Etiological factors associated with acute pancreatitis.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"701",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases - From Bench to Bedside - Research Aspects",title:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases",subtitle:"From Bench to Bedside - Research Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cervical cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women worldwide, and infection with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) has been identified as the causal agent for this condition. The natural history of cervical cancer is characterized by slow disease progression, rendering the condition, in essence, preventable and even treatable when diagnosed in early stages. Pap smear and the recently introduced prophylactic vaccines are the most prominent prevention options, but despite the availability of these primary and secondary screening tools, the global burden of disease is unfortunately still very high. This book will focus on epidemiological and fundamental research aspects in the area of HPV, and it will update those working in this fast-progressing field with the latest information.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-855-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6725-9",doi:"10.5772/1210",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"human-papillomavirus-and-related-diseases-from-bench-to-bedside-research-aspects",numberOfPages:420,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dbaf0635e78a5900e85513add5bea345",bookSignature:"Davy Vanden Broeck",publishedDate:"January 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/701.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40856,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"93213",title:"Dr.",name:"Davy",middleName:null,surname:"Vanden Broeck",slug:"davy-vanden-broeck",fullName:"Davy Vanden Broeck",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93213/images/2523_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Davy Vanden Broeck, MSc, PhD obtained this MSc degree Biochemistry from Antwerp University (Belgium) with judicium Cum Laude. Afterwards he pursued a PhD in Biomedical Sciences (Antwerp University). Later, he joined the International Centre for Reproductive Health (ICRH) and research efforts focused on sexually transmitted viruses. Finally, he obtained two consecutive post-doc grants at Ghent University (Ghent, Belgium), with specific focus on papilloma virus research.\nCurrently, Dr. Vanden Broeck holds the position of professor Molecular Virology and heads the ICRH HPV/cervical cancer research team. Within this team, multi-disciplinary research is performed on the prevention of cervical cancer (vaccine, screening), as well as clinical/translational aspects of cervical cancer research, but equally fundamental research forms part of the research agenda.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"26625",title:"Epidemiology of Mucosal Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infections Among Adult and Children",doi:"10.5772/29583",slug:"epidemiology-of-mucosal-human-papillomavirus-hpv-infections-among-adult-and-children",totalDownloads:2491,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Helen Trottier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/26625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/26625",authors:[{id:"78452",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Trottier",slug:"helen-trottier",fullName:"Helen Trottier"}],corrections:null},{id:"26626",title:"Human Papillomavirus Type Distribution in Southern China and Taiwan",doi:"10.5772/28989",slug:"human-papillomavirus-type-distribution-in-southern-china-and-taiwan",totalDownloads:1973,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chung-Yung Chen and Chin-Hung Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/26626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/26626",authors:[{id:"76113",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yung",surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yung-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yung Chen"},{id:"81751",title:"Mr.",name:"Chin-Hung",surname:"Wang",slug:"chin-hung-wang",fullName:"Chin-Hung Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"26627",title:"Human Papillomavirus Worldwide Distribution in Women Without Cervical Cancer",doi:"10.5772/27116",slug:"human-papillomavirus-worldwide-distribution-in-women-without-cervical-cancer",totalDownloads:4598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"I. 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The integration of experimental methods with computational methods is invaluable both in the development of promising new bioactive compounds and in the molecular characterization of protein-ligand or protein-protein interactions. Molecular docking, in one of these molecular modeling methods, is a unique approach to revealing key interactions in important molecular recognition processes and to accurately predict receptor-ligand binding free energies. Today, the molecular docking method has not only enabled the discovery of new drugs and therapeutic agents but also opened different windows to the submicroscopic world of interacting partner molecules by providing a unique atomistic perspective in the explanation of important intermolecular phenomena.
\r\n\r\n\tThe topics covered in this book are mainly:
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. He is a published author of several articles in journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E, and has manuscripts in other refereed scientific journals. He currently serves as a referee in several journals covered by the SCI and SCI-E. His studies mainly fall into the field of genetic toxicology. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"47453",title:"Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors",doi:"10.5772/58941",slug:"etiology-of-pancreatitis-and-risk-factors",body:'Acute pancreatitis (AP) is one of the most common gastrointestinal diseases requiring hospitalization worldwide, with a rising incidence ranging from 13 to 45 per 100,000 persons/year. The burden of this disease on patients and society is expected to increase even more. Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is a progressive fibro-inflammatory disorder which eventually culminates in permanent impairment of the exocrine and/or endocrine pancreatic function. Although the incidence and prevalence of CP is lower than the reported for AP, this disease significantly reduces patients’ quality of life. The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons [1].
Many conditions are known to potentially cause pancreatitis with varying degrees of certainty, and although some variations have been described between countries, most of cases are attributed to biliary stones or sludge, followed by alcohol abuse. Advances in imaging, molecular biology and genetics have broadened the list of possible etiologies, and the number of presumed idiopathic cases (10-15%) will decrease as our understanding of the disease improves [1,2].
The etiology of pancreatitis should be determined on admission or in the early course of the disease, as this allows the clinician to choose the most appropriate management strategies and therapy in acute phase, and prevent recurrence. A detailed personal history (including data such as previous acute pancreatitis or gallstone disease, alcohol abuse, drug intake, metabolic syndromes, trauma or recent invasive procedures, concomitant autoimmune diseases) and family history of pancreatic disorders can provide guidance for a first etiological approach. Physical examination, biochemical tests (liver enzymes, calcium, triglycerides) and the appropriate performance of imaging studies will help to make a differential diagnosis among biliary, alcoholic and other causes of pancreatitis.
In this chapter, the aim will be to conduct a comprehensive and updated review of the possible causes of pancreatitis (Table 1) and associated risk factors.
Although the incidence of AP do not differ according to sex, CP is more common among men. The risk of AP increases with age, whereas CP mainly affects middle-age individuals. Besides, age and sex distribution is different by etiology. Usually, alcohol-related pancreatitis is more common in middle-aged men. By contrast, pancreatitis in women is more frequent related to gallstones, instrumental procedures, autoimmune diseases or to be idiopathic. Geographic variations observed in age and sex distribution can be partly explained by differences in etiology [1,3].
The risk of pancreatitis is 2 to 3-fold higher among the black population than the whites. Little is known about the possible reasons of this racial disparity and further studies are needed to determine whether these observed differences may be related to dietary, genetic or other factors [1,4].
The role of dietary factors in the etiology of pancreatitis is unclear. The consumption of high glycemic foods has been associated with an increased risk of non-gallstone-related acute pancreatitis. By contrast, it has been suggested that vegetables and fruit consumption are associated with reduced risk for pancreatic diseases [5,6].
It also should be noted that celiac disease increases the risk of pancreatitis by approximately 3-fold. Diffuse inflammation of the duodenum and papillary stenosis may be the mechanisms involved [7].
Dietary pattern is an area for future research, with other new issues to analyze as the role of the microbiota in pancreatic diseases [8].
It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. The overweight has similar effect for gallstone and non-gallstone-related inflammation [5,9].
Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients [10]. This risk may be attributed to diabetes itself, but also to other associated factors with this metabolic disorder (gallstones, hypertriglyceridemia) or the use of antidiabetic drugs such as dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors (sitagliptin) or glucagon-like peptide 1 agonist (exenatide) [11].
Mechanical ampullary obstruction can be induced mainly by gallstone, but also for a wide variety of other disorders [1,2].
Gallstones (including microlithiasis) are the most common etiology of AP, accounting for at least 35-45% of cases. However, only 3 to 7% of patients with gallstones develop pancreatitis. The risk increases with the age, female gender and small gallstones. The rising incidence of obesity is likely to contribute to AP by promoting gallstone formation.
Proposed mechanisms in the pathogenesis of this disorder include reflux of bile into the pancreatic duct due to transient ampullary obstruction and/or secondary to edema resulting from the passage of stones. Both events may lead to increase pressure in the pancreatic duct, resulting in injury of the gland with release of pancreatic enzymes causing autodigestion and triggering AP [12].
Biliary sludge is a viscous suspension in gallbladder bile that may contain small (< 5mm) stones (i.e., microlithiasis). Its formation has been associated with mechanical or functional conditions that promote bile stasis, such as distal bile duct obstruction, prolonged fasting, total parenteral nutrition or use of ceftriaxone [13]. It is commonly found up to 20-40% of patients initially diagnosed with idiopathic pancreatitis, and in the absence of any other etiology this could be considered as probable cause of the disease.
Gallstones are not recognized as etiology of CP. However, prolonged ductal obstruction may lead to development of CP.
Pancreatic and periampullary tumors can cause pancreatitis. The intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm is the most commonly involved, due to obstruction of main and/or side branches of pancreatic duct by the tumor itself and/or by mucus secretion [14]. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma can also present as pancreatitis, and the acute attacks may precede the diagnosis of overt malignancy in the gland by several months [15]. It has been estimated that approximately 5-14% of patients with benign or malignant pancreatobiliary tumors are initially diagnosed as idiopathic AP [16]. Unexplained recurrent pancreatitis from the middle age should raise the suspicion of underlying tumor, especially in patients with worrisome associated symptoms (weight loss, new-onset diabetes).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Gallstones, microlithiasis, “biliary sludge” • Benign and malignant strictures, ampullary or pancreatic tumors, mucin ( • Anatomic variants: • Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction • Parasites ( | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Alcohol, Tobacco • Organophosphorous insecticides • Venoms ( • Estricnine • Heroin, cocaine • Drugs: | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Hereditary pancreatitis • Cystic fibrosis | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography • Transparietohepatic cholangiography • Pancreas biopsy / Fine-needle aspiration • Transcatheter arterial embolization for hepatocellular carcinoma • Posoperative | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Viruses: • Bacteria: • Fungi: • Parasites: | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
• Hypotension/Ischemia • Vasculitis • Atheromatosis, emboli to pancreatic vessels • Hypothermia • Haemolysis | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Etiological factors associated with acute pancreatitis.
Other conditions that have been associated with obstructive pancreatitis include anatomic variants and physiologic anomalies of the pancreatic drainage that occur in 10-15 % of the population, including pancreas divisum and sphincter of Oddi dysfunction (SOD).
It is the most common congenital malformation of the pancreas. It is due to the fusion failure between the dorsal and ventral pancreas, resulting in separate pancreatic ductal systems. It is found in approximately 7% of autopsy series. The implication of this anatomic variant as a potential cause of AP remains controversial. The proposed pathogenic mechanism is the relative obstruction to pancreatic juice flow through the minor papilla, leading to increased intraductal pressure. However, since the rate of AP in patients with pancreas divisum is similar to the general population, it has been suggested that the involvement of other factors is required to the development of the disease. In this regard, the prevalence of this malformation in patients with mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
SOD is also a controversial cause of AP (Table 2). The involved mechanism is associated with spasm or stenosis of the sphincter muscle controlling the bile and pancreatic flow into the duodenum. Pancreatic-type SOD ranges from patients with pancreatic-type pain, raised serum amylase or lipase and pancreatic duct dilatation (Type I), to those with pancreatic-type pain and no other abnormalities (Type III). The importance of this condition as cause of recurrent AP is not clearly established, although it has been considered to cause up to one third of all cases of idiopathic pancreatitis [16].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t • Biliary-type pain • And all of the following: - Abnormal aminotransferases or alkaline phosphatase (>2 times normal on at least 2 ocassions) - Dilated bile duct (>8 mm) | \n\n\t • Pancreatic-type pain • And all of the following: - Amylase/lipase (>1.5 times normal) - Pancreatic duct >6 mm in head or >5mm in body - Delayed drainage of contrast after ERCP (>9 minutes) | \n
\n\t\t • Biliary-type pain • And one of the following: - Abnormal aminotransferases or alkaline phosphatase (>2 times normal on at least 2 ocassions) - Dilated bile duct (>8 mm) | \n\n\t • Pancreatic-type pain • And one or two of the following: - Amylase/lipase (>1.5 times normal) - Pancreatic duct >6 mm in head or >5mm in body - Delayed drainage of contrast after ERCP (>9 minutes) | \n
\n\t\t Biliary-type pain only | \n\t\n\t\t Pancreatic-type pain only \n\t | \n
Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction. Revised Classification Milwaukee. The Rome III Consensus Statement.
The prevalence of AP is approximately 4-fold higher among subjects who are alcohol consumers compared to nondrinkers. However, the absolute risk of developing alcohol-related pancreatitis is lower than that for chronic alcohol liver diseases and ranges from 5% to 10% for large consumers [18,19]. Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks.
The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. The contribution of the beverage type to this risk requires further studies [19,20].
Although the exact mechanism of pancreatic injury remains unclear, alcohol may act directly on the acinar cells as a toxic by promoting the synthesis of enzymes, activation of pancreatic proteases, changes in cellular lipid metabolism, induction of oxidative stress, activation of stellate cells and/or by increasing the sensitivity of the gland to other genetic and environmental factors.
Two pathogenic theories have been described. In one, alcohol-related injury is the result of perturbations in exocrine function leading to an increase of the lithogenicity of pancreatic juice and the formation of protein plugs and stones. Atrophy and fibrosis develop as a result of the obstructive process. The other theory proposed a stepwise progression to fibrosis after recurrent attacks of AP. Inflammation and necrosis from the initial episodes of AP lead to areas of scarring, ductal obstruction, stasis and subsequent stone formation. However, given the low rate of pancreatitis among heavy drinkers, it has been suggested that other genetic and environmental cofactors would be required for the development of alcoholic pancreatitis [19,21].
Tobacco and alcohol are cofactors that increase the risk of pancreatitis. Furthermore, both habits often coexist and are enhanced in a dose-dependent manner. However, large studies have suggested that smoking alone is an independent risk factor for both AP and CP [22,23].
It has been reported that smoking increases by approximately 2-fold the risk of non-gallstone-related AP, but not for gallstone-related pancreatitis. This risk was higher in patients who consumed alcohol, current smokers and those with more than 20 packs-years of smoking, particularly if they met the three characteristics (relative risk, 4.12) [24].
Regarding CP, smoking alone has been attributed 25% of the risk for this disease. It has been calculated a risk more than 2-fold among subjects who smoked less than one pack/day, and more than 3-fold for those with higher consumption [25].
At this time, there is very little information about the pathogenesis of smoking-induced pancreatitis compared with those of other causes. Data from animal models suggest several potential mechanisms such as altered gene expression in the exocrine pancreas and activation of pancreatic enzymes with acinar cell damage. Nicotine has also been shown to modulate the oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation and these processes might be involved in the pathophysiology of acute and chronic pancreatitis. As is becoming evident with respect to alcohol, there may be other environmental and/or genetic factors that may promote pancreatic injury with smoking [26].
AP due to drugs is a rare event (2%). Over one hundred of different medications have been related in the development of the disease by several mechanims. These include immunologic reactions (azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine, aminosalicylates, sulfonamides), a direct toxic effect (diuretics, sulfonamides), accumulation of toxic metabolites (valproic acid, didanosine, pentamidine, tetracycline), ischemia (diuretics, azathioprine), intravascular thrombosis (estrogen), and increased viscosity of pancreatic juice (diuretics and steroids). No medications are known to cause CP.
Drug-induced pancreatitis has been classified (I-IV) (Table 3) according to the number of registered cases, latency period and reaction with rechallenge: Class Ia drugs (at least 1 case report with positive rechallenge, excluding all other causes, such as alcohol, hypertriglyceridemia, gallstones, and other drugs), Class Ib drugs (at least 1 case report with positive rechallenge; however, other causes, such as alcohol, hypertriglyceridemia, gallstones, and other drugs were not ruled out), Class II drugs (at least 4 cases in the literature and consistent latency in ≥75% of cases), Class III drugs (at least 2 cases in the literature with no consistent latency among cases and no rechallenge) and Class IV drugs (Not fitting into the earlier-described classes, single case report published in medical literature, without rechallenge). Classes I and II have the greatest potential for causing AP. The time interval between beginning of the drug and the development of the disease is highly variable, depending on the substance involved and its pathogenic mechanism. Therefore, a high index of suspicion and a detailed drug history are essential for making the diagnosis [27,28].
Organophosphate pesticides, arachnids and reptiles venoms have been described to cause AP by cholinergic stimulation [2]. Cocaine consumption may cause pancreatitis by vasoconstrictor and ischemic effects [29].
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||
α-methyldopa Azodisalicylate Bezafibrate Cannabis Carbimazole Codeine | \n\t\tCytosine Arabinoside Dapsone Enalapril Furosemide Isoniazid | \n\t\tMesalamine Metronidazole Pentamidine Pravastatin Procainamide Pyritonol | \n\t\tSimvastatin Stibogluconate Sulfamethoxazole Sulindac Tetracycline Valproic acid | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||
All-trans-retinoic acid Amiodarone Azathioprine Clomiphene Dexamethasone Ifosfamida | \n\t\tLamivudine Losartan Lynesterol/ Metho-xyethinylestradiol 6- Mercaptopurine \n\t\t | \n\t\tMeglumine Methimazole Nelfinavir Norethindronate/ mestranol Omeprazole | \n\t\tPremarin Sulfamethazole Trimethoprim-sulfamethazole | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||
Acetaminophen Chlorthiazide Clozapine | \n\t\tDidanosine Erythromycin Estrogen | \n\t\tL-asparaginase Pegasparagase \n\t\t | \n\t\tPropofol Tamoxifen | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||
Aledronate Atorvastatin Carbamazepine Captopril Ceftriaxone Chlorothalidone | \n\t\tCimetidine Clarithromycin Cyclosporin Gold Hydrochlorothiazide Indomethacin \n\t\t | \n\t\tInterferon/ribavirin Irbesartan Isotretinoin Ketorolac Lisinopril Metalozone \n\t\t | \n\t\tMetformin Minocycline Mirtazapine Naproxen Paclitaxel Prednisone Prednisolone | \n\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t||||
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone Ampicillin Bendroflumethiazide Benzapril Betamethazone Capecytabine | \n\t\tCisplatin Colchicine Cyclophosphamide Cyproheptidine Danazol Diazoxide | \n\t\tDiclofenac Difenoxylate Doxorubicin Ethacrinic acid Famciclovir Finasteride 5-fluorouracil | \n\t\tFluvastatin Gemfibrozil Interleukin-2 Ketoprofen Lovastatin Mefanamic acid Nitrofurantoin | \n\t
Summary of the medications associated with pancreatitis based on Drug Class.
This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. The disease typically develops in patients with a history of familiar hyperlipidemia and/or an associated secondary factor as uncontrolled diabetes, alcohol consumption, hypothyroidism, nephrotic syndrome, drug intake or pregnancy. The risk is particularly increased in patients with AP not due to alcoholic or obstructive causes and with high serum triglyceride concentrations above 1000 mg/dL. Mild-to-moderate hyperlipidemia is often secondary to alcoholic AP, and should not be confused with marked hypertriglyceridemia causing AP [2].
The mechanism of hypertriglyceridemia induced pancreatitis is unclear though some authors suggest stimulation of amylase release, cell damage from free fatty acids and chylomicrons in acinar cells, and sluggish flow in the capillaries resulting in ischemic injury [13].
This is a rare cause of AP and almost always happens as result of concomitant hyperparathyroidism. Pancreatitis has been reported to be related to endogenous hypercalcemia by disseminated carcinoma and after iatrogenic effect, for example with total parenteral nutrition or vitamin D poisoning. Proposed mechanisms include deposition of calcium in pancreatic duct and calcium activation of trypsinogen within the pancreatic parenchyma. Because the incidence of pancreatitis is low in patients with chronic hypercalcemia, additional factors are probable necessary to induce acute episodes [13,30].
In pancreatitis, alterations in several genes have so far been described [31].
Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen
Severe homozygote mutations in
Mutations in the serine protease inhibitor kazal type 1 gene (
Both types of injuries may cause pancreatitis in about 0.2% and 1% cases respectively, ranging from a mild contusion to a severe damage [2]. These conditions can lead to acute duct rupture and pancreatic ascites. The low rates of AP after trauma result from the retroperitoneal location of the gland. The injury healing may result in a narrowing of the main pancreatic duct, causing obstructive pancreatitis in the gland downstream from the stricture.
Rarely a posterior duodenal ulcer can penetrate into the pancreas and thereby induce AP. This complication may present as gastrointestinal bleeding.
The result of instrumentation of the gland as in endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) can result in post-ERCP pancreatitis. This injury occurs in 3-5% of unselected patients and although the episodes are usually mild, up to 11% of cases the disease is severe. The risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis may be increased up to 25% in those with suspected SOD or in those with a prior history of post-ERCP pancreatitis. Other risk factors for the development of this complication include young age, female sex, repeated attempts of papilla cannulation and poor emptying of pancreatic duct after contrast injection. Proposed underlying mechanisms that may be involved in the pathogenesis of post-ERCP pancreatitis are mechanic damage from manipulation, and/or chemical, hydrostatic or thermal injury around the papillary orifice or over pancreatic duct [32,33].
This complication can occur after abdominal or thoracic surgery. It has been described in about 0.4-7.6% after cardiopulmonary bypass and 6% after liver transplantation. Significant risks for postoperative pancreatitis include renal insufficiency, hypotension, and infections. Intraoperative or postoperative medications may also cause pancreatitis [34,35].
Other procedures have also been described as cause of iatrogenic pancreatitis (transparietohepatic cholangiography, pancreatic biopsy/fine-needle aspiration). Pancreatitis after transarterial embolization for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma results from a retrograde injection of the chemotherapeutic or embolic agents into pancreatic arteries, giving rise to ischemic pancreatitis [36].
Many infectious agents are associated with AP (Table 1), but no microorganism has ever been identified within the pancreas. Mumps and Coxsackie B virus are the most common causes of infectious pancreatitis. Other viruses (Cytomegalovirus, Herpes simplex, Varicella-zoster, Hepatitis B), bacteria (
AP may be caused by HIV infection or secondary to anti-retroviral treatment. In acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), other infectious agents may cause pancreatitis including Cytomegalovirus,
Pancreatic ischemia has been reported in the following circumstances: hypotension, hemorrhagic shock, vasculitis (systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarteritis nodosa), atheroembolism, hypothermia, haemolysis and emboli to pancreatic vessels. It has been described episodes of AP in long-distance runners, on an ischemic basis [2].
Less than 5% of patients evaluated in a tertiary center with pancreatitis on admission, were diagnosed as autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP). This disease may present in a variety of ways and among patients with this disease, only 10% to 25% have features of AP o CP at the time of presentation.
AIP has distinct clinical and histological features. Two subtypes are known, the type 1 (lymphoplasmacytic sclerosing pancreatitis) is a multi-organ disease associated with IgG4, and type 2 (idiopathic duct centric pancreatitis) appears to be a pancreas-specific disorder with characteristic granulocyte-epithelial lesions [39]. Immunologic abnormalities including hypergammaglobulinemia, elevated serum IgG4 levels and the presence of autoantibodies against lactoferrin and carbonic anhydrase are important serological markers of the type 1 AIP.
Because the diagnosis can be elusive, several criteria have proposed to diagnose AIP. The most widely used in the United States are the HISORT criteria (histology, imaging, serology, other organ involvement and response to therapy) [40]. Abnormal imaging can be observed in computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging or endoscopic ultrasound as multifocal or diffuse pancreatic-ductal narrowing, and abnormal enhancement or enlargement of the pancreas. Histologic confirmation is desirable and can be obtained by endoscopic ultrasound-guided biopsy of the pancreas. Ampullary biopsy with IgG4 immunostaining may be a safer alternative with a specificity approaching 100% but a sensitivity of about 50% [41]. AIP clearly responds to steroid therapy although spontaneous resolution without treatment has also been described; however relapses are relatively common. In some cases, other immunosuppressive agents are necessary.
There is an increased risk of developing pancreatitis in patients with celiac disease and between 10% and 20% of newly diagnosed patients may develop pancreatic insufficiency. It has been described that celiac disease is associated with a 3-fold increased risk of development any form of pancreatitis and even higher for CP (HR: 19.8). This increased risk was only found among celiac individuals diagnosed in adulthood, and was generally noted in the first year of diagnosis especially for CP and enzyme supplementation, but remained even 5 years after [7].
Several factors might contribute to the association between celiac disease and pancreatitis [13]. The earliest proposed mechanism was malnutrition, which impairs the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and influences the composition of the bile inducing microlithiasis, thus predisposing to development of pancreatitis. Malnutrition has also been described to be associated with increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as pancreatic acinar cell damage, ductal disruption and other structural changes, such as acinar atrophy. Other proposed mechanisms include altered levels of autoregulatory enteric hormones (cholecystokinin) and papillary stenosis resulting from localized duodenal inflammation. Another potential explanation involves immunopathogenetic mechanisms, by T helper cell class 1 (TH1) cytokine up-regulation in celiac disease through polymorphisms in tumor necrosis factor-α, a TH1 proinflammatory cytokine, which plays an important role in the pathogenesis of severe pancreatitis. Villous atrophy is associated with pancreatic insufficiency, and restored pancreatic enzyme levels are observed after introduction of a gluten-free diet.
By contrast, the relationship between autoimmune pancreatitis and celiac disease has not been demonstrated, since there is only so far a case report of this association [42].
Pancreatitis has been associated with inflammatory bowel disease, either secondary to the use of drugs that may potentially cause this disorder or by other mechanisms as duodenal Crohn´s disease leading to pancreatic flow obstruction, or as a result of the granulomatous disease or the autoimmune process directly involving the pancreas [43].
This condition is defined as pancreatitis with unknown etiology established after initial laboratory and imaging studies. In some patients the cause may be found after further investigations, but in others no definitive etiology is detected. These patients should be evaluated at centers of excellence focusing on pancreatic diseases. It is recommended to complete a comprehensive study, since biliary sludge/microlithiasis may be detected in up to 75% of patients with recurrent AP initially labeled as unknown origin, and it has been estimated that up to 15% of patients with benign or malignant tumors may present as apparent idiopathic pancreatitis. Additionally, the role of genetic testing in idiopathic pancreatitis has yet to be determined, but the study of genetic abnormalities is being increasingly recognized [16,44].
Pancreatitis is a common digestive disorder with a broad spectrum of etiologies. Although most cases are secondary to biliary stones/sludge or alcohol abuse, other potential causes should be considered once the two most common etiologies have been excluded. One of the primary goals in the diagnostic process of the pancreatitis should be to reduce the rate of idiopathic pancreatitis, because the identification of the cause of the disease may help to prevent subsequent relapses when the etiological factor is eliminated.
Agriculture is a soil-based industry that is heavily burdened to feed the increasing global population. And soil has been described as “the fragile living skin of the Earth”, but yet both its aliveness and fragility have often been ignored in the expansion of agriculture across the face of the globe [1]. Since it is a pivotal component in a global nexus of soil, water, air, and energy, how we treat the soil can impact massively on agriculture and climate change. Soils constitute one of the largest reservoirs of biodiversity on Earth and soil organisms are the source of key ecological functions and services that support agriculture, including soil conservation, water cycling, pest and disease regulation, carbon sequestration, and nitrogen fixation [2].
Currently, sustainable agriculture which is expressed as “industrialized agriculture” [3] relies on monoculture cropping, increasing use of mechanization, the application of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, along with liberal government subsidies. Although this approach can be considered successful, in that it has managed to feed a massively rising human population [4], a range of environmental and social burdens have also been incurred, including erosion, soil nutrient depletion and contamination; loss of water resources and biodiversity, loss of forests and desertification; human labor abuses; and naturally the decline of the traditional farming practices.
In Ethiopia, one of the most singly destructive factors in farming is land resource degradation [5]. Almost all the land resource balances in Ethiopia show a soil nutrient deficit, water and soils are eroded, forests are depleted, wildlife and biodiversities are disturbed; representing a loss of yield and quality for consumption and causes climate change. Once the land becomes degraded, fertility and health of the soil are lost; farmers suffer extreme losses in very low yields on their farms. Such losses are projected in an environment sensitive to climate change, cost of living, and starvation. Hence, urgent steps are needed to avoid this and regenerate the depleted resources.
Therefore, there is no need of sustaining the already degraded land resources, rather regenerating them and formulating sustainable agriculture. The agricultural revolution in Ethiopia is wishing for effective solutions which are fundamental to land management and agricultural practices. Regenerative Agriculture which defined as “
Regenerative agriculture at its core has the intention to improve the health of soil or to restore highly degraded soil, which symbiotically enhances the quality of water, vegetation, and land productivity [8, 9]. Essentially, regenerative agriculture depends upon soil biodiversity and there may be no soil biodiversity without practices of regenerative agriculture; they have evolved together. By using methods of regenerative agriculture, it is possible not only to increase the amount of soil organic carbon in existing soils but to build new soils through attenuate the rate of soil erosion, restoration of the soil food web, improvement of soil fertility, and the activities of plants, animals, insects, fungi, bacteria, and humans too, all play a part in the formation of soil [1]. Hence, for the future scenarios challenging the agricultural sector such as soil degradation, increasing food demand, climate change, water scarcity, global soil biodiversity education and consideration of soil biology as a long term solution is needed to realize the full benefits of regenerative agriculture and respond to the needs of farmers and consumers relating to agriculture and land management.
Similarly, soil biodiversity plays a role in the formation of soil and enhances the ecosystem functions, services [10], and intern production and productivity of regenerative agriculture. Thus, this would lead to the consideration of soil biodiversity (activities of plant roots, animals, insects, fungi, bacteria…) as nature-based solutions in the restoration of the soil food web, improvement of soil health and fertility, agricultural productivity, while locking-up carbon from the atmosphere.
Increased education and awareness are key strategies in ensuring that soil biodiversity is no longer out of sight, out of mind. As agricultural soils are under threat, there is a need to promote interactions between scientists, policymakers, and the general public to transfer and implement scientific findings of the benefits of soil biodiversity and ways to restore and conserve it [11]. These organizations and Elizabeth
And finally, increasing knowledge and literacy, and passion, particularly around soil biodiversity is essential to draw on the diverse community of stakeholders required to discover and implement biological solutions for the daunting challenges people face in climate change, agriculture, ecosystem restoration, environmental pollution, and human health. Once more, this review is the place to get awareness and understanding of the contribution of soil biodiversity to regenerative agriculture.
The review was done by a literature search and document sourcing using an online search in major websites that provide access to scientific research, like Research Gate, Science Direct, and Google Scholar to referring different research findings; reports, and working guidelines, as well as knowledge shared from different soil biodiversity conferences and webinar discussion points. Besides, citations in key papers were followed to identify additional relevant Articles and synthesize relevant peer-reviewed articles and related literature. Hence, it may represent a general diversity of regions and nations and provides a wealth of principles, examples, actions, and solutions to bring soil biodiversity into the light of regenerative agriculture.
Current conventional farming methods are resulting in the loss of fertile soil and biodiversity. According to Maria-Helena Semedo of the FAO, as cited by Chris [13], the world could run out of topsoil in about 60 years if we continue at current rates of soil destruction, as now about a third of the world’s soil has already been degraded. This affects the earth’s ability of food production, water filtering, carbon absorption, and farmers will no longer have enough arable topsoil to feed the growing world population. There might be a duty to transit towards regenerative agricultural practices.
Regenerative Agriculture is a system of farming principles and practices that increases biodiversity, enriches soils, improves watersheds, and enhances ecosystem services. The regenerative farming approach focuses on restoring soils that have been degraded by the industrial agricultural system. Its methods promote healthier ecosystems by rebuilding soil organic matter through holistic farming and grazing techniques. It enables the regeneration of land resources through the restoration of vegetation in a farm landscape using a high diversity of both annual and perennial crops [14, 15]. Moreover, it considers potential environmental and social impacts by eliminating the use of synthetic inputs and replacing them with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil health, employment opportunities, and mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
Among the regenerative agriculture principles, No-till reduces soil erosion and encourages soil water infiltration [19]. Cover crops do the same, and can also reduce water pollution and contribute to reducing soil organic matter losses [20]. Diverse crop rotations can lower pesticide use [21] and reduce environmental pollution [22]. Focuses strongly on the environmental dimension of sustainability, which includes themes such as
In the experimental research of La Canne and Lundgren [24], regenerative corn fields generate nearly twice the profit of conventionally managed cornfields. Similarly, their finding discloses the insecticide-treated cornfields had higher pest abundance than untreated, regenerative cornfields. Reports from Burgess
For the goal of agricultural development in 3rd world countries, the future agricultural production systems should be designed to take better advantage of production resources found on the farm [28, 29]. While most of the regenerative and organic markets are in developed countries, developing countries like Ethiopia are becoming important suppliers, as regenerative agriculture practices are particularly suited for the conditions of their farmers, especially smallholders living in rainfed areas. However, yet Government agencies in developing countries cannot often make the corporate sector responsible for agricultural development and for preventing harm to the environment. According to reports made by EPAT [30], pesticides that are illegal in Europe are commonly applied throughout sub-Saharan Africa, owing to the industry’s open-door pesticide policy. Farmers in resource-constrained and low potential areas of Ethiopia traditionally use few external inputs [31, 32] but many of the environmental, social, and economic benefits of land management, which translate into ecological intensification, are hampered by a lack of appropriate regenerative agriculture knowledge and skills.
Therefore, by understanding and implementing regenerative agriculture; considering soil biodiversity; the farming community will benefit from enhanced nitrogen fixation, greater total organic matter production, nature-based pest management, genetic tolerance to stress conditions, and higher levels of biological activity all contribute to resource use efficiency and quality of products.
The sustainable development goal (SDG) which were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity provides a renewed motivation for focusing on using soil biodiversity for food and nutrition, and for linking it to the sustainability of future agricultural systems [22]. Soil biodiversity is critical for human health, plant growth and support, water and climate regulation, and erosion and disease control so as considered to be a common ground for achieving sustainability goals [12]. Hence, management and conservation of life in the soil are integral to governmental actions to provide healthy food, reduce greenhouse gases, lessen desertification and soil erosion, and prevent disease thereby regenerating agriculture.
According to the FAO and ITPS’s Status of the World’s Soil Resources report (2015) [33], soil organic carbon and soil biodiversity are crucial to increase food availability and the soil’s ability to buffer against climate change effects. On the International Day for Soil biologic diversity (May 22, 2020), Semedo, who’s the Deputy Director-General for primary natural resources of FAO highlighted
However, unfortunately, most of the case has not been explored so far, the knowledge that has about the soil biodiversity and soil mechanism biodiversity is really near nothing compared to the whole complexity that we have in all parts of the board and the sort of ecosystem. The United Nations in 2015 declared the year to the interest as the International Year of Soils and has asked FAO and the Global Soil Partnership to carry out the first global soil biodiversity assessment which is now in progress.
In agriculture, we have high productivity on the open networks soil. So, soils with biodiversity open networks have more productivity than soil with closed networks. So in nature, plants that are growing in these open networking sites (high diversity soil systems) are capable of taking out nutrients in an efficient way. Of course, the point is that we should not only increase soil biodiversity but also that we have to talk to crop breeders and agronomists to get the right crop species and crop varieties to grow on these biodiverse soils.
On the webinar held among 1136 participants on May 22, 2020, by representing more than 140 countries, around 72% of the people said that soil biodiversity is applied especially in crop production in their country. Then some have in ecosystem restoration, pollution and bioremediation, food processing, and very few in terms of the medical sector [34].
Going forward, harnessing natural resources (microbes, fauna, flora) together with SOM, is considered as the most effective approach for a sustainable increase in farm productivity, mitigating climate change, and restoring degraded environments [11]. Further evidence of the relationships between soil biodiversity and functioning concerning soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics and primary productivity at farm scales can help in bridging the knowledge gaps in the biotic regulation of SOC turnover and plant productivity. This will represent a major advancement, not only in ecology but also in agriculture in the context of global climate change and food security [35].
Soil microorganisms are critical for the maintenance of functions in both natural and managed soils because they are involved in several key processes, such as decomposition of SOM, soil structure formation, the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and toxin removal. Moreover, microorganisms are fundamental in promoting plant growth and in suppressing soil-borne plant diseases [36]. There is mounting evidence that healthy soils may promote the suppression of plant diseases, pests, and pathogens mediated by soil biodiversity through predation, competition, and parasitism [37]. There is confirmation that belowground plant mutualists can ameliorate the impacts of pollution on plant growth [38], and earthworms have been suggested as useful facilitators of ecosystem services in abandoned mining areas [39] all those again might contribute to regenerate agriculture and improve productivity.
In general, everything that we eat, drink, breathe, clothes that we wear, and materials that we use pass through soil and soil biodiversity over and over again. Healthy soil with soil biodiversity at the center of sustainability programs is capable of providing most ecosystem services and therefore achieving compliance with SDGs and human well-being through regenerative agriculture [12]. Half of all sustainable development goals zero hunger, good health and wellbeing, clean water and sanitation, affordable clean energy, responsible consumption and production, climate action, and life on land (SDG-2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 15, respectively) depend on soil and regenerative agriculture [12].
There are currently several lines being explored for agriculture making better use of enhanced soil biodiversity: going back to wild crop relatives and how do they make use of microbiomes and can those traits be restored in current crops? And studying wild plant species along successional gradients to unravel how plants may be productive in high-diversity soils. Considering soil biodiversity also requires considering traits, interactions, and network structure (so, not only numbers). Soil biodiversity as a nature-based solution to enhance sustainability is possible, but it takes two to tango as it requires crops that can handle these soils [34].
Studies show that Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) can alleviate both biotic and abiotic stresses since they can contribute to restoring degraded lands and ecosystems via artificial inoculation, while they improve access of nutrients to plants. They also can regulate abiotic and biotic stresses to plants such as drought, salinity stress, heavy metal phyto-accumulation, and protection against pathogens [40, 41]. AMF are promising soil microorganisms that improve soil health through their influences on plant photosynthesis [42], nutrient transfer [43], root exudation [44], osmotic potentials [45], soil bacteria interactions [46], and soil structural improvement and as a trade-off nutrient uptake, disease control and phytoremediation [47, 48].
Microorganisms provide us many ecosystems service that results in soil health and consequently can be related to soil productivity and regenerating agriculture. For instance, nitrogen-fixing bacteria associate with legume roots fixes large amounts of nitrogen that are of pivotal importance for plant productivity. And the soil biodiversity is an important indicator of soil health in agriculture management [49].
Above all, agriculture needs a healthy full human resource to feed the increasing human population globally. Therefore, consideration of the roles of soil biodiversity on the medical sector or human health is necessary to use the full potentials of soil biodiversity for regenerating the ecosystem and agriculture. Soil microorganisms have an immense potential for the pharmaceutical industry because historically the discovery of numerous new drugs and vaccines; from well-known antibiotics like penicillin to bleomycin using for treating cancer and amphotericin for fungal infections and therapeutic measures for treating and controlling diseases comes from soil organisms [50]. As the systems of soil like that of the human system, the management aspect of the soil should be in line with biology rather than focussing on industrial chemistry.
Soils support highly abundant and diverse communities of organisms that show a broad array of life histories and functional traits, and they range in body size from a few micrometers for some bacteria to several meters in length in the case of some earthworms. The soil microbial community is largely dominated by bacteria and fungi that account for most of the belowground biomass, roughly equal to 0.6 to 1.1% of soil organic C [51], and represent a biodiversity pool with estimated species richness of tens of thousands per gram soil [52]. Despite the importance of soil microorganisms, little is known about their distribution in the soil or how microbial community structure responds to changes in land management (Tables 1 and 2).
Taxon | Diversity per amount soil or area (taxonomic units indicated below) | Abundance (approximate) |
---|---|---|
Bacteria and Archaea | 100–9,000⋅cm−3 | 4–20⋅109⋅cm−3 |
Fungi operational taxonomic units | 200–235 m.g−1 | 100 m.g−1 |
AMF (species) | 10–20 m−2 | 81–111 m.cm−3 |
Protists sequence | 150–1,200 (0.25 g)−1 | 104–107⋅m−2 |
Nematodes (genera) | 10–100 m−2 | 2–90⋅105 m−2 |
Enchytraeids | 1–15 ha−1 | 12,000–311,000 m−2 |
Collembola | 20⋅m−2 | 1–5 104 m−2 |
Mites (Oribatida) | 100–150 m−2 | 1–10 104⋅ m−2 |
Isopoda | 10–100 m−2 | 10 ⋅ m−2 |
Diplopoda | 10–2,500 m−2 | 110 ⋅ m2 |
Earthworms (Oligochaeta) | 10–15 ha−1 | 300 ⋅ m−2 |
Estimated diversity and abundance of soil taxa according to published work of Bardgett and van der Putten [53].
Known and estimated number of species of soil organisms and vascular plants organized according to size.
Asterisks indicate numbers of species that live in the soil.
Source: Orgiazzi
While field research on bio-fertilizers in Ethiopia dating back to the early 1980s by the Institute of Agricultural Research; bio-fertilizers did not become available for farmers until 2010. Later, the National Soil Testing Center (NSTC), Menagesha Biotech Industry (MBI) PLC, and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) have developed capacities to produce Rhizobia-based biofertilizers (Table 3). Currently, postgraduate students and different researchers in Ethiopia have played significant roles in research activities of Rhizobial inoculants collection, characterization, selection, evaluation and revealed the potential of the local isolates to serve as biofertilizers at a commercial level to increase the yield of different leguminous crops [56].
Crop | Types of inoculant (rhizobia) | Crop | Types of inoculant (rhizobia) |
---|---|---|---|
Faba bean and Field pea | Rhizobia leguminosarum vicea | Common bean | |
Chickpea | Mesorhizobium cicer | Cowpea | |
Soybean | Groundnut | Rhizobium spp | |
Lentil | Alfalfa |
Rhizobia species in commercially available inoculants (biofertilizers) for legume crops in Ethiopia as of March 2014.
Source: EIAR [55].
Jida and Assefa have collected 30 isolates of efficient nitrogen-fixing lentil-nodulating rhizobia from farmers’ field soils in central and northern parts of Ethiopia and selected for symbiotically efficient ones, which possess plant growth-promoting characteristics. Under glasshouse conditions, they found characteristics such as IAA production in 36.7% and inorganic phosphate solubilization capacity in 16.7% [57].
Fekadu and Tesfaye [58] reported that
The research outputs of Muluneh and Zinabu [60] revealed that the application of dried cyanobacteria on lettuce crop increased the number of leaves, leaf area, leaf length, fresh weight of the leaf, leaf dry weight, and the root dry weight of the lettuce by 159.5, 112.4, 80.8, 48, 137.5 and 110%, respectively, over their control. Tesfaye
Although different studies have been undertaking on microbial inoculation trials of several pulse crops in Ethiopia, the knowledge and data regarding Ethiopian soil biodiversity are very limited. Of course, the country has a responsible institute (Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute) to ensure the country’s biodiversity and the associated community knowledge for proper conservation and sustainable utilization [63]. However, the most focus is given to above-ground diversity, but the attention given for belowground diversity is less which leads to the presence of limited knowledge and data in soil biodiversity throughout the country.
In 2015 the “Ethiopia’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2015-2020” were developed through the involvement of different stakeholders and higher officials. However, the attention and discussions given for soil biodiversity in the document as well as in the key not messages of higher officials look limited. Different state ministers who participated in the event was forwarded their message regarding Ethiopia’s geographical, climatic, cultural, linguistic diversity and then about the above-ground diversity (plant, birds, mammals, fish…) but not on the diversity under their feet [64]. This reflects that society in general and policymakers, in particular, have neglected soil biodiversity; no attention was given to the large biodiversity pool stored belowground.
Generally, although some research findings were done and doing on the use of soil microbes as a biofertilizer in Ethiopia mainly by the academic group, there are no confidential estimates on the number of species, taxonomic groups, ecological functions and services, and interactions among soil organisms so far in Ethiopia. Moreover, there is no exact data on the level of threats to soil microbial genetic resources of the country. However, all factors affecting the ecosystem, plant, and animal biodiversity are believed to affect directly or indirectly the soil biodiversity base of the country [65]. Therefore, collecting, identifying, conserving, and knowing the status of soil biodiversity genetic resources of the country will be a forthcoming major task.
The landmark FAO state about soil biodiversity for food and agriculture [66], the first-ever launch last year highlighted that associate biodiversity species living in around production seasons, particularly microorganisms and invertebrates, has never been documented. In many cases, there is a limited understanding of ecosystem function and service and consequently, the contribution of specific soil biodiversity components to the production systems is poorly understood [67]. This discloses that due to the presence of knowledge gap and complex interaction of soil life, soil biodiversity is increasingly under threat which results in changes in the composition of soil communities and loss of species, as well as the benefits they provide to all life. Therefore, governments and society all need to better understand the complexity of the interaction regarding all elements of future agriculture and the soils to think about resilience and food systems.
As a whole, soil degradation by erosion, land-use change, climate change, soil pollution, salinization, and sealing all threaten soil biodiversity by compromising or destroying the habitat of the soil biota. Management practices that reduce the deposition or persistence of organic matter in soils, or bypass biologically mediated nutrient cycling, also tend to reduce the size and complexity of soil communities. For instance, land-use intensification results in fewer functional groups of soil biota with fewer and taxonomically more closely related species [68]. Intensive agriculture and sealing of fertile lands due to urbanization can cause declines in abundance and species of soil biodiversity, making soil food webs less diverse [10, 69]. Wagg
Deforestation can alter the structure of soil communities and decrease species richness (including natural predators and pollinators) and leading to homogenization. Consequently, the area will have a reduction of ecosystem resilience due to organism imbalance, which can favor pests and disease outbreaks. [73, 74, 75]. In the findings of Migliorini
The introduction of all kinds of invasive alien species has harmed the above-ground biodiversity and the native soil biodiversity. The effects of invasive species in soil biodiversity vary depending on the species trophic position. Many invasive soil species are related to agricultural pests while certain species are introduced as biocontrol agents. Another example is the introduction of non-native earthworms (which are ecosystem engineers), but their invasions can cause cascading effects that impact plant communities, forest, carbon sequestration, and wildlife [78, 79].
Soil biodiversity is part of the biological resources of the agroecosystems and must be considered in national and international management decisions. As indicated in the publication of Lijbert
Global Soil Partnership (GSP) was established in December 2012 to enhance collaboration and synergy of efforts for sustainable soil management, and to protect biodiversity through sustainable soil management. The GSP supports soil biodiversity enhancement through monitoring soil biodiversity; maintaining or enhancing soil organic matter levels; the regulation of authorization and use of pesticides in agricultural systems; the use of nitrogen-fixing leguminous species; restoring plant biodiversity and crop rotation. All those activities lead to sustainable soil management and higher and more stable productivity [83]. Over the past few years, there has been an increased interest in organic farming practices, which could have benefits for soil biodiversity, particularly owing to the reduced use of pesticides [84].
There is a need to celebrate discoveries about life under our feet, as well as to integrate knowledge about soil biodiversity into international policies. Understanding how limitations to agricultural production at various levels (social, cultural, economic, political, agronomic, biological, environmental, edaphic, genetic) can be overcome is essential, to predict possible management options for the conservation of soil biodiversity and regenerative agriculture. To restore soil biodiversity, there is a need to think about ecosystem management, first, and store by diversity and its multi-functionality that what they are doing and how they are interacting with other species.
Soil biodiversity is highly linked with the ecosystem functions and services in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; all those do have their contribution and influence on land resources and agriculture. The soil organisms are contributing to climate mitigation and adaptation, water infiltration, and purification, soil health improvements and productivity, and playing countless roles through modification of conditions for the proper plant, animal, and human health all those are intern involved in regenerative agriculture. So, regenerative agricultural practices and soil biodiversity are evolved together and they are important components for future agricultural directions both in developed and developing countries.
However, there are knowledge and skill gaps in the area of soil biodiversity particularly on invertebrates and soil microorganisms to taxonomically classify and determine the complex interaction among themselves and the environmental factors. Therefore, more attention should be given to the discoveries of soil biodiversity and moving beyond academic circles particularly in the developing countries, to use them as a natured based solution for regenerative agriculture in the 21st century and to meet the 2030 sustainable development goals.
The author of this review thanks and highly appreciates the scientific contributions of the different authors, organizations, institutions, and webinar organizers cited in the text.
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The social, environmental, and economical problems can be omitted by use of renewable energy sources, because these resources are considered as environment-friendly, having no or little emission of exhaust and poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monooxide, sulfur dioxide, etc. Renewable energy is going to be an important source for power generation in near future, because we can use these resources again and again to produce useful energy. Wind power generation is considered as having lowest water consumption, lowest relative greenhouse gas emission, and most favorable social impacts. It is considered as one of the most sustainable renewable energy sources, followed by hydropower, photovoltaic, and then geothermal. As these resources are considered as clean energy resources, they can be helpful for the mitigation of greenhouse effect and global warming effect. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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