different environments, among others. Since its introduction, many governments purchased and distributed pesticides for emergency control, with minimal regard to their efficacy. In this chapter, we review efforts towards managing this pest, highlight key challenges, and provide our thoughts on considerations for sustainable management of the pest.",book:{id:"9666",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",fullTitle:"Moths and Caterpillars"},signatures:"Michael Hilary Otim, Komi Kouma Mokpokpo Fiaboe, Juliet Akello, Barnabas Mudde, Allan Tekkara Obonyom, Anani Yaovi Bruce, Winnifred Aool Opio, Peter Chinwada, Girma Hailu and Pamela Paparu",authors:[{id:"331168",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Hilary",surname:"Otim",slug:"michael-otim",fullName:"Michael Otim"},{id:"339328",title:"Dr.",name:"Girma",middleName:null,surname:"Hailu",slug:"girma-hailu",fullName:"Girma Hailu"},{id:"339330",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Paparu",slug:"pamela-paparu",fullName:"Pamela Paparu"},{id:"339339",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Chinwada",slug:"peter-chinwada",fullName:"Peter Chinwada"},{id:"339340",title:"Ms.",name:"Winnifred",middleName:null,surname:"Aool Opio",slug:"winnifred-aool-opio",fullName:"Winnifred Aool Opio"},{id:"339341",title:"Dr.",name:"Anani",middleName:null,surname:"Bruce Yaovi",slug:"anani-bruce-yaovi",fullName:"Anani Bruce Yaovi"},{id:"339345",title:"Mr.",name:"Allan",middleName:"Obonyom",surname:"Tekkara",slug:"allan-tekkara",fullName:"Allan Tekkara"},{id:"339346",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",middleName:null,surname:"Akello",slug:"juliet-akello",fullName:"Juliet Akello"},{id:"339347",title:"Dr.",name:"Barnabas",middleName:null,surname:"Mudde",slug:"barnabas-mudde",fullName:"Barnabas Mudde"},{id:"339349",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaboe",middleName:null,surname:"Komi K Mokpokpo",slug:"fiaboe-komi-k-mokpokpo",fullName:"Fiaboe Komi K Mokpokpo"}]},{id:"57286",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71158",title:"Mitochondrial Genomes of Lepidopteran Insects Considered Crop Pests",slug:"mitochondrial-genomes-of-lepidopteran-insects-considered-crop-pests",totalDownloads:1214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, the complete mitochondrial genome of Guatemalan potato moth, Tecia solanivora (Povolny, 1973) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is presented as a model to understand how to characterize and study a mitogenome in insects. It was sequenced, analyzed, and compared with other lepidopteran insects. T. solanivora mitogenome is a circular double-stranded molecule, typically found in insects and containing 37 genes, all them well described over the other lepidopteran mitogenomes sequenced. Interestingly, in this mitogenome was found a gene arrangement in the tRNA-Met gene different from the ancestral arrangement, but commonly present in insect mitogenomes. Other important characteristics are the high A + T-biased and negative AT- and GC-skews contents, but also unusual canonical start codons in 12 protein-coding genes and an incomplete stop codon in the cytochrome oxidase subunit II gene consisting of just a Thymine. Another common feature shared with lepidopteran mitogenomes is the A + T-rich region. It is characterized by having 325 bb, the ‘ATAGA’ motif, a 17 bp poly (T) stretch and a (AT)8 element preceded by the ‘ATTTA’ motif. Likewise, this mitogenome has 21 intergenic spacer regions. In addition, an update about other recent mitogenomes research done mainly over lepidopteran insects considered crop pests is presented. On the other hand, a novel development based on induced mutations by CRISPR-Cas9 in the mitogenomes seeking applicable capability for pest control is shown. The utility of this study is to improve scientific databases and support future studies of population genetic in lepidopteran.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos, Javier Correa Alvarez and Diego Villanueva-\nMejia",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"},{id:"219660",title:"MSc.",name:"Viviana",middleName:null,surname:"Ramírez-Ríos",slug:"viviana-ramirez-rios",fullName:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos"}]},{id:"56208",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69958",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57369",title:"Introductory Chapter: Lepidoptera",slug:"introductory-chapter-lepidoptera",totalDownloads:7031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen and Anzela Khan",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}]},{id:"57355",title:"Lepidoptera Collection Curation and Data Management",slug:"lepidoptera-collection-curation-and-data-management",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The collections of Lepidoptera often serve as foundational basis for a wide range of biological, ecological, and climate science disciplines. Species identification and higher taxa delimitation based on collection specimens and especially, on types test scientific hypotheses, provide multiple types of evidence for a broad range of users. Curation and data management approaches applied in Lepidoptera collections benefit greatly from many newly developed information techniques, which link and integrate data. Mostly attention is focused on clean verified collection and taxonomic literature mining data to obtain correct species-group and higher taxa names, as well as reliable data on the distribution of Lepidoptera and their trophic interactions. Collection creation and management became a subject of natural sciences itself. The chapter provides a historic overview on collection creation and curation together with a short discussion on collection goals and purposes. The creation of a virtual collection based on interlinked data is emphasized. Information science and data management tools became very important in Lepidoptera collection curation. The complexity of techniques and computing tools used in taxonomy and the increase in the amount of data that can be obtained by collection-based disciplines make it necessary to automate data gathering, manipulation, analysis, and visualization processes.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Jurate De Prins",authors:[{id:"213731",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurate",middleName:null,surname:"De Prins",slug:"jurate-de-prins",fullName:"Jurate De Prins"}]},{id:"57731",title:"Taxocenotic and Biocenotic Study of Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera) in Rucamanque: A Forest Remnant in the Central Valley of the Araucanía Region, Chile",slug:"taxocenotic-and-biocenotic-study-of-lepidoptera-rhopalocera-in-rucamanque-a-forest-remnant-in-the-ce",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Considering that butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) are sensitive to physical and climatic changes, e.g. of temperature, humidity and solar radiation, produced by disturbances in their habitat, a survey of this group was carried out in a small remnant of native forest (Rucamanque) in the central valley of the Araucanía Region of Chile. The object was to record the composition, abundance and diversity of Rhopalocera in grassland, forest and the ecotone between them during spring and summer. The study recorded 1190 individual butterflies belonging to 25 species, 18 genera, 8 sub-families and 4 families. The highest values of species richness and abundance were obtained in the summer, of 25 species and 953 individuals; in the spring, 9 species were recorded with a total of 237 individuals. The greatest diversity and homogeneity were found in the ecotone habitat (H′=3.86; J′=0.88; λ =0.08); the values for grassland were (H′=2.73; J′=0.67; λ =0.23) and for forest (H′=2.55; J′=0.71; λ =0.23); these environments being less diverse and more homogeneous. The greatest taxocenotic similarity was found between grassland and the ecotone (54%), and the least similarity appeared between the ecotone and forest (34%). The greatest biocenotic similarity was found between the ecotone and forest (48%), and the lowest correspondence was between grassland and forest (4.18%).",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Hernán Navarrete Parra and Ramón Rebolledo Ranz",authors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"},{id:"217930",title:"Prof.",name:"Hernán",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"hernan-navarrete",fullName:"Hernán Navarrete"}]},{id:"56208",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]},{id:"75535",title:"Role of Pheromone Application Technology for the Management of Codling Moth in High Altitude and Cold Arid Region of Ladakh",slug:"role-of-pheromone-application-technology-for-the-management-of-codling-moth-in-high-altitude-and-col",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The codling moth is a threat to the apple industries in India. Currently, no solutions are available for the management of codling moth in Ladakh. Therefore, all fresh fruits from Ladakh are still banned due to quarantine regulations. Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh are the three main apple producing states of India, both in quality and quantity. The ban on all fresh fruits from Ladakh directly affects the economy of rural populations. These fruits are sold in all the local markets of Kargil and Leh. Apples damaged by the larvae of codling moth are less preferred by inhabitants, tourists, and security forces, a large area of Ladakh is bordered with China and Pakistan. Field demonstration trials revealed significantly less fruit damage in apple orchards in different hamlets of Ladakh using pheromone dispensers, pheromone baited traps, and two applications of insecticides for codling moth management. A demonstration of the use of pheromone and pheromone dispenser technology for area-wide management for high dense populations of the codling moth in Ladakh has revealed successful results in the orchards of the apple growers. Area-wide management of the codling moth in some villages, using dispenser technology has shown promising results. The ban of fresh fruits in Ladakh may not be, therefore, appropriate as management of the codling moth appears to be successful with the use of pheromone dispenser technology. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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