Types of waste and their repurpose potential in a circular waste supply chain.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5976",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Drosophila melanogaster - Model for Recent Advances in Genetics and Therapeutics",title:"Drosophila melanogaster",subtitle:"Model for Recent Advances in Genetics and Therapeutics",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book contains 12 chapters divided into two sections. Section 1 is "Drosophila - Model for Genetics." It covers introduction, chromosomal polymorphism, polytene chromosomes, chromosomal inversion, chromosomal evolution, cell cycle regulators in meiosis and nongenetic transgenerational inheritance in Drosophila. It also includes ecological genetics, wild-type strains, morphometric analysis, cytostatics, frequencies of early and late embryonic lethals (EEL and LEL) and mosaic imaginal discs of Drosophila for genetic analysis in biomedical research. Section 2 is "Drosophila - Model for Therapeutics." It explains Drosophila as model for human diseases, neurodegeneration, heart-kidney metabolic disorders, cancer, pathophysiology of Parkinson\'s disease, dopamine, neuroprotective therapeutics, mitochondrial dysfunction and translational research. It also covers Drosophila role in ubiquitin-carboxyl-terminal hydrolase-L1 (UCH-L1) protein, eye development, anti-dUCH antibody, neuropathy target esterase (NTE), organophosphorous compound-induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN) and hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). It also includes substrate specificities, kinetic parameters of recombinant glutathione S-transferases E6 and E7 (DmGSTE6 and DmGSTE7), detoxification and insecticidal resistance and antiviral immunity in Drosophila.',isbn:"978-953-51-3854-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3853-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4011-5",doi:"10.5772/66545",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"drosophila-melanogaster-model-for-recent-advances-in-genetics-and-therapeutics",numberOfPages:268,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"46ff086c2ae55b49970a648d604634cc",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",publishedDate:"February 28th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5976.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28663,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:46,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:103,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75563/images/system/75563.jpg",biography:"Dr. Farzana Khan Perveen (FLS; Gold Medalist) obtained her BSc (Hons) and MSc in Entomology from the University of Karachi, Pakistan, and MAS (Monbusho Scholarship) in Agronomy from Nagoya University, Japan, and a Ph.D. in Toxicology from the University of Karachi. She is the founder of the Department of Zoology and former controller of examinations at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Hazara University, and Kohat University of Science and Technology. She is the author of 150 high-impact research papers, 135 abstracts, 40 authored books, 9 chapters, and 9 edited books. She is also a student supervisor. Her fields of interest are entomology, toxicology, forensic entomology.",institutionString:"Classes et Events in Sciences (C.E.S.)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"347",title:"Pestology",slug:"insectology-pestology"}],chapters:[{id:"54451",title:"Introduction to Drosophila",doi:"10.5772/67731",slug:"introduction-to-drosophila",totalDownloads:12219,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54451",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],corrections:null},{id:"59005",title:"Drosophila Chromosomal Polymorphism: From Population Aspects to Origin Mechanisms of Inversions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73246",slug:"drosophila-chromosomal-polymorphism-from-population-aspects-to-origin-mechanisms-of-inversions",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"High rates of chromosomal rearrangements are remarkably abundant in Drosophila Fallén, 1832 (Insecta, Diptera) genus, highlighting the paracentric inversions. Since different species of this genus are paradigms for genetics, evolutionary, and population studies, polymorphism analyses for chromosomal inversions have provided basic knowledge for beautiful biological questions. Chromosomal inversions suppress meiotic recombination and thus, natural selection can act to preserve favorable gene complexes. Analyses of natural and laboratory populations show that these polymorphisms provide adaptive advantages to their carriers in relation to diverse factors, such as niche exploration and climatic factors. In addition, due to their monophyletic origin, they also serve as genetic markers for the construction of unrooted phylogenies. With the increasing domain of molecular techniques and genome sequencing, factors such as the reuse of breakpoints by different inversions and the mechanisms that give rise to these polymorphisms have been exploited with scientific refinement. These analyses show the presence of regions that are hot spots for breakpoints, fitting the fragile breakage chromosomal evolution model, as well as the involvement of transposition elements at the origin of chromosomal inversions.",signatures:"Carolina Garcia and Vera L. S. Valente",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59005",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59005",authors:[{id:"204362",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Garcia",slug:"carolina-garcia",fullName:"Carolina Garcia"},{id:"204415",title:"Dr.",name:"Vera",surname:"L. S. Valente",slug:"vera-l.-s.-valente",fullName:"Vera L. S. Valente"}],corrections:null},{id:"57519",title:"Cell Cycle Regulators in Female Meiosis of Drosophila melanogaster",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70671",slug:"cell-cycle-regulators-in-female-meiosis-of-drosophila-melanogaster",totalDownloads:1301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Meiosis is a highly regulated and complex variation on the canonical cell cycle. It depends on the activity of most of the known mitotic cell cycle regulators, as well as many meiosis-specific factors that interact with and modify the activities of this core cell cycle machinery. This review will examine the roles of known mitotic cell cycle regulators and meiosis-specific factors in Drosophila female meiosis, focusing on three important meiotic events: nuclear envelope breakdown or maturation, establishment of the meiosis I spindle, and release from metaphase I arrest at ovulation. Many meiotic processes are controlled by the mitotic kinase, Cdk1 with its cyclin partners, cyclins A, B, and B3. Other major mitotic kinases, including Polo and Aurora B have been found to play multiple roles in Drosophila meiosis. The Anaphase Promoting Complex or Cyclosome (APC/C) controls many meiotic processes through regulation of Cdk1, the sister chromatid cohesion regulator, Separase and other targets. This review will focus on these and other meiotic regulators, emphasizing some of the technical advances that have driven the field forward in recent years, and highlighting gaps that need to be filled to achieve a more complete picture of how meiosis is regulated in Drosophila.",signatures:"Mohammed Bourouh and Andrew Swan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57519",authors:[{id:"119027",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Swan",slug:"andrew-swan",fullName:"Andrew Swan"},{id:"203182",title:"BSc.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Bourouh",slug:"mohammed-bourouh",fullName:"Mohammed Bourouh"}],corrections:null},{id:"57586",title:"Non-genetic Transgenerational Inheritance of Acquired Traits in Drosophila",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71643",slug:"non-genetic-transgenerational-inheritance-of-acquired-traits-in-drosophila",totalDownloads:1306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is increasingly recognized that acquired traits may be transgenerationally transmitted through non-DNA sequence-based elements, with epigenetics as perhaps the most important mechanism. Here we review examples of non-genetic transgenerational inheritance in Drosophila, highlighting transgenerational programming of metabolic status and longevity, one particular histone modification as an evolutionarily conserved underlying mechanism, and important implications of such studies in understanding health and diseases.",signatures:"Brian Xia and J. Steven de Belle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57586",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57586",authors:[{id:"218815",title:"Mr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Xia",slug:"brian-xia",fullName:"Brian Xia"},{id:"221917",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"De Belle",slug:"steven-de-belle",fullName:"Steven De Belle"}],corrections:null},{id:"58489",title:"Drosophila Imaginal Discs as a Playground for Genetic Analysis: Concepts, Techniques and Expectations for Biomedical Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72758",slug:"drosophila-imaginal-discs-as-a-playground-for-genetic-analysis-concepts-techniques-and-expectations-",totalDownloads:1463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Drosophila imaginal discs are epithelial tissues perfectly suited to use them as a playground to define the functional contribution of genes to epithelial development and organ morphogenesis. The more we know about the discs and the mechanisms directing their development, the best prepared we are to assign specific “functions” to individual genes based on phenotypic observations. Conversely, and thinking from the perspective of the gene, the more we know about its function, the best inferences we could make about the mechanisms underlying imaginal disc development. This reciprocal relationship, coupled to the arsenal of possible experimental approaches available in Drosophila genetics, genomics and cellular biology, makes these tissues excellent systems to address biological problems with biomedical relevance. In this review, an overview of three interconnected aspects related to the use of Drosophila imaginal discs as an experimental system to analyze gene function is given: (i) imaginal discs biology, with a focus in the genetic mechanisms involved in pattern formation; (ii) concepts and available experimental tools for the analyses of gene function and (iii) uses of Drosophila and the imaginal discs for addressing biomedical problems.",signatures:"Cristina M. Ostalé, Ana Ruiz-Gómez, Patricia Vega, Mireya Ruiz-\nLosada, Carlos Estella and Jose F. de Celis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58489",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58489",authors:[{id:"201401",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose F.",surname:"De Celis",slug:"jose-f.-de-celis",fullName:"Jose F. De Celis"},{id:"201405",title:"BSc.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Martínez-Ostalé",slug:"cristina-martinez-ostale",fullName:"Cristina Martínez-Ostalé"},{id:"227839",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Ruiz-Gómez",slug:"ana-ruiz-gomez",fullName:"Ana Ruiz-Gómez"},{id:"227840",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Vega",slug:"patricia-vega",fullName:"Patricia Vega"},{id:"227842",title:"MSc.",name:"Mireya",surname:"Ruiz-Losada",slug:"mireya-ruiz-losada",fullName:"Mireya Ruiz-Losada"},{id:"227844",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Estella",slug:"carlos-estella",fullName:"Carlos Estella"}],corrections:null},{id:"58694",title:"The Fruit Fly, Drosophila melanogaster: The Making of a Model (Part I)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72832",slug:"the-fruit-fly-drosophila-melanogaster-the-making-of-a-model-part-i-",totalDownloads:2474,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830) has been established as a cornerstone for research into a wide array of subjects including diseases, development, physiology, and genetics. Thanks to an abundance of genetic tools, publicly available fly stocks, and databases, as well as their considerable biological similarity to mammalian systems, Drosophila has been solidified as a key model organism for elucidating many aspects of human disease. Herein is presented an overview of what makes Drosophila such an appealing model organism. In Part I of this chapter, basic Drosophila biology is reviewed and the most relevant genetic tools available to Drosophila researchers are covered. Then in part II, we outline the use of Drosophila as a model organism to study a wide array of pathologies in which Drosophila has been used, along with key advances made in the specific field using the fly as a model organism.",signatures:"Mariateresa Allocca, Sheri Zola and Paola Bellosta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58694",authors:[{id:"219543",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Paola",surname:"Bellosta",slug:"paola-bellosta",fullName:"Paola Bellosta"},{id:"233005",title:"MSc.",name:"Mariateresa",surname:"Allocca",slug:"mariateresa-allocca",fullName:"Mariateresa Allocca"},{id:"233006",title:"MSc.",name:"Sheri",surname:"Zola",slug:"sheri-zola",fullName:"Sheri Zola"}],corrections:null},{id:"58858",title:"The Fruit Fly, Drosophila melanogaster: Modeling of Human Diseases (Part II)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73199",slug:"the-fruit-fly-drosophila-melanogaster-modeling-of-human-diseases-part-ii-",totalDownloads:2416,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen, 1830) has been established as a key model organism thanks in part to their considerable biological similarity to mammals and an abundance of available genetic tools. Drosophila have been used to model many human disease states and have been critical in elucidating the genetic mechanisms contributing to them. Part I of this chapter covered basic Drosophila biology and relevant genetic tools available to Drosophila researchers. Here in part II, we review the use of Drosophila as a model organism to study neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, kidney diseases, cancer, metabolic disorders, and immune disorders, as well as key findings made in those fields thanks to Drosophila research.",signatures:"Mariateresa Allocca, Sheri Zola and Paola Bellosta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58858",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58858",authors:[{id:"219543",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Paola",surname:"Bellosta",slug:"paola-bellosta",fullName:"Paola Bellosta"}],corrections:null},{id:"57879",title:"Parkinson’s Disease: Insights from Drosophila Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72021",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-insights-from-drosophila-model",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a medical condition that has been known since ancient times. It is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder affecting approximately 1% of the population over 50 years. It is characterized by both motor and non-motor symptoms. Most of PD cases are sporadic while 5–10% cases are familial. Environment factors such as exposure to pesticides, herbicides and other heavy metals are expected to be the main cause of sporadic form of the disease. Mutation of the susceptible genes such as SNCA, PINK1, PARKIN, DJ1, and others are considered to be the main cause of the familial form of disease. Drosophila offers many advantages for studying human neurodegenerative diseases and their underlying molecular and cellular pathology. Shorter life span; large number of progeny; conserved molecular mechanism(s) among fly, mice and human; availability of many techniques, and tools to manipulate gene expression makes drosophila a potential model system to understand the pathology associated with PD and to unravel underlying molecular mechanism(s) responsible for dopaminergic neurodegeneration in PD—understanding of which will be of potential assistance to develop therapeutic strategies to PD. In the present review, we made an effort to discuss the contribution of fly model to understand pathophysiology of PD, in understanding the biological functions of genes implicated in PD; to understand the gene-environment interaction in PD; and validation of clues that are generated through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in human through fly; further to screen and develop potential therapeutic molecules for PD. In nutshell, fly has been a great model system which has immensely contributed to the biomedical research relating to understand and addressing the pathology of human neurological diseases in general and PD in particular.",signatures:"Mohamad Ayajuddin, Abhik Das, Limamanen Phom, Priyanka Modi,\nRahul Chaurasia, Zevelou Koza, Abuno Thepa, Nukshimenla Jamir,\nPukhrambam Rajesh Singh, Sentinungla Longkumer, Pardeshi Lal\nand Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57879",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57879",authors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"59235",title:"Drosophila Model in the Study Role of UCH-L1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73578",slug:"drosophila-model-in-the-study-role-of-uch-l1",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"UCH-L1 (ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1) is a protein, which plays an important role in ubiquitin-proteasome system. Many previous reports showed the relation between UCH-L1 and neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, as well as cancer. However, the mechanism still remains unclear. In the aim to investigate the functions and regulatory mechanism of UCH-L1 in living organism, Drosophila melanogaster model was utilized to examine the role of UCH-L1. This chapter provides a summary on recent findings related to the roles of UCH-L1 based on the model. First, abnormal expression of Drosophila ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase (dUCH) leads to the defects on fly tissue development and function. Gain function of dUCH in the eye imaginal discs induced a rough eye phenotype in the adult, partly resulting from induction of caspase-dependent apoptosis, upset of photoreceptor cell distribution and ommatidium apical mispatterning. Interestingly, the dUCH overexpression of induced rough eye phenotype was completely recused by co-expression either Sevenless or Draf of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Besides, knockdown dUCH in dopaminergic neurons resulted in some Parkinson’s disease—like phenotypes in fly. Taken together, those findings in Drosophila model contributed a significant dUCH in tissue development and function.",signatures:"Dang Thi Phuong Thao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59235",authors:[{id:"202162",title:"Prof.",name:"Thao",surname:"Dang",slug:"thao-dang",fullName:"Thao Dang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58710",title:"Swiss Cheese, Drosophila Ortholog of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia Gene NTE, Maintains Neuromuscular Junction Development and Microtubule Network",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73077",slug:"swiss-cheese-drosophila-ortholog-of-hereditary-spastic-paraplegia-gene-nte-maintains-neuromuscular-j",totalDownloads:1241,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Neuropathy target esterase (NTE) is a molecular target for the organophosphorus compound-induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN) and also one of the genetic factors responsible for the development of the hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), characterized by axon degeneration of motoneurons causing progressive lower-limb spastic paralysis. Both HSP and OPIDN are characterized by the distal axonopathy. The molecular mechanisms underlying the axonopathy involved in HSP and OPIDN are poorly understood. In order to have a better understanding of the mechanisms that NTE is involved in, we used one of the homologs, human NTE. Swiss cheese (sws) is a Drosophila melanogaster ortholog of NTE with 39% homology. Mutations in sws as it was shown before lead to age-dependent neurodegeneration, structure alteration of glia cells, and reduced insect life span. To study SWS functions, we used the system of the third-instar larval neuromuscular junctions of D. melanogaster. In this study, we show that mutations in sws (sws1\n and sws76−1\n) and SWS knockdown alter neuromuscular junction’s morphology and synaptic microtubules organization.",signatures:"Elena Ryabova, Nataliya Matiytsiv, Olena Trush, Iryna Mohylyak,\nGalina Kislik, Pavel Melentev and Svetlana Sarantseva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58710",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58710",authors:[{id:"219724",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Sarantseva",slug:"svetlana-sarantseva",fullName:"Svetlana Sarantseva"},{id:"228876",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",surname:"Ryabova",slug:"elena-ryabova",fullName:"Elena Ryabova"},{id:"228877",title:"Dr.",name:"Nataliya",surname:"Matiytsiv",slug:"nataliya-matiytsiv",fullName:"Nataliya Matiytsiv"},{id:"228879",title:"Ms.",name:"Olena",surname:"Trush",slug:"olena-trush",fullName:"Olena Trush"},{id:"228880",title:"Dr.",name:"Iryna",surname:"Mohylyak",slug:"iryna-mohylyak",fullName:"Iryna Mohylyak"},{id:"228881",title:"Ms.",name:"Galina",surname:"Kislik",slug:"galina-kislik",fullName:"Galina Kislik"},{id:"228883",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Melentev",slug:"pavel-melentev",fullName:"Pavel Melentev"}],corrections:null},{id:"58828",title:"Substrate Specificities and Kinetic Parameters of Recombinant Drosophila melanogaster Glutathione S-Transferases E6 and E7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72970",slug:"substrate-specificities-and-kinetic-parameters-of-recombinant-drosophila-melanogaster-glutathione-s-",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"D. melanogaster glutathione transferases E6 and E7 (DmGSTE6 and DmGSTE7) were successfully cloned, purified, and biochemically characterized. The recombinant proteins were readily purified using the combination of both anionic and BSP/GSH-agarose affinity chromatography. Although both GSTs have significant identity in their amino acid sequence, each enzyme displayed unique biochemical characteristics. Both recombinant proteins were only active toward 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene (DCNB), and p-nitrobenzyl chloride (p-NBC) with significant difference in catalytic activities. The findings have shown that neither GSTE6 nor GSTE7 was able to counter oxidative stress. Comparatively, GSTE7 was a more efficient enzyme at turning over DCNB and p-NBC, based on its kcat/Km values which were of 0.183 and 2.25 min−1 mM−1, respectively. Thin-layer chromatography analysis showed that both isoforms were not able to conjugate several tested insecticides. The inhibition kinetics of natural products and dyes toward GSTs in vitro revealed that phenol red possessed inhibition effects only on GSTE6 while rose bengal and cardiogreen inhibit significantly on both GSTE6 and GSTE7. In contrast, methylene blue dye and trans-chalcone have been shown to stimulate GSTE7 activity toward CDNB.",signatures:"Vennobaashini Venu and Zazali Alias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58828",authors:[{id:"176212",title:"Dr.",name:"Zazali",surname:"Alias",slug:"zazali-alias",fullName:"Zazali Alias"},{id:"230983",title:"Ms.",name:"Vennobaashini",surname:"Venu",slug:"vennobaashini-venu",fullName:"Vennobaashini Venu"}],corrections:null},{id:"55560",title:"Antiviral Immunity in the Fruit Fly, Drosophila melanogaster",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69293",slug:"antiviral-immunity-in-the-fruit-fly-drosophila-melanogaster",totalDownloads:1333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is an extremely useful model to study innate immunity mechanisms. A fundamental understanding of these mechanisms as they relate to various pathogens has come to light over the past 30 years. The discovery of Toll‐like receptors and their recognition of shared molecules (pathogen‐associated molecular patterns or PAMPs) among pathogenic bacteria were the first detailed set of receptors to be described that act in innate immunity. The immune deficiency pathway (Imd) described in D. melanogaster functions in a very similar way to the Toll pathway in recognizing PAMPs primarily from Gram‐negative bacteria. The discovery of small interfering RNAs (RNAi) provided a means by which antiviral immunity was accomplished in invertebrates. Another related pathway, the JAK/STAT pathway, functions in a similar manner to the interferon pathways described in vertebrates, also providing antiviral defense. Recently, autophagy was also shown to function as a protective pathway against virus infection in D. melanogaster. At least three of these pathways (Imd, JAK/STAT, and RNAi) show signal integration in response to viral infection, demonstrating a coordinated immune response against viral infection. The number of pathways and the integration of them reflect the diversity of pathogens to which innate immune mechanisms must be able to respond. The viral pathogens that infect invertebrates have developed countermeasures to some of these pathways, in particular to RNAi. The evolutionary arms race of pathogen vs. host is ever ongoing.",signatures:"Wilfredo A. Lopez, Alexis M. Page, Brad L. Ericson, Darby J. Carlson\nand Kimberly A. Carlson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55560",authors:[{id:"202812",title:"Dr.",name:"Kimberly",surname:"Carlson",slug:"kimberly-carlson",fullName:"Kimberly Carlson"},{id:"202815",title:"Mr.",name:"Wilfredo",surname:"Lopez",slug:"wilfredo-lopez",fullName:"Wilfredo Lopez"},{id:"202817",title:"Ms.",name:"Alexis",surname:"Page",slug:"alexis-page",fullName:"Alexis Page"},{id:"202818",title:"Dr.",name:"Brad",surname:"Ericson",slug:"brad-ericson",fullName:"Brad Ericson"},{id:"202819",title:"Mr.",name:"Darby",surname:"Carlson",slug:"darby-carlson",fullName:"Darby Carlson"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"843",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Pest Engineering",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88f3cc3c937f853057f544c152ef7491",slug:"insecticides-pest-engineering",bookSignature:"Farzana 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\r\n\tThe book will shed the light on the basic principles of infrared (IR) spectrophotometry and its environmental, industrial, and pharmaceutical applications.
\r\n\tEnvironmental applications will deal with water, and wastewater treatments, characterization of different sorbents, and waste removers, contaminants detection in water, and waste management.
\r\n\tIndustrial applications will focus on the analysis of paint, paper, pharmaceutical, and sugar industries and the applicability of infrared spectroscopy in these fields.
\r\n\tDrug analysis, food and dietary supplements testing and analysis, and natural products analysis will be discussed as parts of the pharmaceutical applications of infrared spectroscopy.
\r\n\r\n\tIn addition, the book will limp to the important applications of infrared spectroscopy in chemical and biological analyses. While the topics mentioned herein ( including the basics of IR, as well as the environmental and the industrial applications, food, and drug analysis) will be the major topics of this book, other applications and topics related to infrared spectroscopy are also invited.
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Prof. Khalid Al-Saad is interested in environmental and biological application developments of spectroscopy and mass spectrometry.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Inorganic chemist and researcher from Qatar University, interested in wastewater treatment using green adsorbents.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"198210",title:"Dr.",name:"Marwa",middleName:"S.",surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198210/images/system/198210.png",biography:"Dr. Marwa El-Azazy is an Analytical Chemist , experienced educator and researcher with more than 20 years of teaching experience at several institutions. 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In addition there has become a greater level of the world’s appreciation of the impact of climate change and environmental sustainability. There is also society’s general consciousness of personal and public health in relation to products that they use. And then there is an increase awareness of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) especially the SDG12 – sustainable consumption and production. Day in and out people are becoming more concern of environmental issues, consumers thus ask a lot of questions these days about the authenticity of products that they buy. And we question how green producers manufacturing processes are, how big their carbon footprints are and how they recycle [1]. Various supply activities can have a significant threat to the environment. These threats vary but in terms of carbon monoxide emissions, discarded packaging materials, scrapped toxic materials, traffic congestion and other forms of industrial pollution [2, 3].
This means that we are heading towards a near future where, people are becoming so conscious of their health and the ecology that, if your production or ecological service does not have anything to do with protection of the earth’s resource, along its supply chain, you will not survive on both international and local markets. Undoubtedly, across all sectors of the economy, we see that companies are being influence to reformulate their environmental and supply chain models due to increases in environmental problems caused by products. Therefore, the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been instrumental in the concept of green supply chain management (GSCM) [4]. It is therefore, reasonable to say that the requirement to extend companies’ environmental activities to include the whole supply chain has been driving force of the development of the GSCM concept.
Green supply chain management is basically the integration of environmental thinking into various supply chain management (SCM) models. In the broader sense, GSCM can be considered an environmental innovation [2]. This is because, it’s ultimate goal is to eliminate wastages including hazardous chemical, emissions, energy and solid waste along supply chain such as product design, material resourcing and selection, manufacturing process, delivery of final product and end-of-life management of the product [5, 6]. Also, because GSCM has become a multidisciplinary concept by constructing environmental management practices in the context of various supply chains [7], whether they directly provided environmental services or not. And finally, because GSCM plays a vital role in influencing the total environment impact of any firm involved in supply chain activities and thus contributing to sustainability performance enhancement [2]. Therefore, with the environmental issues becoming an integral part of the supply chain management concept, we see the context being extended so that each step from organization’s materials management and transportation functions to the end customer can be structured to include environmental awareness [8].
It is against this backdrop that green supply chain becomes very important when designing environmental impact initiatives especially within environment organization such as waste management companies, or any social enterprise that works at the national, regional or community level to impact the triple bottom line from a green economy context. And this disposition spurs the authors of this chapter to do a review of literature in relation to the theme while reflecting on their work on waste, at their organizational level, to establish or reestablish the gains in waste value chains to inform policy makers to rethink the current waste management practices to accelerate the socioeconomic development of the country.
This chapter therefore, analyses the waste management services as key green initiatives in Ghana; siting the case of how EcoCare Waste Initiative an environmental startup in Goaso, Ghana, achieves green supply chain in its attempt to offer community waste collection service, the lessons that could be drawn.
It is noted that poor water, sanitation and hygiene, and indoor air pollution from burning wood for cooking and heating were as well as unconventional burning of wastes have been the cause of pneumonia and other common environmental related disease over and over again. In order to prevent these diseases, the environment needed to change [9]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that, 24% of all global deaths – roughly 13.7 million deaths a year – are linked to environment risks such as air, water and soil pollution, chemical exposures, climate change and ultraviolet radiation. Beyond pneumonia and diarrheal diseases, these risks may contribute to more than 100 diseases and injuries [9, 10]. In sub-Saharan African region the 2.5 million deaths a year are attributable to environmental risks. Generally, the fraction of the global burden of disease due to the environment is 22% if we are accounting for both death and disability. And in children under 5 years especially, up to 26% of all deaths could be prevented, if environmental risks were removed [10]. These facts, show us the importance of ensuring that whatever product or service that impacts the environment is sustainable to give us healthy environments which will help prevent the greatest percentage if not all environmental related diseases.
Figure 1 below, adopted from [10] gives a nice patristic illustration of (i) the ratio of deaths attributable to environment to deaths by other facts, and (ii) ration of disability-adjusted life year (DALY) attributable to environment to DALY non-attributable to environment; globally in 2012.
Imagery illustration of the global deaths attributed to environmental factors (adopted from [
In the developing world, the private sector and various actors have been keenly involved in solid waste management over the past decades, yet there are still problems with solid waste delivery services [11]. The problems with solid waste in most urban cities of some countries have really become burdensome despite efforts being made by city authorities and governments. The problems of solid waste common in developing countries include the following but not limited to:
inadequate service coverage,
irregular waste collection,
waste spill over from bins and storage containers, and
lax attitude of people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places
waste littering on streets and in gutters/drains
indiscriminate burning of waste and
pressure on dump sites (locally created landfills).
These solid waste problems are what consequently lead to environmental health problems, such as discussed in the previous section above. And not only do they impact environmental health, they also lead to esthetic nuisance, and environmental pollution in general [12, 13].
One major challenge in handling solid waste problems is that these problems impact on each other and on the environment in a circular manner – which makes it difficult to only tackle only a single aspect of the solid waste value chain. For example, in Ghana, due to inadequate service coverage in many cities, rural settlements and slums, insufficient service coverage; the public dump uncollected solid waste into drains, rivers and surrounding areas, or it is locally burnt or buried. These practices lead to considerable environmental pollution and degradation, and pose serious health risk to the population. These problems impair, in the long run, not only the quality of life of the urban poorer communities but also affect the welfare of the entire urban population. These complexities are what make cities still faced with urban environmental health issues related to solid waste management [14].
On the other hand the main causes of these waste problems in developing parts are not feasible to tackle in isolation because they are enormous, and complex interconnected social, environmental and economic factors. First, rapid urbanization poses a big problem to urban solid waste management. The rapid and unregulated urban growth and development in urban areas lead to a situation where solid waste services infrastructure lag behind the growth in population, or simply overpowers government strengths to fund municipal solid waste management.
Second, low cost of solid waste recovery as well as limited funds from central government is another constraint to solving the challenges in the waste management value chaing in developing economies. Local authorities have difficulties in keeping pace with solid waste facilities development and in meeting the growing demand for solid waste services due to financial constraints.
Third, there is very low political will and priority given to solid waste service, Meanwhile most governments acknowledge immediacy and seriousness of solid waste problems to their countries. The lack of priority, political will, and public sector commitment limit rapid and sustainable improvements in the solid waste sector in developing countries like Ghana.
Fourth, there is also the factor of the enforcement solid waste management. This contributes to the lax attitude of the people towards indiscriminate disposal at unauthorized places, waste littering, and burning in open space. The enforcement of regulation by government officials appears to be weak and this may be due to lack of capacity, lack of resources and political will, and problems with the institutional set-up.
Finally, we have also noticed that there are problems with physical and human capacity for solid waste collection and technology operations in some countries. The human capacity of the public and private sector organizations may not be adequate and most of the few waste collection businesses that step in to contribute are usually not designed to be green, scalable and sustainable enough [14].
The root causes of solid waste problems have causal relationships with the various environmental and socio-economic factors that are already impacting the lives of populations living in these cities that are the most affected by the solid waste management challenge. That is why for our solid waste collection services to be sustainable enough, it must integrate social, environmental and economic impact models. If a waste collection service provider is able to consider the impact of their services on the triple bottom line – that is addressing social, environmental and economic variables – then we can say that the service is sustainable. Figure 2 illustrates the intersessions of the social, environmental and economic variables that affect populations which when address makes a service sustainable.
The interconnection of the elements of the triple bottom line concept (adopted from [
First of all, the service must have measurable impacts on the social variables faced by the affected people and communities – that is to cause social change and improvement. This means for a waste collection services to be green it must address some social variables that deals with the community, education (e.g. increased awareness about effects of waste etc.), equity (e.g. reduction in child labor, increase in girl child education etc.), health, well-being and quality of life of the people.
Secondly, a green service must bring economic benefits to the populations involved. This means, not only must the service make some profits for its sustainable cash flow (to remain in business), the service provider must also factor the economic dynamics of the users when pricing its services, and the activities in the service must create jobs and employment opportunities. Thus they must offer a service that is available and affordable to all classes of the population.
Finally a green waste collection service must integrate protection of the environment at the core of serving the people and the economy. It must have considerations for saving natural resources, water, air quality, energy conservation and land use across all of its supply chains. If all aspects of a solid waste collection service – from procurement of logistics, collection of wastes and transport to disposal, are able to respect protection of the environments, reduce pollution and carbon emission, then we can say that such a waste collection service is green – it respects green supply chain management (GSCM).
Within the waste management industry a generalized broader way of defining waste would be: wastes are materials that are not prime products for which the generator has no further use in terms of his or her own purposes of production, transformation, or consumption and of which he or she wants to dispose [16]. And from national to local contexts we identify that:
the extraction of raw materials,
processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products,
the consumption of final products, and
other human activities are ways through which waste may be generated [17].
In Ghana particularly it is estimated that an average city generates about four thousand (4000) tons waste daily. To this end, the rate of waste generation in Ghana stands at 0.47 kg/person/day, which translates into about 12,710 tons of waste per day averagely [5].
The conventional methods of dealing with these waste in Ghana have included throwing into open dumps, wetlands, landfills, and uncontrolled dumps or in some cases are incinerated in the open air. Due to our current conventional approaches to dealing with waste, it is difficult to get a significant quantity of waste generated to go into recycling, composting or reuse to tap the potential end use value of solid wastes. However, if waste is properly managed – from generation to disposal – there are enormous untapped potentials that could be fully exploited. And this also have a consequential potential of improving greatly the quality of life for Ghanaians through energy generation, employment generation, income acquisition, and resource for goods production among others.
Therefore, the municipal solid waste (MSW) collection model ran by the government and city authorities where waste is collected and simply dumped at landfills by only one government agent or contractor, could be remodeled to make it more green and sustainable. We can decentralize the entire municipal waste management value chain – using a zonation approach. Government in an effort to rid the respective metropolis of the mountain of filths, these metropolises contract private waste management companies in a joint venture termed public-private partnerships (PPP) which over the years have witnessed a considerable increase particularly as witnessed in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, to assist in the collection and disposal of MSW at landfill sites [16, 17]. This PPP for waste management could be replicated at local levels in peri-urban centers where we are witnessing an exponential growth of startups and youth organizations committed to social entrepreneurship [18, 19, 20].
When the waste management value chain is decentralized, what it also means is that we will have many actors – even SMEs and startups – on the various points of the waste value chain. Some will specialize on the collection to ensure that communities achieve 100 percentage recovery of waste from homes and the public. Which will also make waste collection service relatively affordable for every household to subscribe. More people subscribed to waste collection means little or no more indiscriminate disposal of waste at unauthorized places like drains, bushes and water bodies; and no burying or burning of wastes by households. Secondly, at local (zonal) levels, waste management companies could partner, together with government initiative, and build one major community owned state-of-the-art landfill system or incinerator. This will ensure that waste disposal in each community is not scattered to claim more arable lands that could be used for farming. Finally, while some waste service providers focus on collection and disposal, some others could only invest in treatment and recycling. The waste collected by company A from the same city could be sold to company B as raw material to be converted into various end-user resources like upcycling plastic wastes into bricks, tiles and ceramics or processing to produce energy like combustion chambers, gasification systems, liquefaction etc. [16, 21, 22].
Here, the authors propose a conceptual framework for turning wastes back into production chains in a circular economy manner – to make national and local wastes supply chains green. From the triple bottom line modeling, we considered EcoCare activities that result in economic gains, those that impact the environment and those that lead to social change. For a given community as an entity if a waste initiative is able to link all of its solutions to economic and environment holistically, that service will indirectly take care of its social impact variables (Figure 3).
Conceptual framework for green waste supply chains (from EcoCare pitch deck [
Solid Waste Management (SWM) could be defined as managing the processes involved in solid waste collection, treatment and disposal of waste generated in households, commercial and business establishments, institutions, and non-hazardous industrial process wastes. Solid waste collection has evolved over the years from collection of unsegregated waste and disposal on dumping grounds to collection of source separated waste streams through formal and informal service providers. The management of the processes involved which was traditionally public has now become public-private-community provision and partnerships arrangements [24].
The direct activities in solid waste management could be grouped into six functional elements basically:
waste generation and characterization,
on-site storage and handling,
collection,
transfer and transport,
separation processing, treatment and resource recovery, and
final disposal.
These functional elements require planning and management in order to achieve high quality of service. Unfortunately, however, the waste management value chain has not contributed to greening cities because most cities’ agencies responsible for SWM often pay too little attention to integrated management approaches based on adequate information systems, management approaches, methods, and techniques. The activities of service provision may be concentrated in one organization or fragmented over multiple organizations.
As mentioned in Section 5 above, if solid waste management in cities is decentralized whereby various actors of waste management initiatives (private and public) were contracted to work on different activities of the waste value chains, it would be easy for cities to achieve green waste management supply chains. It is noted by [11] that these activities of the waste supply chain could best be regrouped into four fragmented stages, and it is best if different actors worked on different fragments in the process of making solid waste management green. A diagrammatic representation of the four fragmented process of waste management is shown by Figure 4 below.
Elements and actors in the solid waste management supply chain (adopted from [
From Figure 4, we discover that at least 4 groups of elements and 4 groups of actors run through 4 stages of the waste management supply chain. Again we can see that a waste management supply chain can take a linear pathway (as is being done in most cities) and a circular pathway (which has only been promoted recently to be the most eco-friendly and green approach).
The linear waste management supply chain will take a path in which waste moves straight away from stage 1 (primary storage points) through stage 2 (collection and transport) to stage 4 (final disposal). In some typical rural communities in Ghana, the linear model could even involve just stage 1 (waste generators store long piles of waste in their houses for a long time) and then move it straight away to stage 4 (a local community dump site, call
On the other hand, the circular waste management supply chain is one that progress from Stage 1 through 2 and 3 to 4, then back to 3. What happens here is that, after the waste reaches the final stage they are not disposed completely into permanent landfills, but all or some percentage of the waste is recovered back for reuse, recycling and other purposes of getting the waste material back into a production cycle again. These waste recovered could be repurpose into other end user goods and products through various means of treatment and processing – such as organic compositing, plastic recycling and upcycling, plastic extrusion, reuse etc. With this circular model of solid waste management, all the actors across the 4 stages on the waste supply chain get some work to do, and contribute to making the city’s waste management green and sustainable.
Table 1 gives an idea of how different types of solid waste could be repurposed in the circular economy waste management model.
Types of solid waste | Typical sources | Potential products | Methods (processes) |
---|---|---|---|
Agro waste (organic) | Rice, wheat, straw and husk, cotton stalk, saw mill waste, vegetable residues, nut, shells etc. | Organic soils and fertilizer, particle boards, insulation boards, wall panels, printing paper, roofing sheet, fuel, bricks, acid proof, polymer composite, cement board | Compositing, recycling, combustion, incineration, gasification |
Industrial waste (inorganic) | Coal combustion residues, steel slag, bauxite red mud, construction debris | Cement, bricks, blocks, tiles, paint, concrete, ceramic products, wood substitute product | Combustion, liquefaction |
Mining waste (mineral) | Coal washer waste, mining waste, tailing from iron, copper, zinc, gold and aluminum industries | Bricks, tiles, lightweight aggregate, fuel etc. | Combustion, liquefaction, biochemical esterification |
Non-hazardous and other process waste | Waste gypsum, lime sludge, drains sludge, limestone waste, marble processing residues, broken glass and ceramics, kiln/oven dust (waste) | Cement clinker, super sulphate cement, hydraulic binder, blocks, cement, fibrous gypsum boards, gypsum plaster | Liquefaction, purification decontamination, recycling |
Hazardous waste | Metallurgical residues, galvanizing waste, tannery waste | Cement, bricks, ceramic tiles and boards | Recycling, upcycling |
Plastic waste* (various class of recyclable plastics) | Packaging, used plastic containers, oceans, | Reinforced fiber plastic, pellets, plastic beams, plastic artifacts, plastic jerseys, cement, plastic tiles and blocks, fuel, etc. | Recycling, upcycling, reuse, biochemical extraction |
Types of waste and their repurpose potential in a circular waste supply chain.
We could not separate recycle and non-recyclable plastics as it is done commonly, so take these to be only plastics that could directly be recycled/or repurposed easily.
[Source: authors’ construct based on synthesis of various prototypes and recycled products in literature].
According to 11 we can identify four modes of solid waste collection service1 depending on the income levels of the people, housing types and the level of service required. They include:
The residents served by the kerbside and house-to-house collection use standard bins to store waste. And this is what is practiced in the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection model.
A brief capture of the story of the EcoCare team and initiative could help paint a picture of how an environmental company could be born out of a passion to protect lives by cleaning and greening our environments. We capture this from an unpublished executive document of the EcoCare Waste Initiative [25]:
EcoCare Waste Initiative was set up with the sustainable development goal (SDG) 12 in mind first, then later partnerships (SDG 17) with other actors to integrate other goals – SDG 6 and 13 started running through the model. Figure 5 below shows a non-updated business model of EcoCare developed by the co-founders which is used in modeling all the services and programs initiated by EcoCare since 2017.
Business model of EcoCare waste initiative (from EcoCare pitch deck for TEDxAccra, 2017).
Since the conception in 2016, the EcoCare team has been challenged by the daunting vision
Through 2017–2018: EcoCare first focused on social campaigns against plastics pollution and indiscriminate waste disposal – mainly on social media (virtual) and talk shows in and around Goaso. At this point it was quite difficult to identify on which of the four stages (illustrated in Figure 4) that the EcoCare was acting. But it served as a foundation process.
Through 2019: EcoCare added EcoEvents Cleanup to its business model – where we did waste Collection and segregation at source (people’s events like wedding receptions and funerals) - for revenue generation. Now it becomes clear to identify EcoCare as an actor at the Stage 2 and 4 – in a linear model of waste management.
In May 2020, we rolled out the House to House Waste Collection Service (called H2H Waste Collection) in 4 “elite communities” in Goaso. This business model though currently on a small scale, has elements of primary storage (with segregation at source), collection, and recovery of recyclables before disposal at authorized landfill sites. Now you can see EcoCare acting across the 4 major stages of green waste supply green chain – in a circular mode. The next subsection (7.3) describes some details of how the H2H Waste Collection makes EcoCare contribute to greening the waste management supply chain of Goaso.
The EcoCare House to House Waste Collection was designed to achieve six (6) goals, but which will cut across the social, economic and environment triple bottom line and have a tremendous impact in setting a new pace for green waste management supply chain models in Goaso. The six goals are:
support municipal waste collection to reach all neighborhoods in Goaso –
help every household to adopt the behavior of segregating their wastes –
ease families of monthly sanitation bills by cheap and easy payment plans –
create direct and indirect jobs for waste supply chain in Goaso –
ensure prompt collection and odor free neighborhoods –
make Goaso the cleanest district capital in Ghana –
So moving from the conventional linear approach to solid waste management, the EcoCare H2H Waste Collection has introduced a circular model by:
supplying waste bins for storage of waste in households,
supplying recycling bags for segregation of recyclable wastes at the homes (source),
prompt collection of wastes on weekly basis,
recovering and storing recyclables waste (e.g. plastics, glass, paper etc.) at our warehouse,
transporting disposable waste to authorized community landfills and
Distributing recovered recyclable wastes to partner recycling companies.
Without capacity to recycle, EcoCare is currently creating a distribution model for connecting with plastic recycling companies within Ahafo who will receive our recovered wastes as raw materials for the recycling plants. This will ensure that even while we do not have the capacity to complete our circular model, by partnership with other actors in the sector we could still make a complete green waste supply chain.
Most cities in Ghana continue to spend on solid waste management whereas others in other parts of the world persistently generate clean energy, income and raw materials and social development through the solid waste value chains. The common practice of waste management in Ghana since independence, which has been the linear supply chain approach – where we just collect and dispose – has not been very much beneficial until the last decade.
In recent years, some actors in the waste management industry have made efforts to transform Ghana’s sanitation services into a more sustainable development (circular economy) model – where different actors partner to work on different aspects of the waste value chain. By so doing, today, not only do we see collect and dump waste management services, but also there are being a crop of recycling initiatives coming in.
There are large scale companies like Zoomlion, Surfisana, and CleanTeam etc. contributing to this new revolution to transform Ghana’s linear waste management supply chain into a more circular sector. And interestingly, the efforts of environmental SMEs which are even at startup stages but are more passionate about circular economy, are inspiring green initiatives in Ghana, and EcoCare Waste Initiative is the number on of such inspirations for the Asunafo North Municipality and almost the entire Ahafo region of Ghana.
Since 2017, EcoCare has been into advocacy and contributed a voice to speaking out for a change in Ghanaians behavior towards indiscriminate disposal of waste, plastic pollution, environmental depletion and a call for circular economy in the environment industry. And EcoCare Waste Initiative was the first the startup to inspire the small scale local green waste supply chain model in Goaso, which few other startups and youth groups are to replicating today in the Asunafo North Municipality.
Table 2 below shows the four (4) main initiatives that had been rolled out by EcoCare since incorporation in 2017; and the impacts that these activities have made across the social, environmental and economic development variables of Goaso and other.
Initiative/service | Status | Impact*** | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Social | Environmental | Economic | ||
EcoCare plastic free campaigns* | Active in 2017–2019; No current active challenge in 2020 | Impacting and influencing climate action and responsible consumption and production in 70 members | Saved 21,900 L of water in 2018–2019 by our community of 70 environmental lovers through the challenge | Several indirect jobs and revenue created for partners and suppliers – e.g. |
EcoEvent cleanup service | Operated in 2019; Not operated yet in 2020 | Influenced the way event organizers manage their waste in Goaso | Reduced amount of waste that ended up at dump site in Goaso during weekends; Expected to save up to 6516 tons of CO2-eq emission from waste burning by 2022 | Created 11 direct jobs within, 2 outside; several indirect jobs |
EcoCare DIY recycling training | Active 2018–2019 | Influenced 600+ youth and students to consider waste as a resource for artifact creation | Prevented indiscriminate throwing of plastic wastes; | Provided skills for youth and women in plastic craft work |
EcoCare H2H waste collection** | Rolled out in May 2020; Operated for about 10 weeks now | Served and impacted 16 households to choose paid waste collection service, learn to practice segregation of waste and control their waste generation | 1800 kg of wastes collected and properly disposed in 8 weeks of active operation; 11.25 kg waste per household per week; Generation is fairly constant | Created 3 different direct jobs for transporters, collectors and recyclers; 1/3 of waste generated go into recycling for revenue creation etc. |
Social, environmental and economic impacts of EcoCare’s green initiatives.
Plastic Free Campaign is global remote community (across 7 African countries) so impact are more global than local.
Find highlights of impacts discussed in Sec 9 below, since H2H Collection is the main model discussed for this chapter.
Some values are estimates from our unpublished Impact Assessment.
From a careful review of the results and lessons learned from EcoCare and other solid waste management companies that incorporate circularity into their services, we found that incorporation of a recovery and recycling channel at some point makes them contribute greatly to greening their environments. And such services are setting a pace for understanding, adoption and replication of green supply chain management (GSCM) into waste management in the country.
Waste generation among the user communities of EcoCare’s H2H Waste Collection, has been fairly constant. Meaning users are influenced to keep their waste generate at a moderation (in check) since the bin provided them is not the usual larger bins that public services provide. Also, the weekly collection and pay per pickup plan of the H2H Collection service influence users to not exceed their thresholds between weekly pickups.
Customer feedback tells us that the people prefer this service to the conventional collect and dump model. Feedback also suggests that a flexible and affordable payment plan has a potential to motivate more households to subscribe to paid waste collection services, rather than resort to their indiscriminate disposal of wastes.
A green supply chain model like the H2H Waste Collection also makes users (the people) feel a part of contributing to keeping their cities clean and green. This could be true because customers generally accepted the responsibility for the environmental pollution in their neighborhoods caused by the dumping of wastes at unauthorized places or long term storage of piles of wastes in their backyards.
The H2H Waste Collection model is highly commended for the fact that it connects multiple actors in the waste service, and opens door for more jobs and economic activities to be created in the city if the public municipal solid waste department adopts this model too.
Over all, if successful, we are optimistic that these four (4) green initiatives provided by EcoCare Waste Initiative could create 1000+ decent direct employment activities and 1000 change agents for the global goals on sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12) by 2022 from recycling model alone.4
The authors recommend that private-public-partnerships for waste management in Goaso and other cities would be greener if they replicated the circular economy model implemented by EcoCare Waste Initiative and its H2H Waste Collection model.
One key factor that affects green supply chain management (GSCM) is the integration of environmental value proposition. Environmental companies thus have little to do to achieve a green supply chain model, since their business models start with providing solutions to environmental problems, with consequential impacts on social and economic variables. EcoCare, a waste management startup in Goaso, Ghana, has proved that incorporating the triple bottom line, in municipal solid waste management – according to a circular economy model – is very possible, and that more cities have the potential to respecting the green supply chain management. Four main activities of EcoCare Waste Initiative – Plastic Free Campaigs, EcoEvent CleanUps Service, DIY Recycling Training and H2H Was Collection service – have been found to contribute to the greening the waste collection supply chain in Goaso, the capital of Asunafo North Municipality and the Ahafo region of Ghana. The House-to-house waste collection service (EcoCare H2H) ran by EcoCare is setting a pace for green supply chain management in Goaso.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Mycophenolate Mofetil MMF (CellCept; Roche, Basel, Switzerland) is a widely prescribed drug as part of maintenance immunosuppressive regimen after heart transplant (HTx) [1]. It is frequently administered in association with calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) like cyclosporine (CsA), tacrolimus (TAC), and prednisone.
MMF is a pro-drug that, after oral administration, is rapidly hydrolyzed to its active form, mycophenolic acid (MPA), by esterases mainly in the gastrointestinal wall, blood, and liver, but also in other tissues [2]. MPA is a selective, potent and reversible inhibitor of inosine-5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), a key enzyme of the
Generally, MMF is prescribed at a fixed dose, but there are several pharmacokinetic (PK) factors that could affect its efficacy. After MMF administration, MPA shows non-linear absorption kinetics, and a complex inter-patient and intra-patients PK variability [7], that could be attributable to MPA enterohepatic circulation (EHC), graft function, genetic factors, changes in plasma protein binding, and drug–drug interactions. MPA time to reach the plasma maximum concentration (Tmax) occurs after 1–2 hours after dosage [8].
MPA presents a higher bioavailability, ranging from 80.7–94% [8]. In blood, MPA widely binds serum albumin, from 97–99% in patients with normal renal and hepatic function. Consistently, it has been evidenced that hypoalbuminemia could increase MPA free fraction
MPA is mainly metabolized in liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract by uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs). The major metabolite of MPA, 7-O-MPA-glucuronide (MPAG), is inactive but it is present in the plasma at higher concentrations than MPA. MPAG is excreted into the urine via active tubular secretion and into the bile by multi-drug resistance protein 2 (MRP-2), and at the gastrointestinal level MPAG could be de-conjugated back to MPA by gastrointestinal flora and then reabsorbed in the colon, resulting in a secondary plasma peak between 6 and 12 hours after oral administration. This may contribute to the 30–40% of MPA exposure. Severe renal impairment, liver disease, and hypoalbuminemia could affect MPA exposure [11]. The co-administration of CsA, by inhibiting the MRP-2 mainly in the gastrointestinal tract, causes a reduction of MPA EHC, resulting in an approximately 30–40% lower MPA exposure than when MMF is administered in combination with TAC [2, 8, 12]. Furthermore, it has been evidenced that CsA administration could affect MPA Clearance (Cl) [13]. Moreover, corticosteroids may reduce the exposure of MPA by inducing the expression of UGTs [8].
For these reasons, the execution of TDM could be an effective strategy to maximize the efficacy of the treatment also reduce the risk of toxicity. Several studies have suggested the importance of MPA TDM in renal and heart transplants recipients [14, 15, 16]. The best PK parameter correlating with the efficacy of treatment is represented by MPA’s area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 12 hours (MPA AUC0-12h) [11, 17] and several studies show that MPA plasma levels correlate to risk of rejection [18, 19]. The therapeutic range has been well determined in renal transplant recipients (30–60 mg × h/L) [20], and some authors suggested similar therapeutic thresholds on MPA-AUC0-12h also in HTx [21, 22].
The entire MPA AUC0-12h is difficult to calculate in clinical practice, due to its costly and laborious assessment. On the contrary, the single time-point measurement is the easiest for sampling, but it is not sufficiently predictive of patient outcome [20], taking also in consideration that MPA is characterized by >10-fold range variation in MPA AUC0-12h dose-normalized among patients undergoing heart or renal transplantation [23, 24].
Limited Sampling Strategies (LSSs) represent the most relevant assessment in solid organ transplantation for dosage individualization, that could overcome this problem [20]. LSSs are algorithm-based strategies able to predict the entire AUC0-12h without the necessity of sampling all the time-point concentrations after drug administration, but limiting the sampling to a reduced number of measurements, usually three time-points or even fewer. They can be developed by two main methods represented by multiple linear regression (MLR) or by with maximum a posteriori Bayesian estimation (MAP-BE).
MLR represents the simplest technique to develop an LSS. It requires statistical knowledge and the main strength of this approach is the adhesion to the sampling time.
On the other hand, developing an LSSs by maximum a posteriori Bayesian estimation (MAP-BE) is more complex because specialized PK modeling software knowledge is required.
From a methodological point of view, LSS should be generated on a cohort of patients (
To exclude biased results, the LSS performance should be assessed in the
Recently, Baraldo et al. reviewed the state of the art of MPA LSSs in HTx recipients [25]. In the last few years, the immunosuppression therapy after HTx has changed, with the massive use of TAC compared to CsA, in combination with MMF and corticosteroids.
This pilot study aimed to test, in a heterogeneous cohort of patients treated with MMF and CSA or TAC, two algorithms of LSSs previously generated by Baraldo et al. [27, 28] in a selected cohort of HTx recipients treated with MMF and CSA. These algorithms were selected due to their good performance [28] and given the hypothesis that the LSSs sampling time point schedule was able to determinate MPA AUC0-12h even when MMF was administrated combined with TAC.
If this pilot study reports positive results, the generation of new LSS in a population of HTx treated with MMF and TAC would not be required.
This is a pilot observational, retrospective, cohort study. The study was performed at the University Hospital of Udine, in Italy. The study was approved by the Internal Review Board (I.R.B.) of the Commission for the Experimentation and Protection of Human Subjects of the Department of Medical Area of the University of Udine with the protocol number: 036/2020_IRB.
The study included 40 HTx recipients previously treated as per standard clinical practice with MMF and CsA or MMF and TAC, and prednisone, at the University Hospital of Udine, and routinely monitored for MPA quantification in the period starting from the 01st/01/2011 up to the 31st/12/2019. The patients included in the study were HTx recipients, aged 18 years old or more, and treated with MMF and either CsA or TAC and prednisone. Patients treated with immunosuppression drugs other than MMF, CsA and TAC, or with the absence of necessary information for the study in the clinical records or with the absence of informed consent for clinical, epidemiological research, training and study of pathologies were excluded from the study. All consecutive HTx recipients in the study period who met inclusion/exclusion criteria were included in the analysis.
All HTx recipients received a standard triple immunosuppressive therapy: MMF in combination with CsA or TAC and prednisone. The posology regimen of MMF varied from 1000 to 3500 mg/day, with a mean of 1785.5 mg/day (± 553.4). While the mean CsA dose was 3.0 mg/kg/day (± 1.3) p.o. in 2 divided doses, mean TAC dose was 0.1 mg/kg/day (±0.06). Patients treated with prokinetic drugs, resins or other drugs known to interfere with MPA PK, other than prednisone, were excluded from the analysis.
A complete PK profile was available for the 40 HTx recipients included in the present analysis. Patients had been asked to take their usual morning dose of MMF after having a standard meal. Patients had not changed the therapeutic regimen for 30 days and had been at a steady state for MMF. Eight venous samples had been collected for the analysis of MPA plasma concentrations. For MPA assays, blood samples had been collected in EDTA tubes at 0 (pre-dose), 0.5, 1.25, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 hours after the morning dose. Separation of plasma was performed immediately in a centrifuge at 4°C. Plasma MPA concentration was measured using validated High Pressure Liquid Chromatography with UV Detector (HPLC/UV) method [23], that ensure to achieve an analytical precision and accuracy that fulfill the International Association of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Clinical Toxicology (IATDMCT) recommendations [20]. The laboratory reported the following parameters for the HPLC/UV method used for MPA quantification: limit of detection, 0.1 μg/mL; linearity, 0.1–40 μg/mL (R2: 0.9988); intrabatch imprecision (CV), 3.15%, 1.55%, and 1.76% at MPA plasma concentrations of 1.5, 5.0, 15.0 μg/mL, respectively; interbatch imprecision (CV), 3.41%, 3.21%, and 1.92% at MPA plasma concentrations of 1.5, 5.0, 15.0 μg/mL, respectively; overall inaccuracy (% Bias) of the procedure, ranged from 8.7% to 13.6%. MPA AUC0–12h had been calculated by the linear trapezoidal rule.
The two algorithms used for MPA AUC0-12h evaluation were the followings:
According to Sheiner and Beal, to assess the bias of the LSSs, we calculated Mean Percentage Prediction Error (MPE%) and the Median Percentage Prediction Error (MPPE%) [26]. To assess precision was calculated Root Mean Squared Percentage Prediction Error (RMSE%) and the Median Absolute Percentage Prediction Error (MAPE%) [26].
The MPE%, MPPE%, RMSE% and MAPE% were calculated as follows:
Bias:
Imprecision:
For bias, we set the limit of 15%, while for imprecision the limit was set at 20%. The percentage of estimated AUC0-12h between 75–125% of the observed AUC0-12h was also calculated.
To compare our results to an already validated algorithm, we tested one other LSS equation developed in HTx by Kaczmareck et al. [29]:
Descriptive statistical analyses were conducted for all the study variables, reporting position and variability indexes (e.g., mean and standard deviation, SD) for quantitative variables. Differences between groups were evaluated using the Fisher’s exact test for nominal variables and the Student’s T-test for quantitative variables, and considering as statistically significant a p-value <0.05.
The two methods of LSS were validated by using both linear regression and Bland–Altman analysis, as recommended by the literature [26, 30]. All the analyses were performed with Medcalc Software version 19.7.2 ® (Med-Calc Software, Ostend, Belgium®). Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient (
The main characteristics of study patients are reported in Table 1.
Total | MMF + CsA | MMF + TAC | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
No. pts. | 40 | 28 | 12 | |
Sex (No. males, % males) | 30 (75%) | 25 (89%) | 5 (42%) | 0.003 |
Age (years) | 56.1 ± 12.1 | 58.4 ± 10.8 | 57.5 ± 13.7 | 0.10 |
MMF Dose (mg/day) | 1785.7 ± 553.4 | 1785.7 ± 551.6 | 1791.7 ± 582.3 | 0.98 |
MMF Dose (mg/kg/day) | 24.4 ± 8.1 | 23.1 ± 6.9 | 24.3 ± 4.6 | 0.22 |
Post-Transpl. time (months) | 34.7 ± 52.5 | 45.1 ± 59.4 | 10.6 ± 14 | 0.01 |
BMI (Kg/m2) | 25.9 ± 5.4 | 26.5 ± 5.7 | 24.3 ± 4.6 | 0.21 |
ALT (IU/L) | 26.5 ± 19.5 | 28.6 ± 20.9 | 25.9 ± 15.5 | 0.24 |
AST (IU/L) | 22.9 ± 16.6 | 24.5 ± 18.6 | 19.0 ± 9.9 | 0.23 |
Bilirubin (mg/dL) | 0.9 ± 0.7 | 1.1 ± 0.7 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | <0.001 |
RBCs (x106/μL) | 4.1 ± 0.6 | 4.2 ± 0.7 | 3.9 ± 0.5 | 0.08 |
Hb (g/dL) | 12 ± 1.9 | 12.3 ± 1.9 | 11.4 ± 1.6 | 0.10 |
WBCs (x103/μL) | 7.7 ± 2.8 | 8.1 ± 2.8 | 6.9 ± 2.8 | 0.25 |
Neutro (x103/μL) | 5.7 ± 2.7 | 6.1 ± 2.8 | 5 ± 2.3 | 0.20 |
Lymph (x103/μL) | 1.2 ± 0.6 | 1.2 ± 0.5 | 1.1 ± 0.5 | 0.73 |
Mono (x103/μL) | 0.86 ± 1.3 | 0.9 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.41 |
Eos (x103/μL) | 0.09 ± 0.08 | 0.09 ± 0.1 | 0.1 ± 0.1 | 0.84 |
Bas (x103/μL) | 0.04 ± 0.03 | 0.04 ± 0 | 0.05 ± 0 | 0.74 |
CrCl (mL/min)b | 62.0 ± 26.3 | 59.7 ± 25.4 | 67.4 ± 28.7 | 0.4 |
GFR (ml/min/1.73m2)c | 59.0 ± 23.4 | 56.4 ± 24.8 | 64.4 ± 19.9 | 0.3 |
MPA AUC0-12h (mg × h/L) | 47.2 ± 24.7 | 36.4 ± 13.0 | 72.3 ± 27.6 | 0.001 |
MPA C0 (ug/ml) | 2.4 ± 2.0 | 1.6 ± 1.0 | 4.1 ± 2.6 | <0.001 |
Prednisone (mg/day) | 12.8 ± 9.4 | 11.9 ± 9.6 | 15.4 ± 8.8 | 0.24 |
Prednisone (mg/kg/day) | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.1 | 0.2 ± 0.2 | 0.10 |
CsA Dose(mg/day) | — | 179.6 ± 75.4 | — | |
CsA Dose (mg/kg/day) | — | 3.0 ± 1.3 | — | |
CsA C0 (ng/mL) | 177.1 ± 64.9 | |||
TAC Dose (mg/day) | — | — | 6.0 ± 5.0 | |
TAC Dose (mg/kg/day) | — | — | 0.1 ± 0.06 | |
Tac C0 (ng/mL) | 10.6 ± 4.25 |
Patients baseline demographical and clinical data, overall and according to the type of treatment.
p-values of 2-sided Fisher’s exact test for nominal variables or T- test for quantitative variables.
Evaluated by Cockcroft-Gault adjusted for body weight.
Evaluated by CKD-EPI Equation.
Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation, if not otherwise specified.
AUC0-12h: Area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to 12 h; ALT: Alanine Aminotransferase; AST: Aspartate Aminotransferase; Bas: Basophils; BMI: Body Mass Index; C0: pre-dose measurement; CsA: Cyclosporine; CrCl: Creatinine Clearance; Eos: Eosinophils; GFR: Glomerular Filtration Rate; Hb: Hemoglobin level; Lymph: Lymphocytes; Mono: Monocytes; MMF: Mycophenolate Mofetil; MPA: Mycophenolic Acid; Neutro: Neutrophils; RBCs: Red Blood Cells; TAC: Tacrolimus; WBCs: White Blood Cells.
All patients were Caucasian and most of the analyzed patients shown normal renal and hepatic functionality. Patients treated to CsA- or TAC-based maintenance immunosuppression were comparable for most of the baseline characteristics, including age, body mass index (BMI), MMF administered dose, renal and hepatic function, except for sex, bilirubin, post transplantation time, MPA AUC0-12h and MPA C0. A number of 15 acute cell rejections occurred after a median time of 8.95 months from transplantation, especially in the patients group treated with MMF-CsA than in the MMF-TAC group (87% vs. 13%, respectively). According to the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation, the overall rejections were classified as follows: 8 GRADE 1R (55%), 5 GRADE 2R (33%) and 2 GRADE 3R (13%) [31]. No patients reported any episodes of diarrhea.
In the whole cohort of patients, a low tendency to underestimation of the value of MPA AUC0-12h by both LSS3 and LSS4 emerged evaluating MPE% for mean values (−6.0% and − 4.8%, respectively) and MPPE% for median values (−3.8% and − 1.1%, respectively). The precision of LSS3 and LSS4 was acceptable, by evaluating RMSE% for mean values (19.6% and 16.2%, respectively) and MAPE% for median values (13.5% and 11.0%, respectively). The percentages of MPA AUC0-12h predicted by LSS3 and LSS4 within the 25% of the MPA AUC0-12h full value was 73% and 80%, for LSS3 and LSS4, respectively.
Linear regression and Bland–Altman analyses evidenced that both LSS3 and LSS4 methods can effectively predict the values of MPA AUC0-12h. The value of
Linear regression scatters plot of MPA AUC0-12h predicted versus MPA AUC0-12h measured, when MPA AUC0-12h predicted was calculated with LSS3 (A) and LSS4 (B) (n = 40 PK profile).
Bland–Altman plots comparing MPA AUC0-12h predicted – MPA AUC0-12h measured and the average of MPA AUC0-12h predicted and MPA AUC0-12h measured, when MPA AUC0-12h predicted was calculated by LSS3 (A) and LSS4 (B) respectively (n = 40 PK profile).
A subgroup analysis was also conducted stratifying the patients for the co- treatment.
Among 28 patients treated with MMF and CsA, the bias was acceptable, evaluating MPE% for mean values (−0.5% and − 0.3%) and MPPE% for median values (2.3% and 0.7%) for LSS3 and LSS4, respectively. Analogously, the precision was acceptable evaluating RMSE% (18.6% and 14.8%) and MAPE% (12.4% and 9.7%), for LSS3 and LSS4, respectively. The percentages of MPA AUC0-12h estimated by LSS3 and LSS4 within the 25% of the MPA AUC0-12h full value were 79% and 86%, respectively.
Finally, in the sub-group of 12 patients treated with MMF and TAC, these same features were the followings: MPE% = −18.9% and − 15.3%; MPPE% = −19.9% and − 14.0%; RMSE% = 21.7% and 19.2%; MAPE% = 19.0% and 14.0%, for LLS3 and LSS4, respectively.
The percentage of MPA AUC0-12h predicted within the 25% of the measured MPA AUC0-12h full value: 58% and 67%, for LSS3 and LSS4 respectively.
Despite the very low number of patients, also the linear regression analyses executed on the two subgroups of patients evidenced good results.
In the MMF and CsA group the results were the followings:
Population | Algorithm | MPE (%) | MPPE (%) | RMSE (%) | MAPE (%) | % within 75–125% of full AUC0-12h | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall (N = 40) | LSS3 | −6.0 | −3.8 | 19.6 | 13.5 | 73 | 0.84 |
LSS4 | −4.8 | −1.1 | 16.2 | 11.0 | 80 | 0.88 | |
MMF and CsA group (N = 28) | LSS3 | −0.5 | 2.3 | 18.6 | 12.4 | 79 | 0.70 |
LSS4 | −0.3 | 0.7 | 14.8 | 9.7 | 86 | 0.79 | |
MMF and TAC group (N = 12) | LSS3 | −18.9 | −19.9 | 21.7 | 19.0 | 58 | 0.87 |
LSS4 | −15.3 | −14.0 | 19.2 | 14.0 | 67 | 0.86 |
Predictive performance of LSS3 and LSS4 in the estimation of the observed MPA AUC0-12h.
AUC0-12h: Area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to 12 h; CsA: Cyclosporine; LSS3: Limited Sampling Strategy based on 3 concentration sampling points; LSS4: Limited Sampling Strategy based on 4 concentration sampling points; MAPE%: Median Absolute Percentage Prediction Error; MMF: Mycophenolate Mofetil; MPA: Mycophenolic Acid; MPE%: Mean Percentage Prediction Error; MPPE%: Median Percentage Prediction Error; RMSE%: Root Mean Squared Percentage Prediction Error; R2: coefficient of determination; TAC: Tacrolimus.
The analysis of Kaczamarek LSSs applied to our patient’s data reports the following results:
The importance of MPA TDM for renal transplant patients is known, but its execution on HTx patients in clinical practice is still debated [17]. Specific large prospective randomized trials should be conducted, but the considerable inter- and intra-patient variability of MPA after organ transplantation suggest MPA TDM to optimize MPA exposure.
The systematic review regarding MPA TDM in HTx reported by Zuk et al. suggests that the relationship between MPA levels and the efficacy of the treatment in terms of allograft rejection in HTx patients is not defined, but LSS may be a better assessment strategy to prevent rejection than a single-time point model [32]. An LSS can be generated using two main methods: MAP-BE method and MLR analysis.
In the first case, any recorded patient sample is compared with data derived from the population PK study, and the covariates can be continually improved by updating the PK population data. The main advantage of the first approach is represented by the flexibility in the timing of the samples as recently demonstrated by Woillard et al. [22]. The main limit of this approach is represented by the employment of complex and specific software, requiring skilled professionals.
On the contrary, multiple regression analysis is simpler, but adherence to the sampling time is mandatory to apply the algorithms in clinical practice. To our knowledge, up to now, few LSSs were developed in HTx, and most of them were generated in patients treated with MMF and CsA [25]. Only three studies focused on LSSs in HTx recipients treated with MMF and TAC [29, 33, 34].
Xiang et al. [33] generated an LSS for the estimation of MMF dispersible tablets combined with TAC in 30 Chinese HTx patients. The comparison of MPA PK among MMF dispersible tablets and MMF did not show significant differences. The LSS with the best performance was the following: MPA AUC0-12h = 8.424 + 0.781 × C0.5h + 1.263 × C2h + 1.660 × C4h + 3.022 × C6h (R2 = 0.844). The performance of this LSS can be considered comparable with our algorithms and both contain the C6h sample timing point improving the MPA AUC0-12h estimation thanks to the inclusion of the typical secondary peak of MPA, minimizing the risk of MPA AUC0-12h underestimation. Nevertheless, this LSS was developed in Chinese patients so it could not properly fit the Caucasian population, although literature does not suggest this hypothesis [35]. Moreover, these LSSs were developed analyzing the plasma timing point by Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS–MS), so they cannot be easily transferred in that laboratories which employ HPLC/UV methods.
Kaczmarek et al. [29] generated different LSSs in 28 HTx recipients treated with MMF and TAC. The best LSS was obtained using 4 sampling points: MPA-AUC0-12h = 1.25 × C1h + 5.29 × C4h + 2.90 × C8h + 3.61 × C10h (R2 = 0.95). The studied population is comparable to our population. Also, in this case, it can be seen that by sampling the timing point after several hours from MMF administration, a better MPA-AUC0-12h estimation can be achieved. These LSSs show an optimal performance, but it is based on a demanding sampling schedule that can be applied only on hospitalized patients, thus excluding the outpatient settings.
For this reason, authors proposed two different and more practical LSSs represented by: MPA AUC0-12h = 1.09 × C0.5 + 1.19 × C1h + 3.60 × C2h (R2 = 0.84) and MPA AUC0-12h = 1.65 × C0.5h + 4.74 × C2h (R2 = 0.75). Due to the missing data about the C1h in our population, we test the second LSS. The performance was not acceptable for the use in clinical practice as compared to our algorithms. This could be due to the absence of the C6h sampling time point, resulting in MPA AUC0-12h underestimation.
Wada et al. [34] generated an LSS in 11 Chinese HTx recipients treated MMF and TAC approximately 9 months after transplantation. In this case, the author used the same analytical method, pharmacokinetic and statistical approaches.
They generated a 3-point model LSS based on C1h, C2h and C4h: MPA AUC0-12h = 23.56 + 1.05 × C1h + 1.25 × C2h + 2.53 × C4h (R2 = 0.73), with an MPE% of 2.73%. The results of Wada’s study should be taken with caution because of the limited number of enrolled patients and the ethnic difference that could influence MPA PK.
On the other hand, Pawinski et al. proposed an accurate LSS in HTx patients treated with MMF (and CsA) [36] is based on 3 sampling time-points 2 hours after drug administration. The LSSs developed was the following: MPA AUC0-12h = 9.69 + 0.63 × C0.5h + 0.61 × C1h + 2.20 × C2h. It showed a good performance (R2 = 0.84), and for its sampling schedule it can be applied in the outpatient setting. Nevertheless, this LSS was generated on the patient in combination therapy with MMF and CsA. For this reason, this algorithm could be acceptable in patients co-treated with CsA because of its effect on reducing the typical MPA secondary peak, affecting MPA EHC [2]. Moreover, the authors developed an algorithm including the C6h blood sample. It presented a similar R2 and can be considered more predictive of the entire AUC0-12h because it can describe the typical MPA secondary peak that occurs approximately 6 to 12 hours after MMF oral dose administration, thus affecting global MPA exposure.
In our study the two evaluated LSSs reveal to be sufficiently precise and accurate for the estimation of the entire MPA AUC0-12hFigure 1. The major thesis that allows the application of these LSSs in this population is the presence of C6h that offers the opportunity to estimate MPA PK accurately in both immunosuppressive regimens, even if it is not easy to apply in the outpatient setting.
This study has several limitations: 1) the whole study group was mainly composed by men, whereas, the small subgroup of patients treated with TAC included a high percentage of women. However, it has been demonstrated that MPA PK is not influenced by sex in solid organ recipients [8, 37], even if Tornatore et al. [38] showed differences in MPA and MPAG PK related to sex among stable renal transplant recipients receiving enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium combined with TAC.; 2) in this pilot study, the sample size of the MMF and TAC group was smaller than MMF and CsA group; 3) MMF and TAC group presented a higher C0 and MPA AUC0-12h. However, exposure to MPA when MMF is in combination therapy with CsA is approximately 30–40% lower than when given in monotherapy or with TAC [8, 39]; 4) the MMF and TAC group presented a lower level of bilirubin. Bilirubin could displace MPA from albumin binding sites, affecting MPA exposure [40]. However, this effect is limited to only patients presenting hyperbilirubinemia, and could be detected only when the free drug is measured [40]; 5) TDM was not planned to be executed at the same time for all enrolled patients but it was executed by clinical decision. This can be a source of bias, because it is known that the exposition of MPA AUC0-12h could vary extensively after HTx [11]; 6) furthermore, co-medications commonly used in clinical practice could alter MPA exposure [8, 11] . However, as shown in Table 1, the major clinical parameter, including age, BMI, liver and renal function between the two treatment groups were statistically comparable.
In this pilot study, two LSSs resulted to be sufficiently precise and accurate to predict MPA AUC0-12h in a heterogeneous cohort of HTx patients. This study confirmed that the two LSSs, generated in HTx recipients treated with MMF and CsA could be used also in patients treated with MMF and TAC, in particular on in hospitalized patients in the first period after HTx and in outpatients with suspected toxicity or at high risk of organ rejection with considerable social, healthcare and economic advantages.
These results suggest to confirm this hypothesis in a prospective study with a wider cohort of HTx recipients, treated mainly with MMF and TAC, and with a pre-planned TDM.
The authors thank the healthcare staff of the Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology Institute “University Hospital Santa Maria della Misericordia”, Udine, Italy, for the collection of blood samples and the analyses performed.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors received no specific funding from any organization for this work.
The authors thank Miss. Enza Pincente for the English revision of the Manuscript.
AUC0-12h | Area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to 12 h; |
ALT | Alanine Aminotransferase; |
AST | Aspartate Aminotransferase; |
BMI | Body Mass Index; |
C0 | pre-dose measurement; |
Cl | Clearance; |
CsA | Cyclosporine; |
CrCl | Creatinine Clearance; |
EDTA | Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; |
EHC | enterohepatic circulation; |
GFR | Glomerular Filtration Rate; |
HPLC/UV | High Pressure Liquid Chromatography with UV Detector |
IATDMCT | International Association of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Clinical Toxicology |
IMPDH | inosine-5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase; |
I.R.B. | Internal Review Board; |
LC/MS–MS | Liquid Chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry; |
LSS | Limited Sampling Strategy; |
LSS3 | Limited Sampling Strategy based on 3 concentration sampling point; |
LSS4 | Limited Sampling Strategy based on 4 concentration sampling point; |
MAPE% | Median Absolute Percentage Predictive Error; |
MPE% | Mean Percentage Prediction Error; |
MMF | Mycophenolate Mofetil; |
MRP-2 | multi-drug resistance protein 2; |
MPA | Mycophenolic Acid; |
MPAG | 7-O-MPA-glucuronide; |
MPPE% | Median Percentage Predictive Error; |
PK | Pharmacokinetics; |
r | Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient; |
R2 | coefficient of determination; |
RMSE% | Root Mean Squared Percentage Prediction Error |
Tmax | time to reach the plasma maximum concentration; |
TAC | Tacrolimus; |
TDM | Therapeutic Drug Monitoring; |
UGTs | uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases. |
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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. 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Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9528",title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9528.jpg",slug:"current-topics-and-emerging-issues-in-malaria-elimination",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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