\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"57",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Physics and Applications of Graphene - Experiments",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age... Every global epoch in the history of the mankind is characterized by materials used in it. In 2004 a new era in material science was opened: the era of graphene or, more generally, of two-dimensional materials. Graphene is the strongest and the most stretchable known material, it has the record thermal conductivity and the very high mobility of charge carriers. It demonstrates many interesting fundamental physical effects and promises a lot of applications, among which are conductive ink, terahertz transistors, ultrafast photodetectors and bendable touch screens. In 2010 Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics “for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene’’. The two volumes Physics and Applications of Graphene - Experiments and Physics and Applications of Graphene - Theory contain a collection of research articles reporting on different aspects of experimental and theoretical studies of this new material.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-217-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4496-0",doi:"10.5772/590",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",numberOfPages:552,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",publishedDate:"April 19th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",numberOfDownloads:175794,numberOfWosCitations:384,numberOfCrossrefCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:24,numberOfDimensionsCitations:306,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:38,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:753,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 11th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 13th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 12th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 11th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16042/images/1634_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergey Mikhailov received his PhD from the Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of Russian Academy of Sciences and performed his scientific research in different Universities and research institutes in Russia, Germany, Sweden and Japan. He is a coauthor of two patents and has published more than 140 research papers in physical journals and conference proceedings. He was a Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, Germany, and a Senior Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. His research interests are in the theory of electrodynamic and many-body properties of low-dimensional electron systems in semiconductor structures and the theory of semiconductor devices and terahertz-wave generation. 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Life in plant is cyclical, like in human beings. The seed in plants can be considered the starting point; thereby, seed biology is one of the most extensively researched areas in plants physiology. However, two fundamental questions remain: how does the embryo emerge and how is embryo emergence blocked?
\nIt seems not be advantageous for a seed to germinate freely. Thereby, seed dormancy is a mechanism that optimizes the germination. However, little progress has been made toward the understanding of dormancy, besides we do not know the defining events in germination.
\nThe threshold stimulus that initiates a common signal transduction cascade that coordinates diverse cellular responses is unknown and varies widely among individual seeds. Characteristically, germination commence with the uptake of water by the quiescent dry seed. The metabolic activities of the imbibed dormant seeds are only subtle different from those of nondormant seed. The main difference is that the radicle (the embryonic axis) fails to elongate.
\nDormancy phenomenon has no clear definition, and it differs among species. When the embryo is constrained by surrounding structures, the phenomenon is known as coat‐enhanced dormancy. Interestingly, embryos isolated from these seeds are not dormant. So far, dormancy is a poorly understood phenomenon.
\nThe release of dormancy and completion of germination occur within a relatively few cells associated with the embryonic root axis. However, even the presence of apparently nonresponding cells in the axis and other seed parts helps in a successful germination.
\nThe release of dormancy can be triggered by a variety of known and unknown environmental and chemical stimuli, but the presence of water is unavoidable. Initially, the uptake of water by a mature dry seed is rapid, followed by a plateau phase. A further increase in water uptake occurs only after germination is completed.
\nThe influx of water shows peculiarities as the water inside the cell is pure; thereafter, the dormant cell membranes have an immediate and rapid leakage of solutes and low molecular weight metabolites into the surrounding imbibition solution; however, the processes initiated by the entrance of surprisingly clean water have a certain order, and they are not at random at all and have a definite sequence.
\nThe membranes return to their more stable configuration after a short time of rehydration, and solute leakage is curtailed. Therefore, it is not by chance that it occurs, instead, a highly ordered sequence of events happens; for instance, the amount of
Upon imbibition by this pure water, the quiescent dry seed resumes metabolic activity. It is hard to explain how the sole reintroduction of clean water during imbibition is sufficient for metabolic activities to resume, and in matter of hours, a full metabolic status is achieved.
\nThe word “metabolism”, which means continuous change, is the result of different processes that occur in a very coordinated manner, both in space as well as in time and place. In no way are the results by chance. And to this we add the energy required so that metabolism can occur, then we try to find a source of energy which is capable not only of producing changes, but also in a proper, orderly, and complex fashion. We can get the answer in the melanin.
\nThe so‐called germination comprises a chain of concatenated events, and by no means they are isolated and all are connected among themselves in a way that we do not understand. But the unsuspected intrinsic capacity of melanin becomes the visible and invisible light energy chemical through dissociation and subsequent reformation of the water molecule. Discovered by our team in 2002, it comes to fill a very important gap in the knowledge of seed biology.
\nSo far, melanin has been considered as the perfect protection against UV‐induced photodamage [1]. It is an absorbent filter that reduces the penetration of UV through the epidermis. Other significant properties of melanin already described in the literature are its functions as a free radical scavenger and superoxide dismutase that reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) [2].
\nMelanin, under certain circumstances, can also have toxic properties [3], at least theoretically. However, more than 120 genes have been shown to regulate pigmentation in mammals. On the other hand, melanin’s basic structure is poorly defined. Melanins are electron acceptors and charge exchange is considered a major binding force in many reactions.
\nMuch has been written about complex properties of melanin, but the mechanisms of action were more theoretical than real, since some properties of melanin seem to oppose each other. But the hitherto unknown property of melanin transforming light into chemical energy breaks the paradigm in which it corresponds to their biological function.
\nEnergy production is the new feature that we now know in melanin, and it is the same everywhere, for example, on the outer layers of the seeds (episperma) and fruits (Figures 1–9).
\nMelanin is present in all the seeds. The difference in hue depends on the concentration of the molecule, granule size, orientation in the molecule, and type of structures that surround it. Photograph shows the high concentration on mature fruit of avocado (American Persea Mill) peel, even it seems that higher concentration of melanin results in greater fruit and seed size, as it is conceivable that the higher amount of melanin means greater availability of chemical energy. On the right side of the picture, we observe tamarind seed (
Melanin must be present in all cells. Because of it, cells are capable of producing their own chemical energy through dissociation of water molecule, which appears as a universal mechanism. Melanin is concentrated in the areas of increased demand for power, for example, around the nuclei of the cells, and in seeds, in areas of high metabolic demand (episperm). Typically, melanin tends to be close to light energy sources (i.e., sunshine), and on the other hand, the concentration of melanin also functions as a regulator of the amount of light that should reach the inside of the body; in this case, mature avocado fruit and tamarind seeds.
The superficial part of the outer portion of the mature fruit of the avocado is very dark, because of its high concentration of melanin, which indicates that, on the one hand, it transforms significantly visible and invisible light into chemical energy, and on the other hand, regulates the amount of light that must pass through and reach the inner parts of the fruit. Outer covering of the seed of the avocado (episperma) presents a very similar color, and thereby, similar melanin content to the tamarind seeds.
Outer covering of the seed of tamarind (left) and avocado (right)—episperma—present very similar colorations. The melanin present in these structures transforms the light into chemical energy, and also regulates the amount of light that must pass through and reach the deep parts, which also require light, either visible or invisible.
The outer coat of the avocado has melanin of high molecular weight (dark melanin or eumelanin), and the outer coat of the seed (episperma) has melanin of low molecular weight (pheomelanin). In both cases, the function of melanin is the same, chemical energy production.
Eumelanin in the outer casing of the avocado, in addition to producing energy, functions as a regulator of the amount of visible and invisible light that penetrates the inside of the fruit, because it must be within a certain range; on the other hand, the pheomelanin of the seed allows a greater light to pass so that is still maintained within the optimal range.
Outer dark color of various brown tones of episperma indicates the presence of melanin. Pulposus green content allows us to infer the presence of heme groups, which are also capable of dissociating water molecule, but unlike the melanin, make it irreversibly.
The grooves that are seen on the surface of the seed, covered and merged in brown tissues (melanin), transport liquids whose nature is not well understood, chemical processes occur inside them even, as in the SAP from the trunk of the tree. But two of the mysteries seem to be solved with melanin, the energy needed to move the fluid and the chemical energy that drives very tidy reactions happening inside these channels, because in both cases, the chemical energy required, no doubt comes from the melanin.
Detail of the groves on the surface of the avocado seed—episperma.
Melanin is able to dissociate the water molecule and also reshapes it. That is, liquid water transforms it into its gaseous components, hydrogen and oxygen, releasing both in molecular form. In this phase, the energy that is released is transported by hydrogen, which is an observed fact in the entire universe. Hydrogen is the main carrier of energy, whereas oxygen is toxic at any concentration.
\nThe belief that our body combines glucose with oxygen to get energy no longer holds since the discovery of diabetes. On the other hand, our body has handled the glucose since the beginning of time, but when the conditions are true, diabetes occurs. When chemical energy levels are not adequate, the body cannot do what it does, which it has been doing since millions of years and millions of times.
\nIn the seed, what happens is that the melanin that is mainly in the outermost layers begins to absorb water and begins to dissociate and re‐form, and as a result water that forms inside the seed is pure water because it comes from the recombination of the gases.
\nBut not just the presence of water, but also the levels of hydrogen and oxygen inside the seed begin to rise, and the energy that carries the hydrogen starts to promote each and every chemical reactions that take part in the germination process.
\nThe energy that comes from the melanin is surprisingly consistent and accurate, and hence their effects on seed are also consistent and accurate.
\nThe reaction occurring inside the melanin can be written as follows:\n
For every two molecules of water that is reformed, four high‐energy electrons are generated [4].
\nTherefore, the long‐lasting mystery of the germination of the seed seems to be resolved, and they are as follows: when the amount of water and light is adequate, the chemical energy that emanates from the melanin will be enough to promote each and every one of the chemical reactions that occur inside the seed, and this will help in the germination process. But when the amount of water and light is not adequate, the energy that emanates from the melanin will not be enough, and as a result it will only maintain the shape of the seed, but cannot hatch until the levels of chemical energy to the interior of the cell are within a range that can be considered optimal.
\nIt is surprising to find nature’s insistence to place melanin practically in all the seeds, at different tissues, and different concentrations (Figures 9–13). The reason for this is chemical energy production.
\nTamarind seed, 16×. Brown color is given by the melanin.
Tamarind seed, 16×. When the external coat is slightly removed a darkest coat of melanin is perceived.
Tamarind seed. With dim light, the melanin is clearly observed and its color shows a resemblance with the eye iris color.
With brightest light, the color of the tamarind seed registered by the camera is almost yellow.
In order to perform its function to generate chemical energy, melanin absorbs visible and invisible light, which is the darkest substance known; and it dissipates the energy by dissociating the water molecule [5], which is reformed almost immediately, starting a very consistent and reliable cycle, while both light and water are still available. The energy that is released due to water molecule breakdown is transported by the diatomic hydrogen.
\nIf we could see how hydrogen bubbles emerge from the melanin, one could observe symmetrically formed and drawn hydrogen bubbles in all the directions (Figure 14).
\nMelanin in dark, and molecular hydrogen in blue, drawing as small bubbles.
Something similar happens in seeds too. However, as melanin is arranged in layers, that is, in episperma, the bubbles displacement occurs outside and inside of the seed (Figure 15).
\nThe dark circle around the seed is the melanin layer representation, and the bubbles of blue pale color are the representation of the molecular hydrogen.
The hydrogen that penetrates the inside of the seed has the important function of activating the complex biochemical machinery of germination; driving each of the chemical reactions involved in precise, consistent, and relentless form.
\nHowever, the hydrogen bubbles that go into surroundings of the seeds carry out an important function, that is, promote changes in the immediate environment of the seed, which in turn promotes germination, that is, the development of other forms of life, for instance, fungi (Figures 16–19).
\nThe seed of the tamarind, when not in adequate conditions of water and light, remained almost unchanged, retaining a surface similar to the stored seeds.
However, when the tamarind seed is in right conditions, by principle of accounts, straightening (polarity) immediately increases its volume, and begins to cover a milkweed (fungi), which also form a part of the cycle (Rhizome).
In this photograph, the elongated epicotyl is more visible. Tamarind has hypogeal germination.
In this other specimen, the elongated epicotyl forming the hook is clearly visible.
According to Darwin, although there are more than one million species, there is just one life. For us it means that life originates from the dissociation of the water molecule. Molecular hydrogen being the important part as it is the carrier of energy for excellence in nature, not only on Earth but throughout the universe, and therefore the seeds are no different.
\nThe formation of symmetrical hydrogen bubbles in all the directions by melanin (Figure 14) produces a high energy area in its immediate surroundings, so it activates not only the mysterious metabolic processes involved in germination, but produces a beneficial effect on microorganisms that live in the soil, which also play a substantive role in the cycle.
\nIn addition to being the carrier of energy most used in nature, molecular hydrogen is the best antioxidant that is known, because it is able to reduce oxygen into water.
\nThe growth of fungi on the surface of the seed (Figure 17) is a clear example of the effect it has on life (in all its forms). The molecular hydrogen and its precious cargo of energy that was injected at the time of the dissociation of the water molecule is very useful, as the seed uses chemical energy in many ways. And it is not any kind of energy, because the melanin generates it in a very precise, consistent, and relentless form, and it occurs both day and night. And this is also reflected in the metabolic processes of the plant, which also are precise, consistent, and incessant, and they occur both day and night.
\nIt was simply the chemical energy with which the seed was created over billions of years of evolution. If we compare the chemical energy that emanates from the melanin with another type of energy, for example, heat, which is a very messy form of energy, germination does not occur.
\nEven if we compare the energy that comes from the melanin with the energy of the Sun, germination cannot take place from the energy of the Sun. Germination needs both visible and invisible light, which is “conditioned” to transform by a transductor. And in the case of life, melanin seems to be the one which carries out such adaptation of solar energy. As when light energy is too strong, melanin decreases it, and when it is scarce, melanin elevates it. Seems that melanin thrives on pressure.
\nMelanin is therefore a natural fertilizer, which not only fertilizes the seed itself, but also the nearby environment that surrounds it, optimizing the possibilities of germination.
\nAny chemical process that is subject to a consistent and accurate energy will result in consistent and accurate products.
\nLife is a continuous process and atoms which are influenced by the melanin begins to behave in a way
And the same might be said for each and every one of the molecules that are continuously formed and grow, becoming more and more complex. And surprisingly, the fundamental chemical energy remains the same, as this is not created or destroyed. But the complexity of the compounds that are formed under the influence of melanin appears to be exponential and at the same time surprisingly exact, because it is repeated over and over again and over millions of years.
\nSeeds, considered for some authors as mysterious genetic capsules [6], contain many secrets that are yet to be revealed. Mechanisms by which seeds undergo extreme desiccation without losing viability remain unclear. Further, the network of genes conferring on seeds the ability to remain dormant has yet to be fully elucidated.
\nAs the global population exceeds more than 7 billion, and seeds providing more than 70% of the world’s caloric intake, the efficient production of seeds is becoming ever more important. Thus, the determination of the genetic and biochemistry of seeds, with the main aim of enhancing yield and nutritive values of seeds, are essential steps. Recently, the utilization of seeds as a source of biofuels to replace fossil fuels in developed countries significantly worsens the problem of adequate food production.
\nWhile almost every year new genomic sequences from plants are published, the impact on crops has not been as important as expected, as seed germination seems as a response with a simple output but requiring multiple inputs. Seed sense fluxes in many different environmental factors, and appears to have the capacity to analyze them in a holistic way and to determine whether they germinate or not.
\nIt seems that the presence of an adequate quantity of water and electron flow should take numerous metabolic switches, but in a very precise and complex way, both in space, time, and location. And so much so, that despite the best efforts of researchers in the area, the process of maturation and germination of the seed has not been deciphered yet.
\nDespite significant progress in seed biology, basic questions still need to be answered. Further, it is important to translate existing knowledge into agricultural outputs [7].
\n\nEye iris. The surface and color of the iris has a remarkable resemblance with the surface and color of several seeds. The color of the eye iris is also due to melanin content.
The insistence of nature in melanin in all forms of life (Figure 20) is a message that is very important and essential from which we must learn as much as possible. Let us remember that nature only insists on things that are important and relevant.
\nAnd we can say that with the discovery of the intrinsic capacity of melanin to transform the visible and invisible light to chemical energy through the water molecule dissociation, the best is yet to come.
\nThe Center for Studies of the Human Photosynthesis® funded this work.
\nThere are two seminal observations that bracket the existence of Dark Matter, giving essential physics clues. The first is Zwicky [1] who noticed that the luminous matter in the Coma Galaxy Cluster is too small in mass to gravitationally bind the cluster. Quanitatively, the fastest bound galaxy has speed relative to the Coma center-of-mass of about 3000 km/s [2]. From the Coma Galaxy Cluster we learn:
The amount of (unseen) Dark Matter in the Coma Cluster vastly ‘outweighs’ the luminous matter.
We can see right through the Coma Cluster to image galaxies on the other side of the Universe, which means light is not scattered by Dark Matter: astonishingly, Dark Matter is transparent to light.
The gravitational potential of Dark Matter is of the same size as the Coma Galaxy Cluster dimensions.
The second seminal observation is Rubin [3] who showed that the rotational speeds of stars in spiral galaxies are too high for gravitational binding with the amount of luminous spiral galaxy mass observed. Unfortunately, here the story takes a tragic diversion, because Rubin assumed that the missing spiral Dark Matter must be in the halo of the measured galaxy itself. This mistake could be attributable to the lack of mathematical sophistication, but it has misled researchers for years. Let us discuss the situation of a spiral galaxy embedded in a Coma-like Galaxy Cluster Dark Matter potential and see the complexity of the resulting gravitational potential. The Dark Matter gravitational potential at position
where
where
Embedded spiral galaxy in a coma-like dark matter object with r
Consider now letting a move along a spiral arm, going around 360 degrees, where this angle becomes the spiral galaxy’s azimuthal angle
Large astronomical assemblages of matter have gravitational self-energies that will cause them to collapse. They are only stable if there is an internal pressure source. Observations of Dark Matter embedding galactic clusters reveal no Dark Matter energy generation. The Lamda-Cold-Dark-Matter cosmological model postulates that Dark Matter is cold. Therefore Maxwellian statistics are not present. Dark Matter particles are described by quantum statistics, which are either the Fermi-Dirac or Bose-Einstein distributions. However, boson stars do not exist in Nature because bosons will occupy the lowest energy state in cold matter. We come to the conclusion that Dark Matter is made up of Fermions that are in equilibrium due to degeneracy pressure. Recognizing that White Dwarfs are stable due to electron degeneracy, Neutron Stars are stable due to neutron degeneracy, we see that the size of the stable assemblage is inversely proportional to the Fermion mass. Zwicky’s discovery that the Coma Cluster of galaxies is embedded in Dark Matter means that the Dark Matter Fermion particle must be incredibly small in mass, even compared to the small electron’s mass.
The additional requirement that the Dark Matter particles be the most abundent particles in the Universe identifies the condensation of cosmological neutrinos from the Big Bang as a very attractive candidate for Dark Matter. Reference [5] is the first publication that correctly evaluated the equation of state for degenerate neutrino matter, where the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos condense into stable assemblages called ‘condensed neutrino objects’ (CNO). Reference [6] derived the CNO mass-radius relationship
where
The interesting physics of CNO is that there is no central mass. Instead, galaxies having non-zero eccentricities see a different gravitating mass at each point along their orbit. Human beings have never seen this astronomical phenomena before. It would be akin to having satellite orbits inside the Earth and it leads to non-Keplerian orbits.
When galaxies self-assemble inside CNO, they may have negligible velocities with respect to the Dark Matter or non-negligible velocities. Those galaxies having negligible velocities fall to the center of the CNO and execute simple harmonic motion (SHM), reference [5]. These galaxies then obtain their fastest speed at the center of the CNO, and when there, are the fastest galaxies embedded in the CNO that are gravitationally bound. On the other hand, galaxies which self-assemble with non-negligible velocities with respect to the CNO center of mass, execute orbital dynamics. Conservation of angular momentum prevents their appearance in the CNO center, and they never appear in the fast velocity histograms. If astronomical data is available for individual galaxies of a galaxy cluster, then picking out the fastest bound galaxy will place its location at or near the CNO center. In Ref. [8] this analysis was done to identify the CNO parameter, the neutrino Fermi Momentum (
The Coma Galaxy Cluster CNO has solution [8]
where
Spatial variation of the reduced Fermi momentum
CNO mass density for
In Ref. [8],
Approximate location of the CNO center using fastest galaxy GMP = 3176, which has offsets R.a. +0.0579 arc-minutes and Dec −13.465 arc-minutes. The figure background is taken from reference [
Observationally, most or all galaxy clusters are embedded in Dark Matter, because the observable luminous matter does not produce a strong enough gravitational well to confine the experimentally observed galaxy velocities. This was the original Zwicky observation. Theoretical studies of galaxy cluster dynamical evolutions that did not understand the physics of Dark Matter reached the following conclusion (exemplified by reference [9]): galaxies collapse toward the center and virialize with Dark Matter to attain a steady-state distribution. For CNO Dark Matter, the galaxies revolve in a frictionless condensate and do not viralize with the Dark Matter at all.
For the relevant neutrino mass scale of
The galaxies will execute orbits on a plane defined by their initial (birth) velocity components. On this 2-Dimensional plane are the
where
where
The numerical function
Numerical evaluation of the function
2-dimensional (planar) velocity components for orbit dynamics of a galaxy embedded in dark matter CNO. The reference system is the center-of-mass of the CNO. The axis can be any perpendicular coordinates.
As already discussed, the reason why orbital dynamics of galaxies embedded in a CNO are different and unusual is because there is no central mass situated at the center of a CNO (see Figure 5). This is the first time we see non-Keplerian orbits from classical gravity. We now solve the system of Eq. (7) for interesting initial conditions. We will do two examples that illustrate the orbital dynamics of galaxies embedded in Dark Matter CNO.
The last equation of array Eq. (7) shows that the angular momentum per unit mass
The Coma Galaxy Cluster has a measured (in Coma center-of-mass frame) Gaussian distribution of speeds [2] that extends up to 3000 km/s. For our first example, we will use a small value for the initial speed of a galaxy:
For
Since
This gives the last initial condition
Evaluating Eq. (15) gives
Designating the right hand side of Eq. (10) as
Finally, the problem to be numerically solved is reduced to
In Figure 7 we give the polar graph of 4 revolutions showing that the orbit precesses without any relativistic corrections or perturbations. This is non-Keplerian behavior: a spiralgraph. If we look closely at the starting location
Orbital mechanics for small velocity coma cluster galaxy.
We now compute the period for this case. In order to do this, we have to arrange the variables such that
so the period
This is done using
This gives
Doing this final integration numerically reveals
In Figure 8, the speed is plotted against rotation angle, showing the near SHM of small birth velocities. Starting at 100 km/s at 0 degrees, it reaches a high
The speed of the small velocity galaxy for one revolution, showing the near SHM for small initial birth velocities. See text for explanation.
The only change from the prior case is the initial speed
In Figure 9, we give 4 revolutions for this case, again showing non-Keplerian behavior. Note that the starting initial conditions permit the galaxy to expand beyond
Orbital mechanics for large velocity coma cluster galaxy.
For the period of this case, one can show that the numerical integration is
Doing this final integration numerically finds
The KATRIN neutrino mass experiment [7] can prove Dark Matter is the condensation of cosmological neutrinos and anti-neutrinos by obtaining a mass signal for the electron-anti-neutrino. The Planck Satellite Consortium assumes no condensation of cosmological neutrinos in their analysis of the cosmological microwave background and predicts neutrino masses too small for KATRIN to measure [8]. The identification of CNO as the Dark Matter allows mathematical modeling of embedded galaxy orbits, first reported here, using the Coma Cluster of galaxies.
Galaxies inside the CNO Dark Matter self-aggregate with a probability distribution at locations between
The next step is to do a simulation of N-number of self-aggregating galaxies over an initial period of time and time-advance it to the present day. The ‘birth’ distribution in velocities will give rise to a predicted later time-evolved velocity distribution that can be compared to the present-day astronomically measured velocity distribution.
Because of the huge CNO Dark Matter mass, individual galaxy collisions are a small perturbation of cluster dynamics. The probability that you have cluster evaporation from many-body interactions is near zero and completely negligible: baryonic matter situated in a CNO gravitational well stays in the CNO gravitational well. For our numerical examples here, we used two galaxies at the same initial radial distance. However, the orbital planes of both galaxies could have been in any 3-dimensional orientation in 3-space, hence even the same initial radial orbits have a negligible chance of interacting.
The author states that there is no conflict of interest.
condensed neutrino object, stable assemblage of neutrinos and anti-neutrinos.
Newton’s gravitational constant.
Dark Matter gravitational potential (potential energy per unit mass) at location
Spiral galaxy center-of-mass position inside the Dark Matter Object.
spiral arm vector in spiral galaxy center of mass.
mass of CNO, Eq. (4)
neutrino mass scale, to be measured by [7].
radius of CNO, Eq. (4)
simple harmonic motion.
reduced Fermi momentum, where
modeled mass and radius of the Coma Galaxy cluster CNO, Eqs. (5) and (6).
mega-par-sec.
mass of the Sun.
enclosed CNO mass at radius
where
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Fabric Engineering",fullTitle:"Woven Fabric Engineering"},signatures:"Gianluca Cicala, Giuseppe Cristaldi, Giuseppe Recca and Alberta Latteri",authors:null},{id:"22392",doi:"10.5772/19872",title:"Azo Dyes and Their Metabolites: Does the Discharge of the Azo Dye into Water Bodies Represent Human and Ecological Risks?",slug:"azo-dyes-and-their-metabolites-does-the-discharge-of-the-azo-dye-into-water-bodies-represent-human-a",totalDownloads:11706,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:69,abstract:null,book:{id:"528",slug:"advances-in-treating-textile-effluent",title:"Advances in Treating Textile Effluent",fullTitle:"Advances in Treating Textile Effluent"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Daniel Junqueira Dorta and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De 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Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70564",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Dyes and Its Application on Textile Substrates",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-dyes-and-its-application-on-textile-substrates",totalDownloads:2939,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"The meticulous environmental standards in textiles and garments imposed by countries cautious about nature and health protection are reviving interest in the application of natural dyes in dyeing of textile materials. The toxic and allergic reactions of synthetic dyes are compelling the people to think about natural dyes. Natural dyes are renewable source of colouring materials. Besides textiles it has application in colouration of foods, medicine and in handicraft items. Though natural dyes are ecofriendly, protective to skin and pleasing colour to eyes, they are having very poor bonding with textile fibre materials, which necessitate mordanting with metallic mordants, some of which are not eco friendly, for fixation of natural dyes on textile fibres. So the supremacy of natural dyes is somewhat subdued. This necessitates newer research on application of natural dyes on different natural fibres for completely eco friendly textiles. The fundamentals of natural dyes chemistry and some of the important research work are therefore discussed in this review article.",book:{id:"9203",slug:"chemistry-and-technology-of-natural-and-synthetic-dyes-and-pigments",title:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments",fullTitle:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments"},signatures:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",authors:[{id:"305259",title:"Dr.",name:"Virendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Gupta",slug:"virendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Virendra Kumar Gupta"}]},{id:"49647",title:"Fiber Selection for the Production of Nonwovens",slug:"fiber-selection-for-the-production-of-nonwovens",totalDownloads:10512,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The most significant feature of nonwoven fabric is made directly from fibers in a continuous production line. While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). Raw materials have not only delivered significant product improvements but also benefited people using these products by providing hygiene and comfort.",book:{id:"5062",slug:"non-woven-fabrics",title:"Non-woven Fabrics",fullTitle:"Non-woven Fabrics"},signatures:"Nazan Avcioglu Kalebek and Osman Babaarslan",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}]},{id:"41409",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7038,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"296",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/115862",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"115862"},fullPath:"/profiles/115862",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()