Summary of biomaterials in 3D printing applications.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7182",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Scars",title:"Scars",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"SCARS is an updated and comprehensive overview focused on the pathological scarring process. The chapters are written by international authors, researchers, and clinical practitioners with an interest in scars and united in a valuable study. The book aims at providing a guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of scars, as well as opening research paths for future developments.",isbn:"978-1-83881-892-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-934-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-893-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73982",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"scars",numberOfPages:96,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3dd0cf7e0a901faabc35677b3eaefaac",bookSignature:"Anca Chiriac",publishedDate:"September 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7182.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8493,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 5th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 4th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"193329",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Chiriac",slug:"anca-chiriac",fullName:"Anca Chiriac",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193329/images/system/193329.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Anca Chiriac, MD, PhD, is a clinical dermatologist whose research interests are focused on psoriasis, clinical aspects, and pathogenic mechanisms. Dr. Anca Chiriac received her MD degree from Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy in 1991 and PhD degree in 2005 in Medicine from Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She completed her postdoctoral studies at Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Paris, France; Ed. Herriot Hospital Lyon, France; and A. Sygros Hospital University of Athens, European Center for Allergy and Research Foundation Berlin, Germany. From 2013, she is a professor of Dermatology at Apollonia University, Iasi, and an associate researcher at P. Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Romanian Academy. 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This chapter will discuss the pathophysiology of wound healing by both primary and secondary intention and its applicability to burn wounds. The importance of accurate assessment of burn depth and its impact on the primary treatment and subsequent scar outcome will be explored. Special anatomic areas such as the face, hands and neck will be highlighted. Skin grafting and skin substitutes as treatment options will be reviewed. Improvements in burn care have enabled people to survive larger burns that may once have proved fatal. The emphasis of treatment, once healing has been achieved, is now focused upon rehabilitation and scar management. 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This prompts us to study these lesions and their management in order to reduce the morbidity caused by this type of accident. In the event of an electric chock accident, the treatment is medico-surgical and is composed of two main phases: acute phase when general treatment is essential and subacute phase when local treatment is implemented. The study shows that conventional emergency decompression does not appear to reduce the amputation rate, the use of local and locoregional flaps in the initial phase (<21 days) carries a significant risk of suffering and necrosis, and also antithrombotic prevention or the use of flaps does not seem to have an impact on healing delays.",signatures:"Iyadh Ghorbel, Slim Moalla, Amal Abid, Amir Karra and Khalil Ennouri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65309",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65309",authors:[{id:"279979",title:"Dr.",name:"Iyadh",surname:"Ghorbel",slug:"iyadh-ghorbel",fullName:"Iyadh Ghorbel"},{id:"289577",title:"Dr.",name:"Slim",surname:"Moalla",slug:"slim-moalla",fullName:"Slim Moalla"},{id:"289578",title:"Dr.",name:"Amal",surname:"Abid",slug:"amal-abid",fullName:"Amal Abid"},{id:"289579",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",surname:"Karra",slug:"amir-karra",fullName:"Amir Karra"},{id:"289580",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalil",surname:"Ennouri",slug:"khalil-ennouri",fullName:"Khalil Ennouri"}],corrections:null},{id:"68308",title:"Endometriosis of Postoperative Scar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88246",slug:"endometriosis-of-postoperative-scar",totalDownloads:1051,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endometriosis is seen in women during their reproductive age, where functional endometrial glands of the uterus and stromal component are observed outside the uterine cavity. Endometriosis in an operative scar is a rare event following mainly obstetric and gynecologic operation. Typical signs of scar endometriosis are cyclic pain and swelling tumor in the scar after obstetric or gynecologic operations. We present 24 cases of scar endometriosis with discussion and emphasis on variants of clinical signs, differential diagnostic, methods of treatment, and prevention.",signatures:"Andrei Plotski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68308",authors:[{id:"272136",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Plotski",slug:"andrei-plotski",fullName:"Andrei Plotski"}],corrections:null},{id:"65397",title:"Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars Can Now Be Treated Completely by Multimodal Therapy, Including Surgery, Followed by Radiation and Corticosteroid Tape/Plaster",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84178",slug:"keloids-and-hypertrophic-scars-can-now-be-treated-completely-by-multimodal-therapy-including-surgery",totalDownloads:3141,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Keloids and hypertrophic scars are fibroproliferative disorders of the skin. Research over the last decade has markedly improved our understanding of the pathogenesis of these scars, in particular, the fact that both disorders are caused by prolonged inflammation that prevents the orderly healing of injured or irritated skin. This protracted inflammatory response is due to genetic, systemic, and local risk factors. Genetic factors include single nucleotide polymorphisms, while systemic factors include hypertension, pregnancy-related and other hormones, and aberrant cytokine levels. An important local factor is the mechanical force (tension) on the scar. These observations have greatly aided the development of therapies for these once-intractable scars. As a result, these scars are now regarded as being completely treatable. At present, we believe that the following combination of three therapies most reliably achieves a complete cure: surgery followed by radiation and the prolonged daily use of corticosteroid tape/plaster.",signatures:"Rei Ogawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65397",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65397",authors:[{id:"45225",title:"Dr.",name:"Rei",surname:"Ogawa",slug:"rei-ogawa",fullName:"Rei Ogawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"65514",title:"Scars: A New Point of View in Plastic Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84127",slug:"scars-a-new-point-of-view-in-plastic-surgery",totalDownloads:1076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The issue of achieving esthetically pleasing surgical scars has gained prominence in recent years, with the emergence of the concept of the “imperceptible scar,” which is expected by patients of not only cosmetic but also reconstructive surgery. Current research in reconstructive surgery focuses on obtaining high-quality results in the minimum number of steps, with a view to “doing it right the first time.” However, there is no uniform approach to scar treatment, which is partly due to a lack of consensus regarding the most effective healing methods. This chapter aims at shedding new light to discussion by putting forward two different procedures that enhance scar results in cosmetic and reconstructive surgeries by applying a topical treatment with active ingredients and by combining cadaver and artificial skin as dermal substitutes, respectively. The effectiveness of these treatments is shown by means of objective, quantifiable data collected as a result of studies and postoperative follow-ups carried out at Hospital Alemán in Buenos Aires.",signatures:"Gustavo E. 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This book includes ten chapters covering the main aspects of infections related to E. coli, their pathogenic mechanisms, treatments, and resistance to diverse antibiotics.",isbn:"978-1-83962-524-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-523-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-525-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80139",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"e-coli-infections-importance-of-early-diagnosis-and-efficient-treatment",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f52bd5b65bec376ebb9b8a97f44f4945",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",publishedDate:"September 30th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8722.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:8545,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Rodrigo, MD, is a Professor Emeritus of Medicine, at the University of Oviedo, Spain. He has been Chief of Gastroenterology Service at HUCA Hospital, Oviedo, for more than forty years. He obtained a Ph.D. in 1975 and has developed a long teaching and research career. Dr. Rodrigo has published 716 scientific papers, 435 written in English and the rest in Spanish. He has participated as the main investigator in forty-five clinical trials and has directed forty doctoral theses. He has contributed actively to the formation of around 100 specialists in gastroenterology working in his hospital and other hospitals in Spain and abroad. 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The unique material that can be used to fabricate biomedical parts inside a human body to treat, repair, replace any tissue is known as biomaterials. Biomaterials are referred to as any material that comes into contact with humans or animals to fulfill their intended purpose without causing any toxic reaction [1]. In the field of biomedical engineering, biomaterials can be used to replace or mimic part of an organ or a tissue while still maintaining interaction with living tissue. One major setback when working with biomaterial is the lack of mechanical strength [2]. The reports have suggested that this constraint can either be subdued by utilizing appropriate material and manufacturing techniques of processing the scaffolds to enhance the mechanical integrity of the fabricated parts. Additive manufacturing (AM) has been described as an emerging advanced technology in which materials are linked layer by layer to fabricate functional components from three-dimensional (3D) model data [3]. The ability of 3D printing to produce complex shapes at low cost placed it a higher advantage in the production of biomedical parts than other manufacturing methods [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Figure 1 summarizes common synthetic polymers in 3D bioprinting applications [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Summarizes common synthetic polymers in 3D bioprinting applications.
3D bioprinting has become a successful technique used in fabricating biomaterial scaffolds such as customized implant, organ, drug delivery systems, prosthetics, orthotic, and tissues engineering [3, 12]. Bioprinting technology has emerged as a powerful bio-fabrication tool where biomaterials such as cells and growth factors are combined to fabricate biomedical parts with bio-ink [13]. The advantages of bioprinting include accurate control of cell distribution, high-resolution cell deposition, scalability, and cost-effectiveness. Bioprinting has become an effective fabrication tool to create complex micro-and macro-scale biomedical systems. Biomaterials, such as hydrogels, are currently extensively studied for their ability to reproduce both the ideal 3D extracellular environment for tissue growth and to have required mechanical properties for load-bearing. Microfabrication techniques such as electrospinning [14] and 3D printing have emerged as promising strategies for manufacturing complex hydrogel structures for tissue engineering applications. 3D bioprinting application has extensively found its potential use in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, drug discovery, toxicology [15], regenerative medicine to generate a variety of transplantable tissues including skin, cartilage, and bone [16]. In 3D bioprinting, 3D fabrication techniques have been precisely used to dispense cell-laden biomaterials for the construction of complex 3D functional living tissues or artificial organs using an additive manufacturing strategy by depositing substrates such as living cells, nucleic acids, drug particles, proteins, and other biological components [17, 18]. Nowadays, several bioprinting signs of progress have been demonstrated, such as bionic ears [19], multilayered skins [20], artificial bones [21], vascular tissues [22], and cartilaginous structures. Three major bioprinting techniques are being commonly used which include extrusion bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, and inkjet bioprinting. Figure 2 summarizes the bioprinting process, techniques, and applications.
Bioprinting process, techniques, and applications [
According to Dinesh & Devaprakasam [24], the life span, reliability, bio-compatible and mechanical properties of the implant material are not up to the expectation but research has to be done to find out the most reliable, high strength, and long-lasting material.
Laasri et al. [25] studied the influence of powder manufacturing and sintering temperature on densification, microstructure, and mechanical properties of calcium phosphate biomaterials. It was reported that the manufacturing of
The tensile strength, yield strength, elastic modulus, corrosion, creep, and hardness are some of the most paramount properties of biomaterials that need to be carefully examined and improved before implantation [1]. Production of functional parts needs to demonstrate their stable mechanical properties. The importance of the mechanical control of cellular phenotype and fate are as critical as biochemical factors in regulating cellular function [28]. Biomaterials can experience several mechanical degradations during processing, storage, and use. Due to environmental conditions during the printing process, mechanical degradation can take place due to shear forces, tension, and compression [29, 30, 31]. In one study, Yang et al. [32] demonstrated that the complex stress state of maxillofacial bone tissues requires metal implants with matching mechanical properties to support mandibular functions. Soufivand et al. [33] also investigated the applicability of CAD-based FEM analysis to tune and predict the mechanical behaviors of the printed PCL scaffolds based on the inner geometries, as the inner geometries of the tissue-engineered scaffolds play an important role in biomechanical and biological aspects for tissue engineering applications. Their findings revealed that the CAD-based FEM prediction could be used for designing tissue-specific constructs to mimic the mechanical properties of targeted tissues or organs. Moroni et al. [34] also proved that the mechanical signaling from tissue-engineered scaffolds could impact cellular activities, including cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as tissue hemostasis and development. In one investigation, Ambrosio et al. [35] evaluated the mechanical and viscoelastic behavior of a soft composite material based on a hydrogel matrix reinforced with the range of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers designed to mimic mechanical properties of soft tissue such as tendons, ligaments, and intervertebral discs. It is concluded that the control of the geometrical configuration of the wound fibers allows a wide range of mechanical properties to be secured [35]. Iannace et al. [36] determined the mechanical behavior of composite artificial tendons and ligaments. The results recommended that large variations in the mechanical behavior can be attained by altering the winding angle of the fibers in the composite which determines the extent of the ‘toe’ region and the sensitivity of the system to the rigidity of the fibers. In another study, Hippler et al. [37] informed that biophysical factors such as mechanical properties of the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) can significantly impact cellular reactions. As reported, modifications in the composition or the mechanical properties of the ECM are often connected to cancer progression and metastasis as well as pathological conditions [37]. Hukins et al. [38] also reviewed the difficulties which are encountered in defining the mechanical properties of natural tissues, and in replacing them with synthetic materials in the human body. In any support system like the frame in engineering, bone in the human body and others required suitable mechanical properties to make it function optimally. Mechanical properties such as tensile and compressive stresses, strain, torque, bending moment shear force, and others have a significant influence on the suitability of any materials [39]. Capurro and Barberis [40] discussed the mechanical properties of biomaterials and their influence in the field of medicine, surgery, and physiology applications. It was presented that the mechanical properties can be categorized into two main branches: elastic and viscoelastic properties, and ultimate properties (such as plasticity, fracture, fatigue damage, and others) [41]. A lot of previous research works have been carried out on biomaterials but little has been said on the evaluation of mechanical properties of biomaterials in many fields of physiology, medicine, and Surgery applications. Table 1 presented a summary of biomaterials in 3D printing applications.
AM technology | Materials | Mechanical properties | Applications | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Electron beam melting | Co–29Cr–6Mo alloy and a Ti–6Al–4Vtibial component | The UTS increased by 20%, and the elongation increased by 900%. In contrast to the ASTM-F75 Co–29Cr–6Mo transplant standard, the yield stress for the EBM-fabricated and HIP manufactured component increased by 30%, and a 200% increase in elongation | Knee replacement implants | [42] |
3D bioprinting | Alginate hydrogel | Results demonstrated that alginate concentration, CaCl2 cross-linking concentration and cross-linking ratios as well as gelling conditions, such as cross-linking reaction time and temperature which have a significant effect on its mechanical properties and printability of 3D alginate scaffolds network. | Tissue engineering | [32] |
Micro-extrusion 3D bioprinting | Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) | Results showed that the theoretical compressive elastic moduli of the designed constructs were 23.3, 56.5, 67.5, and 1.8 MPa, and the experimental compressive elastic moduli were 23.6 ± 0.6, 45.1 ± 1.4, 56.7 ± 1.7, and 1.6 ± 0.2 MPa for lattice, wavy, hexagonal, and shifted microstructures, respectively, while maintaining the same construct dimension and porosity. | Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine | [33] |
3D bioprinting | Bio-ink | On day 20, all tissues showed an improved stiffness compared to day 10. P2 tissue exhibited the lowest variation of young’s modulus with a final value of 103.3 Pa, the lowest of the three modalities. M1 and control tissues exhibited similar elastic moduli of 155.8 and 149.0 Pa. | Tissue engineering | [10] |
3D bioprinting | Nanocellulose/chitosan-based bio-ink | The addition of CNCs and cells (5 million cells) significantly improved the viscosity of bio-inks and the mechanical properties of chitosan scaffolds post-fabrication. | Bone tissue engineering and regeneration applications | [43] |
Summary of biomaterials in 3D printing applications.
Loss of many lives associated with getting a replacement for defective or loss of human tissues and bones have become a great matter of concern. For implants and natural tissue materials, the biocompatibility and mechanical strength of biomaterials are critical for a variety of skeletal repair joint replacements and dental restorations. Printing of scaffolds with the use of design strategies could be an effective platform to fabricate functional tissue engineering that will provide significantly enhanced different mechanical properties. In recent times, materials with high concentration and high viscosity, including ceramics, poly(caprolactone) (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), have been widely utilized to produce bio-inks for the bioprinting of defective bone tissue. For future work, the following conclusions are drawn from the literature comprehensively reviewed:
Further research is required to investigate appropriate material and manufacturing techniques of processing the scaffolds to enhance the mechanical integrity of the fabricated parts.
There is a need to determine the effects of processing parameters on the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of biomaterials for the fabrication of tissue structure.
The tensile strength, yield strength, elastic modulus, corrosion, creep, and hardness are some of the most paramount properties of biomaterials that should be carefully examined and improved before implantation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
AM | Additive manufacturing |
ABS | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene |
ASTM | American Society for Testing and Materials |
ALG | Alginate |
CS | Chitosan |
CAD | Computer aided design |
HY | Hydrogel |
HIP | Hot isostatic pressing |
β-TCP | β-tricalcium phosphate |
ECM | Extracellular matrix |
PET | Polyethylene terephthalate |
FDM | Fused deposition modeling |
PCL | Poly(ε-caprolactone) |
PLA | Polylactic acid |
EBM | Electron beam melting |
CNCs | Cellulose Nanocrystals |
ABS | Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene |
PEG | Polyethylene glycol |
CaCl2 | Calcium chloride |
HA | Hydroxyapatite |
FEM | Finite element modeling |
UTS | Ultimate tensile strength |
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It binds to two structurally related but functionally distinct receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2. Unlike TNFR1 that is ubiquitously expressed, TNFR2 expression is more limited to myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages including a fraction of regulatory T cells (Treg). In general, TNFR1 is responsible for TNF-mediated cell apoptosis and death, and mostly induces proinflammatory reactions. However, TNFR2 mainly leads to functions related to cell survival and immune suppression. Treg play an indispensable role in maintaining immunological self-tolerance and restraining excessive immune reactions deleterious to the host. Impaired Treg-mediated immune regulation has been observed in various autoimmune diseases as well as in cancers. Therefore, Treg might provide an ideal therapeutic target for diseases where the immune balance is impaired and could benefit from the regulation of Treg properties. TNFR2 is highly expressed on Treg in mice and in humans, and TNFR2+ Treg reveal the most potent suppressive capacity. TNF-TNFR2 ligation benefits Treg proliferation, although the effect on Treg suppressive function remains controversial. Here, we will describe in detail the TNF-mediated regulation of Treg and the potential clinical applications in cancer immunotherapy as well as in autoimmune diseases, with the focus on human Treg subsets.",book:{id:"7853",slug:"cytokines",title:"Cytokines",fullTitle:"Cytokines"},signatures:"Xuehui He and Xinhui Wang",authors:[{id:"284559",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuehui",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"xuehui-he",fullName:"Xuehui He"},{id:"296531",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinhui",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xinhui-wang",fullName:"Xinhui Wang"}]},{id:"46259",title:"HLA in Gastrointestinal Inflammatory Disorders",slug:"hla-in-gastrointestinal-inflammatory-disorders",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3824",slug:"hla-and-associated-important-diseases",title:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases",fullTitle:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases"},signatures:"M.I. Torres, T. Palomeque and P. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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