Countries in the WHO AFR that have reported cholera outbreaks: January 2017–March 2018.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Proceeding in this way developer can be guaranteed the filter stability and robustness in many practically uncertain situations when the statistic characteristics of system disturbances and measured errors are not entirely known. A guaranteed approach with using an equivalent white noise is also aimed to be considered. Some representative examples from typical aerospace systems (the editor’s main professional field) are intended to be presented. Summarizing the above, it can be emphasized that when implementing the KF it is always useful to replace the art of programming with the experience of designing conventional robust systems having an idealistic estimate of maximum (best) of achievable performance. This would prevent the system's real-time computer from many possible situations with “empty “computations and even to the divergence of the computational process. It can also show that the filter is not a magic mill and cannot achieve the desired performance if it cannot be achieved in principle, better that it can be “promised” by the KF quadratic criterion minimum, or if some state vector components are not observable and controllable.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-576-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-575-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-577-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c3e68adcaeaa44f9fbfe9bb19bdd55b",bookSignature:"Dr. Yuri Kim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11504.jpg",keywords:"Separation Theorem, Extended Kalman Filter, Covariance Matrix, Riccati Equation, FBGM, Analytical Implementation Forms, Physical Implementation Forms, Steady State Filter, Inertial Navigation System, Global Positioning System, Controllability, Multisensory Navigation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Y.V. Kim is a Doctor of Technical Science, having a broad and wealthy international scientific, engineering, and teaching experience, obtained in the former USSR, Israel, and Canada. He has many scientific publications and implemented inventions dedicated to Aerospace GN&C.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316140/images/system/316140.jpg",biography:"Yuri Kim\n24 Buttenut, Gatineau, QC, Canada\nTel : 1-(514)- 466-1033, e-mail: yurikim@hotmail.ca\n\nHIGHLIGHTS OF QUALIFICATIONS:\n\nExperienced scientist, engineer and manager with internationally recognized achievements in area of Aerospace Avionics, (GN&C); Analysis, design (HW&SW), integration, testing and operation for various aerospace platforms and missions. \n\nGained a broad experience in preparation of technical documents for Joint (Industry-Customer) State Commissions for the acceptance (commissioning) of Aerospace Avionics, Navigation and Special application experimental equipment for further serial production, and operational support. Last works have been dedicated to R&D projects developing new Satellite Navigation Control Technology and customer support of Canadian satellites Control system design.\n\n\nACADEMIC DEGREES:\n\n 1991 *Doctor of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Vehicles Guidance \n Navigation and Control \n Scientific Council of State Institute of Automatic Systems, Ministry of Aviation\n Industry of USSR, Moscow\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers) \n1982 * Senior Scientific Fellow Diploma in Gyroscopes and Navigation systems \n Capital Certification Commission of Scientists, Ministry of High Education of\n USSR, Moscow.\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers)\n1974 * Candidate of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Navigation\n and Control Systems (Accredited as Ph.D by York University, Toronto.)\n Scientific Council of Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow.\n1970 * Engineer Electromechanic Diploma in Gyro and Navigation systems,\n Faculty of Flight Apparatuses Control Systems, Moscow Aviation Institute, \n Moscow (Accredited as between Masters Degree and Bachelor Degree by\n York University, Toronto).\n1965 * Radio and TV Systems Technician Certificate, Dnepropetrovsk Technical School \n of preparation of technical specialists for Soviet Army, Military Aviation and \n Navy.\n\nMILITARY EDUCATION:\n\n1970 * Engineer in ballistic rocket control system, Military Faculty of MAI, last rank senior engineer-lieutenant (in reserve)\n\n\n\nEMPLOYMENT HISTORY:\nA. GOVERNMENT\n\nAt present - Canadian Space Agency, Space Science and Technology Division, David Florida Laboratory\n\n Senior Aerospace System engineer \n\n° Performing, developing and supporting phases of design, testing, commissioning and \n operation for space vehicle orbit and attitude control systems, in particular: Tecsas, Scope, \n J2Sat, Small satellite, M3Msat, Cassiopea, Neossat, RCM, PCW\n\n° Reviewing and commenting on Attitude Control systems design documentations, related to \n all phases of system development commissioning and operation\n \n° Supporting Aerospace Industry R&D projects funding by CSA (STDP) as Scientific\n Authority, in particular: Microwheel (Dynacon), LOCOOS (NGC), PCW (Bristol)\n\n° Providing expertise on new initiatives for Space Exploration and Utilization regarding \n Attitude and Orbital Control and possible development of Canadian space launcher\n\n° Developing basic mathematical (Simulink/Matlab) simulator for developing the \n requirements and expected performance of AODCS for new space vehicles\n\n° Developing new basic technology (based on Kalman Filter) for satellite attitude\n determination and sensor calibration, developing of FF test-bed equipment and GPS \n navigation in environment of CSA laboratory, developing of methods of ACS sensors\n calibration, measuring and compensation of satellite residual magnetic moment, experimental determination of satellite inertia matrix during ACS integration tests\n\n° Interacting with Space Industry and Universities in the problems, related to development of \n new methods and systems for space vehicle attitude and orbit determination and control\n \n° Sharing with International Aerospace community CSA achievements and experience in\n development of new technologies and methods for space vehicle attitude and orbit \n determination and control through publications, presentations and participation in scientific\n conferences, meetings and symposiums as well as maintaining an awareness about new \n technological advancements\n \n° Providing professional training for students and post. Graduates in the area of Orbital and\n Attitude Dynamic and Control\n\nB. INDUSTRIAL\n\nSept. 1998 – Feb. 1999 – Olympia Engineering Ltd. (Toronto)\n\nResearch and Development Engineer\n\n•\tDevelopment of measuring instrument for measuring remote measuring of micro- deformations of machinery (milling machine) equipment\n•\tResearch and testing of differential GPS survey equipment and antennas in environment of industrial facility for developing a new remote method for the measuring of machinery micro-deformations\n\n\n\n\nFeb.1999 – Jun.2002 – Saskatoon Engineering Division of Calian Company, \n Radarsat-1 Operation Team (CSA, Montreal)\n\nAttitude Control System Analyst\n\n•\tWorking as RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control System Analyst performing day-to-day operation TLM data analysis; reporting, monitoring and solving ACS flight anomaly problems, maintaining ACS software and performance \n•\tAuthor of many reports (see attached list of publications), devoted to solving of Radarsat-1 non-benign Safe Hold Mode problem, Momentum Wheel failure problems and improvement of the performance of attitude determination method with Magnetometer and Sun Sensor (back up, ADM3 mode for the case of potential failure of Horizon Scanner).\n•\tPreparation and implementation of the solution for RADARSAT-1 operation without failed Momentum Wheels, that saved the satellite mission after the wheel failures\n(This work was prolonged after in CSA and awarded by the Canadian Government Award for the invention used by the Government)\n•\tDesign and implementation of new dynamic simulators (based on Simulink\ntoolbox) for Radarsat-1 ACS for operation support\n•\tPreparation for operation of new Canadian satellites Scisat and RADARSAT-2 \n\n\n\nJan. 1994 – Sep. 1997 – Israel Aviation Industry (IAI factories: TASHAN, LAHAV)\n\nAvionics system engineer\n\n•\tResearch and preliminary design of the Special Data Fusion System for a fighter-interceptor\n•\tIntegration of Inertial Navigation System with Global Position System into Upgraded Avionics Suit and installation in aircraft cockpit for A/C – trainer T-38\n\nNov. 1977 – Apr. 1993 – Moscow Research and Design Institute of Electromechanic and Automatic (formerly P/B: M5537, presently “Aviapribor” Corporation)\n\n \nHead of Division (R&D in Pilot-Navigation Systems)\n\n•\tLeadership of the Division, performing planning, financial and methodological duties, related to this position, reporting to the R&D deputy director of the Institute\n•\tResponsibility for Pilot-Navigation System integration, interaction, tests and transferring for serial production and operational support\n•\tInitiation and methodical leadership of innovative research and development projects\n•\tReviewing, commenting and implementation of Technical standards and Navigation norms\nas well as sharing progressive methods and results within Aerospace organizations within former USSR\n \n Head of Department (INS and Flight Management System SW Development)\n\n•\tLeadership and performing of duties of Head of Department \n•\tResponsibility for the prospective research and preliminary design of the Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Flight Management Systems (FMS)\n•\tDesign of the INS and FMS algorithms and simulation of expected performance\n•\tDevelopment of INS/FMS flight code\n•\tDevelopment of test procedures and simulators for FMS, and pilot nav.complexis for aircrafts \n•\tResponsibility for system performance analysis in the ground and flight tests\n\n Head of Sector (System Flight Test data analysis) \n\n•\tLeadership of the Sector\n•\tDevelopment of ground and flight test simulation procedures and requirements for test equipment and simulators, for flight test aircraft measuring equipment, installation and recorded data processing\n•\tDesign of Estimation and Identification algorithms for ground and flight data processing\n•\tTest data analysis, preparation of test results analysis reports and conclusions\n\n Senior Scientific Fellow\n\n•\tResearch, development and principal design of the special Suboptimal Kalman Filter for the fusion of data of various navigation sensors for aviation and space platforms\n•\tDevelopment of new Guidance and Navigation methods for aviation and space platforms\n•\tAnalysis of INS and FMS performance in ground and flight tests\n\nC. ACADEMIC \n\n1977–1993 – Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Institute of Instrument -\n Making, Aviation Industry Ministry Upgrade Qualification Institute\n(Part Time) Professor, Associate professor, Chairmen of State Diploma Commission,\n Member of Scientific Council\n•\tLecturer of the disciplines: Applied Oscillation, Theory (MIIM), Design of Instruments (MIIM), Integrated Navigation Systems (MUQI)\n•\tChairman of the State Diploma Commission -Gyro Instruments and Systems (MAI)\n•\tLeadership of postgraduates, participation in sessions of Scientific Council (MAI)\n•\tMethodical management of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation in MAI \n\n2009 McGill University, Montreal\n\nPart time lecturer for course (in English): Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control\n\n1970–1977 – Moscow Aviation Institute \n(Full Time) Associate Professor, Senior Researcher, Assistant Lecturer \n•\tLecturer of the courses: Spacecraft orbital mechanics and attitude determination and control, Inertial Navigation Systems, Gyro Instruments and Systems\n•\tResearch and development of suboptimal robust estimation methods for navigation data processing\n•\tResponsibility for the navigation systems laboratory\n•\tDeputy head of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation\n\nFIELDS OF THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGIC EXPERTISE:\n \n•\tSpace vehicle Orbit and Attitude determination and control\n•\tGyro instruments and systems\n•\tRadio navigation systems\n•\tInertial Navigation systems\n•\tAirplane Navigation and Control\n•\tAnalytical mechanics \n•\tApplied oscillation theory\n•\tAutomatic control theory\n•\tStochastic estimation theory\n\nENGINEERING EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tFlight and laboratory tests of Aerospace Avionics Equipment\n•\tDistribution of mission requirements between Aerospace vehicle subsystems, definition of functions and ICD \n•\tSpacecraft operation and performance maintenance\n•\tAvionics system (hardware and software) development and testing (autonomously and integration)\n•\tInertial navigation systems\n•\t Development of Avionics for Soviet Military aircrafts: Tu-142, Tu-95MC, An-124, An-70, A-40, Soviet Space shuttle “Buran” (responsibility for preliminary design of radio-navigation automatic landing system), \n•\tIsrael (IAI) upgrade of Avionics system for T-38 (USA Air force trainer) \n•\tOperation and modification in space Canadian Satellite RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control system\n•\tParticipation in commissioning of ACS of Canadian Satellite Scisat\n•\tDevelopment of a generic mathematical simulator for satellite AODCS analysis and simulation of expected performance for a family of Canadian new generation small satellites\n\nSCIENTIFIC EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tTheoretical and experimental investigation in the fields of S/C Orbital and Attitude Control\n•\tKalman Filter suboptimization and robust guarantee estimation theory development: authorship of new Suboptimal Kalman Filter modification, methods of INS correction and calibration, Geomagnetic Inertial Navigation System\n•\tResearch in areas of ACS and INS sensors development, their performance improvement\n•\tVarious Avionics Systems Mathematical models development and mathematical and semi-natural simulation\n•\tCoordination of research and development projects related to Aerospace equipment performed by Universities and Industries\n•\tScientific reports and articles reviewing and editorship \n•\tMembership in Scientific Counsels and Commissions\n•\tTutorship of under-graduate, graduated and post -graduate students \n\n•\tScientific reports and inventions in the field of GN&C for aircraft and spacecraft methods development \n•\tSeveral articles dedicated to the development of new methods in estimation theory: new suboptimal Kalman Filter with limited growth of the memory, observability and factor of state vector components estimation, guaranteed ellipsoidal estimation and stochastic estimation comparison \n\nLANGUAGES:\n \n•\tEnglish, Russian, Ukrainian, Hebrew, French (beginning level)\n•\tProgramming languages: Matlab/Simulinc/С",institutionString:"Canadian Space Agency",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and 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Delayed response has led to loss of life, economic losses and disruption of health systems which are already weak especially in low income countries. Researchers estimated the real total economic loss attributable to cholera in the WHO African Region (WHO AFR) as US$38,958,750 assuming a minimum regional life expectancy of 40 years; US$53,240,859 assuming a regional average life expectancy of 53 years; and US$64,208,880 assuming a maximum regional life expectancy of 73 years using 2015 figures [1]. Further, the three Ebola virus disease (EVD) hard hit countries in West Africa lost an estimated $2.8 billion in gross domestic product (GDP) [2]. Drawing from the experience of the three EVD affected countries in West Africa, the social and economic impact would have been less profound if health systems were strong to respond to the outbreak. The health system capacity in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone was suboptimal [3]. Essential health systems functions were not in place negatively impacting timely response to the outbreak. Scholars accentuate the role of resilient health systems to guard against loss of life, and collapse of basic health care services in the face of a crisis [4].
\nCholera, an enteric infection caused by the bacterium
During the period January 2017 to March 2018, 15 countries in the WHO African Region (AFR) reported cholera outbreaks of varying magnitudes [7]‑as shown in Table 1. Risk factors for cholera include poor sanitation and hygiene, inadequate access to safe water [8], reduced or nonexistent stomach acid, cohabitation in the same household with someone who has the disease, type of blood group, consumption of contaminated food and raw or undercooked shellfish [9]. Having an unprotected water source close to the residence, drinking poorly treated water and eating away from home [10] have also been cited as risk factors. Other studies highlight bathing in the river, long distance to water source, and eating dried fish as risk factors [11]. Furthermore, scholars draw our attention to a possible correlation between socio-economic and demographic indices as factors that might serve as national risk predictors with the assertion that, infant mortality and the human development index may denote a risk of sustained transmission of cholera [12]. On the contrary however, other researchers found no association between the risk of cholera and socio-economic factors although they highlight the association between occurrence of severe dehydration in cholera patients and the household size [13]. Peri-urban slums and camps for internally displaced persons or refugees are typically at risk due to challenges of accessing adequate safe water and good sanitation facilities [12].
\nCountry | \nDate of notification to WHO | \nDate of latest report | \nCases | \nDeaths | \nCFR | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Angola | \n15 Dec 2017 | \n25 Mar 2018 | \n861 | \n15 | \n1.7% | \n
Angola | \n15 Dec 2016 | \n22 Oct 2017 | \n375 | \n21 | \n5.6% | \n
Burundi | \n20 Aug 2017 | \n31 Dec 2017 | \n171 | \n0 | \n0% | \n
Chad | \n19 Aug 2017 | \n10 Dec 2017 | \n1250 | \n81 | \n6.5% | \n
DRC | \n1 Jan 2018 | \n4 Mar 2018 | \n6080 | \n140 | \n2.3% | \n
DRC | \n1 Jan 2017 | \n4 Mar 2018 | \n60,492 | \n1288 | \n2.1% | \n
Kenya | \n1 Jan 2018 | \n16 Mar 2018 | \n1910 | \n41 | \n2.1% | \n
Kenya | \n6 Mar 2017 | \n31 Dec 2017 | \n4079 | \n76 | \n1.9% | \n
Malawi | \n28 Nov 2017 | \n28 Mar 2018 | \n844 | \n26 | \n3.1% | \n
Mozambique | \n12 Aug 2017 | \n25 Mar 18 | \n2285 | \n5 | \n0.2% | \n
Mozambique | \n16 Feb 2017 | \n13 Mar 2017 | \n1400 | \n3 | \n0.2% | \n
Namibia | \n31 Jan 2018 | \n2 Mar 2018 | \n1 | \n1 | \n0.0% | \n
Nigeria | \n7 Jun 2017 | \n3 Mar 2018 | \n5058 | \n126 | \n2.4% | \n
South Africa | \n26 Feb 2018 | \n10 Mar 2018 | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
South Sudan | \n25 Aug 2016 | \n7 Feb 2018 | \n20,438 | \n436 | \n2.1% | \n
Tanzania | \n20 Aug 2015 (Cases from 1 Jan 2018) | \n25 Mar 2018 | \n1445 | \n27 | \n1.9% | \n
Tanzania | \n20 Aug 2015 (Cases from 1 Jan 2017) | \n31 Dec 2017 | \n4627 | \n95 | \n2% | \n
Uganda | \n28 Sep 2017 | \n30 Jan 2018 | \n250 | \n4 | \n1.6% | \n
Uganda | \n15 Feb 2018 | \n25 Mar 2018 | \n1901 | \n39 | \n2.1% | \n
Zambia | \n4 Oct 2017 | \n25 Mar 2018 | \n5190 | \n103 | \n2.0% | \n
Zimbabwe | \n22 Jan 2018 | \n24 Mar 2018 | \n111 | \n4 | \n3.6% | \n
Total | \n\n | \n | 118,769 | \n2531 | \n2.1% | \n
Countries in the WHO AFR that have reported cholera outbreaks: January 2017–March 2018.
Source: WHO/AFRO Weekly bulletins on outbreaks and emergencies, January 2017–March 2018.
In this chapter, we focus on cholera which is still a major cause of disease epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We review the trend of cholera in Zimbabwe and how the country has built resilience overtime. Our findings provide lessons to other countries who are seeking to put in place measures to control cholera and other diseases outbreaks.
\nHealth systems must have the capacity to effectively respond to crises and maintain core functions before, during and after crises. Resilience refers to patterns of positive adaptation in the context of significant risk or adversity [14]. A range of definitions for resilience have been proposed including a stable trajectory of healthy functioning after a highly adverse event; a conscious effort to move forward in an insightful and integrated positive manner as a result of lessons learned from an adverse experience; the capacity of a dynamic system to adapt successfully to disturbances that threaten the viability, function, and development of that system; and a process to harness resources in order to sustain well-being [15]. Resilient health systems are defined as health systems that are aware of inherent strengths and weaknesses; diverse with the capacity to respond to a broad range of challenges; self-regulating with the ability to isolate health threats while continuing to deliver core health services; integrated, and bringing in diverse actors from health and non-health actors as well as local and international players in a smart dependence; and adaptive with the ability to transform in ways that improve function in adverse situations [4]. In all these definitions resilient is understood in terms of a continuum of positive response in the face of adverse events.
\nFour of the authors were involved in the response efforts and their insights are provided here along with the review of important literature on the outbreak. The literature yielded information on the nature and trend of cholera response activities between 2008 and to date, and provided insights into changes in the health system over the same period that may have had an effect on the response to epidemics. The review took place between February and May 2018.
\nThe first recorded cholera case in Zimbabwe was in Mashonaland East Province (Mudzi district) in 1972. In the same year another outbreak was reported in Mashonaland Central (Mt Darwin district) [16]. Thereafter outbreaks occurred every 10 years until 1992. More frequent outbreaks occurred in the late 1990s, with the largest being recorded in 1999 when 4081 cases were reported in low lying border areas covering six provinces. Since the year 2000, cholera outbreaks were reported on an annual basis, with unprecedented outbreaks occurring in 2008/2009, when 60 of the 62 districts in the country were affected, and by the time the outbreak was declared over in May 2009, 98,592 cases and 4288 deaths had been reported [17]. The 2008/2009 cholera outbreak tested the strength of the Zimbabwe emergency preparedness and response at a time when the country was ill prepared for emergencies. Smaller outbreaks occurred in 2010 and 2011 each covering four districts and recording 1022 and 1140 cases respectively but these were controlled in reasonable time given the built response capacity from the 2008/2009 outbreak. After 2011, the country continued reporting cholera outbreaks on an annual basis to date with varying magnitudes. Remarkably, from 2012, all the outbreaks have been controlled at source without further spread to other districts. Chiredzi and Chipinge districts remained as hot spots with cases coming from these two districts for most years. Table 2 shows cholera cases and deaths in Zimbabwe from 2008 to March 2018.
\nYear | \nCases | \nDeaths | \nNumber of districts affected | \n
---|---|---|---|
2008/2009 | \n98,592 | \n4288 | \n60 | \n
2010 | \n1022 | \n22 | \n4 | \n
2011 | \n1140 | \n45 | \n4 | \n
2012 | \n22 | \n1 | \n1 | \n
2013 | \n2 | \n0 | \n1 | \n
2014 | \n0 | \n0 | \nNo | \n
2015 | \n42 | \n0 | \n6 | \n
2016 | \n4 | \n1 | \n2 | \n
2017 | \n6 | \n3 | \n3 | \n
2018 | \n111 | \n4 | \n2 | \n
Cholera cases and deaths in Zimbabwe between 2008 and March 20181.
Source: National Health information and surveillance, Ministry of Health and Child Care, Zimbabwe.
Since 2008, most of the cholera outbreaks in Zimbabwe were in urban settlements where the main drivers of cholera included the overloaded and dilapidated water and sanitation infrastructure which has been deteriorating over the years, inadequate water, contaminated water sources and poor water storage [18, 19]. In addition, cultural practices such as unsafe handling of corpses during burials add to the list of risk factors. In most of the reported outbreaks a great number of cases had been associated with deaths and reported to have attended a funeral [17].
\nZimbabwe’s health system is built under the principle of primary health care, with a district health system anchored on a district hospital and a network of rural health centers (RHC) or clinics providing first line health services. The district health system is supported by provincial hospitals at tertiary level and central hospitals at national level stationed in the two major cities of the country.
\nThe first line health facilities are serviced by nurses, for curative services and environmental health technicians (EHT) to support public health preventive services in the community. In addition to nurses, for curative services, the district level has doctors, laboratory scientists and other clinical and public health experts. The ideal for the country is two to three nurses and one EHT for every RHC. The district hospital is ideally supposed to be supported by 50–100 nurses, and three to eight doctors depending on the size. From independence, the supply of health workers improved up to about year 2000, when almost all the district hospitals had at least one doctor. Nurses’ coverage at RHC level had been improving up to a time when every RHC had at least one nurse.
\nThe health system, during the period 2008–2009, was far from being resilient and being able to absorb shocks whilst maintaining normal functionality. By the time the 2008/2009 cholera outbreak struck, the health system was at its weakest. It was characterized by a critical shortage of skilled as well as motivated health workers; critical shortages of essential medicines and supplies and medical technologies; dilapidated health infrastructure; unreliable health information systems and weak surveillance systems; poor service delivery and poor health stewardship under inexperienced health leadership [20]. In one study on community mortality from Cholera in Zimbabwe, the poor access to health services and limited availability of oral rehydration salts were some of the causes for high community mortality [20].
\nThe health system was dysfunctional as far as promoting provision of core health services because of the nationwide economic decline and staff attrition. For instance, most health workers including nurses, doctors, EHTs and laboratory scientist left for greener pastures either within or outside the country leaving RHCs without nurses and many district hospitals without doctors [21]. This left the health system poorly serviced by human resources [22]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the ratio of health workers per 1000 population was 0.162 in 2004 dropping to 0.05 in 2007 for physicians and that for nurses and midwives dropping from 1.491 in 1995 to 1.215 in 2009 [23]. With the country’s economy at its worst, affected by hyperinflation, financing for health was at its lowest during this period. Total health expenditure was 8.9% of GDP, with out of pocket expenditure constituting 50.4% of health expenditure [24]. Total health expenditure per capita was estimated at $16.21 in 2008 [25]. As such, surge capacity was nonexistent. With the lack of confidence in the health system a good proportion of the population was seeking for health care elsewhere which meant that some threats would not be detected by the health system late. Such a system could not adapt, transform and improve performance in the face of an outbreak.
\nAn up-to-date map of human, physical, and information assets that highlight areas of strength and vulnerability was not in place. Real time strategic health information and epidemiological surveillance systems as well as the use of indicator and event based surveillance systems were not in place. Some information was however available on the vulnerabilities of the population to different threats although not well disseminated to impel action. The functionality of the health information network was at its lowest, human resources were poorly motivated and not available at work to record surveillance data, analyze it and use the information for decision making. The surveillance system which was then largely paper based and not real time was severely affected by the transport and communication systems which were also at a low level.
\nResilient systems have the ability to harness human, financial and logistical resources from health and non-health fields, coordinate actors and manage partnerships. The strength of the country was the availability of inbuilt structures for coordination including the Civil Protection Committee at all levels of the system, chaired by the local government ministry. Although this committee remained functional, due to the poor economic performance all actors’ roles in responding to the outbreak were constrained. Although international players were eager and willing to provide support, the country did not declare the cholera outbreak as an emergency in sufficient time to allow inflow of such support. This is evidenced by the fact that although the first official report of the outbreak was on 22 August 2008, unofficial reports had been circulating in the media much earlier. Since the first official report of the outbreak became public, the Government was silent on the issue until December 2008, when the Minister of Health and Child Welfare eventually declared the cholera outbreak a state of emergency. After this declaration of a state of emergency, donors responded immediately and provided financial support through UN agencies and NGOs to fight the cholera outbreak.
\nThe International Health Regulations (2005), or IHR (2005), represents a binding international legal instrument involving 196 countries across the globe, including all the WHO Member States. The purpose and scope of the IHR (2005) is “to prevent, protect against, control and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks, and which avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade.” The IHR (2005), to which Zimbabwe is a signatory, has shaped the country’s preparedness [26], prevention and response efforts to public health risks, but only after the 2008/2009 cholera outbreak.
\nThe IHR (2005) sets guidelines for core capacities which must be implemented in order to prevent or respond to disease outbreaks and other public health events of international concern. This includes strengthening of core capacities at ports of entry to prevent exit or entry of infectious hazards. Alongside this is enabling legislation, establishment and strengthening IHR national focal points for the coordination of stakeholders and reporting of diseases of public health importance to WHO.
\nThe 2008/2009 cholera outbreak occurred outside the period of implementation of IHR (2005) for the country which was to start in 2011 with discussions and base-lining of country capacities for implementation of IHR (2005). State parties, in line with IHR (2005), are required to strengthen capacities in preparedness and response efforts. This requires countries to have multi-hazards national public health emergency preparedness and response plans which have to be periodically tested, including identification of hot spots and developing mechanisms for resource pooling and deployment during times of emergencies. This kind of plan did not exist before the 2008/2009 cholera outbreak.
\nIntegrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) was adopted as a tool for detection and response to epidemics by the WHO Regional Committee for Africa in 1998. In Zimbabwe, training modules were developed between 2001 and 2007, national adaptation carried out, training of trainers and training of health workers conducted. Although the training of trainers covered the whole country, cascade training of health workers was at a slower pace because of the limited financial resources. This capacity in IDSR was later to be negatively affected by the health worker attrition. With the coming of IHR (2005) AFR member states agreed that the implementation of IHR (2005) in Africa was going to be through IDSR.
\nThis outbreak, described as the worst the country has ever experienced, resulted in 98,592 cases and 4288 deaths with all provinces, and 60 of the 63 districts in the country affected. The outbreak toll could have been reduced were it not for the lack of resilience in the health system and the adverse macroeconomic and political climate.
\nThe 2008/2009 cholera outbreak came amid repeated calls by all sectors that Harare City Council urgently resolves the dilapidated water and sanitation infrastructure. The outbreak came at a time when the country was experiencing its worst economic downturn when most health institutions were closed down due to unavailability of health workers. Health service delivery was left to non-governmental organizations (NGO). The outbreak response was marred by sluggish response due to several reasons among which were weak health systems and leadership.
\nApart from the human resources, the resources required to implement a rapid response where not available at the initial stages of the outbreak because of economic challenges. The harsh economic climate characterized by hyperinflation meant that the common people did not have sufficient funds to get them to the health facility as well as procure the sugar and salt for preparing the oral rehydration solution [20].
\nThe situation gradually improved with the various interventions by the government and donor community realizing that there would be no good implementation of donor supported programs without public sector human resources for health. This led to various schemes to support retention of key health personnel at implementation levels including the creation of human resource retention schemes as part of the Global Fund and the Health Development Fund (then the Health Transition Fund). These schemes improved the availability of medicines and supplies for health including human resources which improved the country’s responsiveness to emergencies.
\nWith the support of partners, health commodities called the primary care packages were deployed to the health facilities at a regular basis using an approach called the Zimbabwe Informed Push System (ZIP). This improved the availability of medicines and as soon as the situation stabilized, the National Pharmaceutical Company (Natpharm) was capacitated to resume its role as the national supplier of pharmaceuticals and the distribution of medicines reverted back to the pull system. The pull system is whereby the distribution of medicines by Natpharm is on a quarterly basis in response to orders placed by health facilities. The implementation of the pull system followed an intermediary assisted pull system where the district pharmacists made quarterly visits to health facilities and assisted them in placing orders to Natpharm based on the stock levels.
\nThe health information and surveillance system also improved quite significantly with the introduction of the District Health Information Software (DHIS) version 1.4, and then latter version 2.1. For reporting of outbreaks and other public health events under the rapid disease notification system (RDNS), the Front line SMS® was adopted for reporting from initial 1200 cell phones procured under the Global Fund using the DHIS 2.1. This system started in 2012 and improved reporting of the weekly disease surveillance system (WDSS) from about 40% to above 90% by 2015, and has maintained timeliness and completeness of the weekly reporting at above 95% from 2015 to 2018 (MOHCC WDSS Reports, 2015–2018).
\nThe initiative to strengthen Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) started during the cholera outbreak of 2008/2009. Tools for guiding RRTs were developed which included the Guidelines for Rapid Response Teams and training of RRTs at all levels. In 2011 a Compendium for Rapid Response Teams was developed to guide the work of these teams. Cascade training of RRTs was carried out since then and in 2016, following the Harare typhoid outbreak, another training of RRTs from 20 priority districts was carried out, mainly focusing on case management and surveillance. The IDSR technical guidelines and training manuals were revised in 2011 and used for training of health workers at all identified outbreak response levels. However because of inadequate funding not all identified health workers were trained.
\nA number of disease specific guidelines were developed in 2009 and these include guidelines for cholera, typhoid, anthrax and rabies. These were distributed to all health facilities as resource materials for reference and guidance should they meet any of the conditions in their areas of work.
\nThe UN established the Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), in 2008 and the cluster system was formed. The main clusters that were formed were the Health Cluster, with WHO as cluster lead, the WASH Cluster, under UNICEF, the Food Cluster (FAO), Education (UNICEF) and Protection (UNHCR and IOM). As Ministry of Health structures were not functional at the time, the Health Cluster established the Cholera Command and Control Centre (C4), which became the response organ and nerve center for the cholera response at the WHO offices located at Parirenyatwa Hospital grounds. Technical experts including clinicians, epidemiologists, water and sanitation specialists, health promotion officers, data managers and administration staff were engaged to work in the C4. A Health Cluster Coordinator post was established and filled. The WHO mobilized experts through global outbreak alert and response network (GOARN), and these experts were from United States, Centers for Disease Control (CDC), International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB), Burnet Institute Australia and SMI Sweden among others. Surveillance centers were strategically established throughout the country, and toll free lines were set up for surveillance and real time data transmission to C4.
\nCluster Coordination System was established and continued until 2012. The Health Cluster was abolished in 2012, and the Interagency Coordination Committee on Health (IACCH) was re-established, and this coordination system is chaired by the Ministry of Health and Child Care (MOHCC). The C4 brought in the concept of the Public Health Emergency Operations Center (PHEOC) and a room within the MOHCC headquarters was set aside for the purpose.
\nCommunity health workers who had almost disappeared in the system were resuscitated following strong recommendations from the C4 and the finding that a significant proportion of the 2008/2009 cholera cases and deaths had been in the community. The Village Health Worker (VHW) training curriculum was reviewed, and the training resuscitated. Through the support of stakeholders, and using the updated IDSR technical guidelines of 2008, the training has been ongoing since then and the numbers have been increasing steadily, and this greatly improving community health surveillance, awareness and reporting of public health events. Village Health Workers were found very useful in the recent Chegutu cholera outbreak of 2018, supporting in health promotion and surveillance.
\nThe 2008/2009 cholera outbreak in the country drew a lot of interest from the local and international scenes including journalists, scientists and human rights activists [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. From the documentation on the various themes pertaining to this outbreak the country remains with a wealth of information to learn from and avoid similar situations from happening in the future.
\nIt should be noted that during and following the 2008/2009 outbreak many positive steps were taken, including:
Mobilizing resources for supporting and retaining core health workers through the Global Fund, Health Transition fund and other donors.
Pooling resources for maintaining core health at the primary level through the supply of primary care packages by a mechanism called Zimbabwe Informed Push System.
Development of key guidelines and training materials for RRTs, IDSR and cholera, typhoid, anthrax and rabies guidelines which are in use to date.
Training of core health staff in updated IDSR and rapid response.
Establishment of the cluster coordination systems and the C4 as a precursor to PHEOC.
Revitalization of the Village Health Worker program.
As a result of the devastation left by the 2008/2009 outbreak, the affected communities still remember the impact this deadly disease can inflict on them. As a result of this the cooperation of the community in the cholera outbreaks following the 2008/2009 outbreak has been exemplary. We describe some important outbreaks to show how the detection and response has been improved.
\nChiredzi was the only district which had an outbreak in 2012. This outbreak which, was controlled within one month, remained localized in Chiredzi and resulted in 22 cases and 1 community death. Although the control took longer than the country’s target of control within two weeks, the country’s efforts to control this outbreak were commendable and the time taken to control the outbreak was much shorter that the 2008/2009 outbreak which took more than six months.
\nOn the 3rd of May 2012 a case of cholera was reported to a RHC in Chiredzi district in a 30 year old man from a village in the communal areas. Thereafter a number of cases were seen mostly from three neighboring villages. The local response was swift in detection, reporting and responding to the initial cases. The Secretary for Health and Child Welfare sent the Director Epidemiology and Disease Control and Provincial Medical Director (PMD) Masvingo on an urgent directive to plan swift action and ensure adequate control of the Chiredzi cholera outbreak. Following communications with the PMD, the National RRT comprising the Director Epidemiology and Disease Control, Deputy Director Environmental Health, Health Promotion and Laboratory Services, WHO, the Environmental Health Alliance (German Agro Action-GAA and Save the Children-SC), European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (ECHO) and the Masvingo Provincial Health Executive teamed up on a support visit to Chiredzi. The National RRT was joined by the PMD, Provincial Environmental Health Officer, Chiredzi District Health Executive (DHE), Save the Children and Action Against Hunger (ACF). Investigations conducted pointed to an adult female who fell ill on 27th April 2012 with diarrhea and vomiting, and subsequently died at home on the 28th of April, as the index case. This cholera suspect had sought treatment from a traditional healer. She was buried on the 1st of May in her village. The burial was not supervised because cholera had not been suspected. Thereafter cases started presenting at a local health facility, three of them with a history of having attended this unsupervised burial.
\nThe PMD dispatched the provincial RRT to support Chiredzi on 7 May. They investigated, provided supplies and supported the district RRT and the partners on the ground, who had already set up a cholera treatment center (CTC) at the health facility on May 5th. Thereafter there was regular communication between the local, district and provincial teams, and updates to the Provincial Administrator’s office. The Chiredzi DHE mobilized one nurse from a mission hospital and three EHTs, one from each of surrounding health institutions, all motorized to boost the staff at health facility receiving cholera patients. The team received support from local partners which included ACF, Save the Children and Plan International. Together they conducted active surveillance, contact tracing, decontamination of infected patients’ homes and conducted participatory health and hygiene trainings for the affected villages.
\nSupplies were said to be adequate; diarrhea kits and laboratory consumables were received from the C4 through Save the Children. Some of the supplies were received from ACF and Plan international. The district also had left over supplies from the past outbreaks. A CTC and two Cholera Treatment Units (CTUs) were set up in health facilities in the catchment area. Case management protocols were delivered to the CTC and were used to guide patient management and staff managing patients had received training in cholera, typhoid and dysentery case management. On discharge the patients received health education; IEC materials, aqua tablets, and soap. The staff seconded were initially doubling up the clinic duties and those at the CTC until they were provided relief. ORT was made available at community level through EHTs and VHWs.
\nThe district laboratory was supported with consumables to conduct rapid diagnostic tests (RDT), culture and sensitivity tests. Laboratory support for this outbreak was very commendable with results of rapid test conducted as well as culture and sensitivity, and with good correlation between the RDT and culture results.
The district had an average of two nurses manning each RHC. At any one time therefore one was likely to find just one trained nurse as a result of capacity building sessions and workshops being conducted from time to time on the various ministry programs, and at times the nurse aides were left on their own attending to patients. This was the case when the first cholera case presented to the health facility on the 3rd of May. Fortunately the nurse aide had attended to cholera patients during the 2008/2009 outbreak and quickly raised the alarm with the district, resulting in the swift outbreak response that ensued.
\nChegutu cholera outbreak is one of the most recent cholera outbreaks the country faced. This outbreak had the potential to escalate into a massive outbreak because of the prevailing water and sanitation situation in the town, the easy link between the town and the capital, Harare City, which also had worse water and sanitation situation and being a link between the two major cities of the country, Harare and Bulawayo. However because of the built in resilience anchoring on health worker capacity, availability of extension workers, swiftness of response by RRTs and coordination of response through the Civil Protection Committee at district level and IACCH at national level, the outbreak was controlled in 20 days with 106 cases and 4 deaths reported. It should be noted that the four deaths were the alert which occurred before the outbreak was detected.
\nOn the 16th of January 2018, a report was made to the Chegutu District Medical Office of an increase in diarrhea cases at Chegutu Hospital in a male ward in which two cases had died. A follow up visit was made to the male ward and revealed that there were three male cases presenting with watery diarrhea and vomiting. Two deaths had occurred and a stool specimen had been collected from one of the deceased patients and sent to hospital laboratory for culture. The result was received on the 19th of January 2018 confirming
Subsequent investigations revealed that all cases and deaths were associated with a funeral which had occurred in Pfupajena Township of Chegutu on the 8th of January 2018. A visit made to the given address revealed that the deceased (index case) had reported for treatment suffering from diarrhea and vomiting at a local private clinic before her death on the same day. The daughter to the index case also reported for treatment at Chegutu hospital on the 9th of January 2018 where she was admitted and discharged on the 11th. A stool specimen was collected and the results were negative.
\nIt was further established that there was a funeral which occurred on the 29th of December 2017 in the same neighborhood which was attended by two relatives from Zambia (Zambia was at the time experiencing a cholera outbreak). Among those who attended the funeral were members of a religious group who later visited the index case. It is highly possible that the source of infection could have been from those who came from Zambia who could have been healthy carriers.
\nOn notification of the national office, the Minister of Health and Child Care immediately visited the area together with members of the National RRT to assess the situation and advise on the correct course of action in support of actions that had already started. Isolation of patients requiring hospitalization and appropriate rehydration, infection prevention and control in the hospital, safe and dignified burials, water quality monitoring and health promotion activities were already ongoing.
\nA follow up visit by the Minister of Health and Child Care was on the 20th of January, teaming up with the local member of parliament and a minister colleague in the president’s office, in the company of the WHO Officer In Charge, to provide further support to teams on the ground and assess the evolution of the outbreak. On the 20th of January, the National RRT together with the District RRT worked together with the Civil Protection Committee, chaired by the District Administrator and allocated tasks to teams on the following thematic areas: (i) Coordination, (ii) logistics, (iii) Case management and surveillance, (iv) Health and hygiene promotion (v) Water, Sanitation and hygiene. The teams became immediately operational with coordination meetings taking place twice a day at district level. Community members were trained to participate in contact tracing. A treatment camp was set up to receive patients for diagnosis and treatment. Food premises were inspected and those not meeting minimum health requirements closed. Water quality monitoring was carried out and samples taken for testing.
\nAt National level the IACCH started coordination meetings on a weekly basis with the National RRT having daily coordination meetings. A cholera preparedness and response plan was developed and used to guide the response. Gaps in the response were identified and filled by the donor community, UN, NGOs and the private sector.
\nAmong the major issues we single out as having been strengthened over the years are the political commitment, multisectoral engagement, capacity to harness resources and coordinate actors, surveillance and RRT and, the health system capacity.
\nPolitical commitment is evidenced by the personal involvement of the Minister and other senior MOHCC staff, provincial and district health leadership. The role of political commitment in implementation of health programs is emphasized in literature and indeed effective institutionalization of cholera control measures has been reported in Mexico following the recognition of cholera as a national security problem [27]. The central role of high level political commitment in instituting rapid response measures and mobilization of resources is underscored [27]. Leadership at high level is a necessity for the response if properly managed, but in situations where it is not properly managed [28] it may lead to conflicts among workers in the field thereby delaying the implementation of activities and allowing the prolonged progression of the outbreak. Liberia offers a good example of proper coordination of response with high political leadership during the Ebola outbreak [29]. In the Zimbabwe cholera outbreak of 2008–2009, the failure by the political leadership to accept that a cholera outbreak was brewing led to delays in the response allowing uncontrolled continued infection and the resultant mortality. In years after 2008/2009 outbreak, political leadership has been prominent in all the outbreaks and their control within reasonable time can be explained.
\nWe also note the importance of multisectoral engagement in emergency response and in particular, these reported recent cholera outbreaks. Multisectoral engagement is observed in the name of the cluster system during the cholera outbreak of 2008/2009, the civil protection committees at various levels led by the ministry of local government and the IACCH, all for the purposes of streamlining and coordinating the response. The success of controlling the cholera outbreaks is built upon functional multisectoral engagement. The Global Task Force on Cholera Control’s Ending Cholera—A Global roadmap to 2030, recognizes multisectoral engagement as one of the three key axis for cholera control [30]. The key cholera drivers are largely known and most of them are outside the health sector. The tools for prevention and control of cholera outbreaks are also known to work and anchor on improving access to clean water and improving sanitation, improving community awareness and hygiene practices including the hand washing [10, 11, 12, 13]. The health sector is mainly responsible for responding to outbreaks in terms of case management and surveillance. The requirement of multisectoral engagement becomes more important realizing the limitations of the health sector in cholera prevention efforts.
\nOver the years Zimbabwe has witnessed rapid response to, and reducing case fatality rates from, cholera. The investments made over the years to strengthen the health system partly explain this phenomenon given the fact that the cholera case fatality rate reflects the access to basic health care [31]. Availability of HRH, strengthened surveillance and improved availability of basic commodities have been realized over the years. The per capita expenditure on health increased from $9 in 2009 to $24 in 2015. Regarding retention of health workers, average in-post rate stands at 81% [32]. Indeed the Ebola viral diseases outbreak in West Africa brought to the fore the central role of strengthened health systems in responding to diseases outbreaks [3, 4, 33].
\nThe presence of skilled rapid response teams, especially following the scale up of training following the 2008/2009 cholera outbreaks, as well as the recent training sessions in response to the typhoid outbreaks in Harare, has improved the capacity of health workers to manage epidemics. Health worker capacity for rapid detection and swift control of outbreaks is essential in emergency preparedness and response [34]. RRTs which are multidisciplinary teams ensure this takes place and where they are functional this has led to reduced mortality and shortened period for control [35]. The timing of activation of RRTs is also important for good outcome for delayed activation may also lead to increased mortality.
\nCorrect information is necessary for the communities to take appropriate action to prevent infection or to get immediate assistance when they get infected [36, 37]. The sustained information dissemination through the district structures made the people
Emergencies and in particular outbreaks of infectious hazards remain a global concern. The IHR (2005) together with other guiding documents on specific themes on emergency preparedness and response remain available to guide countries in building capacities for emergency preparedness and response. The capacity of countries to mount adequate response to control emergencies depend on the resilience of their health systems build upon organizational, community and individual resilience and to a large extent dependent health systems institutional capacities as defined by the WHO health systems building blocks.
\nZimbabwe having gone through a period of economic difficulties, faced one of its worst ever cholera outbreaks, which resulted in high rates of infection and deaths. This being said the country managed to use this event as a stepping stone which has resulted in the country building resilience to mount adequate response to outbreaks in the recent years. Understandably, resilience is not an all or none event but a process with levels of attributes, and Zimbabwe continues to work towards achieving all resilience attributes. Other countries can learn from Zimbabwe’s experience to build resilience.
\nThe authors would like to appreciate all who made this work possible, which include but not limited to the Ministry of Health and Child Care, WHO Country office staff, UNICEF, and MSF offices in Zimbabwe.
\nNone declared.
This work was conceived by Dr. Juliet Nabyonga-Orem when she was Officer in Charge of WHO Country Office in Zimbabwe having observed with appreciation the country’s response to the cholera outbreak which occurred in Chegutu district starting in January 2018.
\nACF | Action Contra La Fame |
AFR | African Region of the World Health Organization |
C4 | Cholera Command and Control Center |
CTC | cholera treatment center |
CTU | cholera treatment unit |
DHE | District Health Executive |
DHIS | District Health Information Software |
ECHO | European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations |
EHT | Environmental Health Technician |
EVD | Ebola virus disease |
FAO | Food and Agricultural Organization |
GAA | German Agro Action |
GOARN | global outbreak alert and response network |
IACCH | Inter Agency Coordination Committee on Health |
IDSR | Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response |
IEC | Information Education and Communication |
IHR | International Health Regulation |
IOM | International Organization for Migration |
MOHCC | Ministry of Health and Child Care |
NGO | non-governmental organizations |
OCHA | UN Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs |
ORT | oral rehydration therapy |
PHEOC | Public Health Emergency Operations Center |
PMD | Provincial Medical Director |
RDNS | rapid disease notification system |
RDT | rapid diagnostic tests |
RHC | Rural Health Center |
RRT | rapid response teams |
SC | save the children |
SSA | sub-Saharan Africa |
UNHCR | United Nations High Commission for Refugees |
UNICEF | United Nations Children’s Fund |
VHWs | village health workers |
WASH | water, sanitation and hygiene |
WDSS | weekly disease surveillance system |
WHO | World Health Organization |
ZIP | Zimbabwe Informed Push System |
Given the importance of the organizational and interpersonal benefits shown from people’s ability to gain trust, it is crucial to see what influences how trustworthy a person is deemed. Past research has identified predictors of trustworthiness that include personality traits and physical attributes. Trait agreeableness and honesty-humility show positive correlations with trustworthiness [1, 2, 3]. Guilt-proneness—how guilty a person thinks they would feel about doing something wrong—was found to predict trustworthiness even better than agreeableness and other Big Five personality traits (i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness), and this relationship was mediated by interpersonal responsibility [2]. Facial expressions were also found to have a significant relationship with perceived trustworthiness [4, 5]. Although these elements are important to understand, there are additional influential factors of trust that still need more research. In this chapter, we underscore a growing body of research [6] that reveals one essential yet understudied personal trait that reliably impacts trustworthiness: self-control. Below, we review and highlight the role self-control plays in garnering trustworthiness, identifying the range of related positive and negative outcomes and questions for future research to explore.
Trust and trustworthiness are critical factors in social dynamics. Trust (a.k.a. propensity to trust) is described as the amount of vulnerability a person allows themselves in a particular situation [7]. Broadly speaking, trust occurs between two or more people, groups, or entities (e.g., romantic partners, co-workers, organizations with shared interests, an athlete and their team, and a political party and their candidate) and is characterized by feelings of confidence that the trustee will meet expectations of the trustor, which are generally positive or non-negative [8]. Trust is especially relevant in situations with no certain or guaranteed outcomes, where the trustor allows themselves to be vulnerable to the possibility that their expectations will not be met [9].
Separately, trustworthiness encompasses the perception the trustor has of the trustee’s ability to meet their expectations. It is often developed from past experiences and can differ depending on the context of the expectations. Past research has identified both a 2 and 3-dimensional model to conceptualize the way we understand trustworthiness. The 2-dimensional model suggests that trustworthiness is formed by both affect-based and cognition-based trust, where affect based-trust describes the belief or perception that the trustee will act in a manner that preserves the relationship, and cognition-based trust entails the trustee behaving in a competent and dependable manner [10]. The other model proposes three components that form perceptions of trustworthiness—benevolence, integrity, and ability [7]. A person who demonstrates that they [1] are capable of meeting an expectation, [2] without defying their accepted principles, and [3] without exploiting or taking advantage of the trustor’s vulnerability, would be viewed as trustworthy. While distinct, these models appear to overlap in their theory, as noted by Ferrin [11], who suggested that perceived ability and integrity signal cognition-based trust, and perceived benevolence communicates affect-based trust. Research has since supported this belief, finding that, for cognition-based trust, ability and integrity were better predictors, while benevolence was the best predictor of affect-based trust [12]. These findings overall support the idea that cognitive and affect-based trust are distinct from each other.
Trust and trustworthiness provide benefits to a wide range of situations. Research in management and organizational psychology suggests these traits lead to more productive workplace outcomes. For instance, in management settings, increased trust and trustworthiness in co-workers promotes openness, cooperation, information sharing, the exchange of ideas, opportunities for the development of beliefs and attitudes, and the acceptance of shared ideas [13, 14]. Trust has also been positively associated with job performance and citizenship behavior, and negatively associated with counterproductive behavior [15, 16, 17]. One study [18], found that “trustworthy managers preside over more productive organizations and are better able to maintain and even increase organizational outcomes in agencies challenged by low levels of performance and perturbations in the external environment.” More trustworthy managers were also associated with greater procedural and interpersonal justice in the workplace [19], and perceptions of trustworthiness provided by coworkers have been identified as predictors of work performance, specifically through impressions of ability and integrity [20].
Trust and trustworthiness are related to beneficial outcomes in non-work relationships as well. Interpersonal trust increases the closeness, quality and communication within interpersonal relationships with intimate partners, siblings, and children and parents [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Rotter [25] found that those who are more trusting are less likely to participate in immoral behaviors such as lying, stealing or cheating, and have a decreased likelihood of being maladjusted or unhappy. Divergently, high trustors are more likely to respect the rights of others, give second chances, be desired as a friend more, and be more well liked [25]. Greater perceived trustworthiness was found to contribute to peer acceptance, school adjustment and performance [26], and was positively related to developing relations with peers and having more friendships [26, 27, 28]. Considering the many benefits that trust and trustworthiness can produce, it is advantageous and important to understand what predicts it, and some recent research has identified self-control as a signal of trust.
Self-control has been vastly studied through the decades, with over 2 million related search results on Google Scholar as a testament to the topic’s importance. By definition, self-control is the regulation of behaviors and thoughts to pursue a more distant and abstract goal or motive when a directly conflicting opportunity to satisfy an immediate and concrete motive or goal is present [29, 30]. In other words, self-control is demonstrated in your decision to forgo the tasty treat that is currently available to you, in order to remain committed to your diet and long-term goals of a healthy lifestyle. It is no surprise that this characteristic, and its related outcomes, have maintained the interest of psychologists for so long.
The outcomes related to self-control are as important as the trait itself. Research has identified that trait self-control is positively linked to better physical health and performance in school and work [30, 31, 32], along with greater attainment and subjective well-being [33, 34]. It has also been shown that those with greater self-control show more empathy, perspective taking, less deception, and report better behaviors in romantic relationships [21, 35, 36]. These positive associations with self-control have naturally led researchers to investigate how individuals can increase this beneficial trait. Past findings have recommended methods related to goal setting, monitoring, and implementing [37], and described various types of interventions (i.e., social skills development programs, cognitive coping strategies interventions, video tape training/role-playing interventions, immediate/delayed rewards clinical interventions, and relaxation training) that have helped increase self-control and reduce delinquency in children [38]. Practicing mindfulness and small acts of self-control, such as eating fewer sweets, has also led to improved performance on self-control tasks [39].
While having trait self-control and being seen as someone who demonstrates self-control are not necessarily the same, positive consequences have been identified based on mere perceptions of the trait. A person who is viewed as being self-controlled has better social relationships, with greater satisfaction and success [31, 40, 41]. Perceived self-control is also related to greater organizational outcomes like being viewed as more fair at work [42]. However, these perceptions have also been associated with some negative outcomes including assumptions that the work done by highly controlled individuals is less arduous and time-consuming, which can lead to the employee being overburdened with extra assignments [43]. High perceptions of self-control can also cause an individual to face negative consequences in social settings where their company may be less desired [44] or in academic settings where their peers may be less likely to offer them assistance [45].
While self-control is commonly considered an intrapersonal trait, our perceptions of other people’s self-control are important signals during interpersonal settings. The amount of self-control a person demonstrates significantly impacts other perceptions we have about them, which can ultimately influence our behaviors and attitudes towards the person.
As suggested by an increasing amount of recent empirical evidence [6, 21], we argue that perceptions of self-control function as a reliable signal for trustworthiness. Below, we summarize the varied emerging evidence and elaborate on how self-control induced trustworthiness manifests across different relationship contexts.
In
Notably, while there are many upsides of high self-control perceptions in organizational relationships, some downsides have been identified by more recent research as well. While high self-control individuals benefit by being trusted and desired more as partners in work-related settings [44], they are also relied on more, and have more expected of them by their workmates, compared to those perceived as lower in self-control [43]. Their associates also tend to think the work done by those with high self-control takes less effort and is easier [43]. High self-control people may then be asked or expected to complete more tasks because their associates trust them to meet the heightened expectations, while receiving less recognition compared to their co-workers who are lower in self-control. These beliefs can lead to high self-control individuals feeling overburdened and underappreciated, resulting in a decrease in relationship satisfaction [43].
Organizational relationships are not alone in their potential for negative consequences of high self-control perceptions. Research by Röseler [44] has found that, while those perceived as having greater self-control are preferred in settings of work, they are less preferred in social settings, such as parties, compared to people with lower levels of self-control. This may result from the belief that the high self-control person, who suppresses desires and forgoes immediate satisfaction in pursuit of long-term goals, will continue to meet that expectation as they have previously. If it is trusted that these expectations will be maintained, then the person’s high self-control “may interfere with being perceived as good company during leisure time and at parties” [44].
Overall, perceptions of self-control play an important role in how trustworthy a person is considered and the ramified positive and negative outcomes. While this connection is recognized across relationship types, distinct differences remain between their contexts. Naturally, organizational and work relationships are unique from social relationships. Social relationships are less formal and usually focus on personal connection, while organizational relationships often revolve around productivity and teamwork [50, 51]. These divergent characteristics likely contribute to how self-control and trust are understood in the respective relationships, breeding the variation of outcomes across contexts.
The unique findings from past research on self-control create an interesting paradigm for its relationship with trust and their related outcomes. Diving deeper into this relationship, we ask, what else might impact self-control’s signal of trustworthiness, and what would it mean?
Thus far, we have discussed the self-control and trust relationship in a quantitative sense, examining the extent to which high self-control is associated with greater perceptions of trust. While informative, a holistic understanding beyond the intensity of the relationship remains to be studied, and it requires us to better understand how and when the relationship occurs. We propose that the less explored, qualitative differences underlying self-control may impact the dynamic of the self-control and trust relationship, along with its potential outcomes. Here we offer our ideas and some relevant questions for future research.
As discussed above, self-control is conceptualized by choosing to pursue higher-order goals over lower-order goals [29]. Considering this definition, it is important to understand
One popular framework of goal content has been agentic and communal. Agentic goals are pursued in an effort to improve or satisfy oneself, while communal goals relate to the more interpersonal and connected pursuits of the person [56]. Agentic goals could include working out more to lose weight and look fit or reading more to grow your knowledge on different subjects. The person’s level of success in pursuing these goals can signal their competence or ability to others. Separately, communal goals could include being more proactive in reaching out to others to be a better friend or working hard to make extra money and better support your family. These goals can signal a person’s benevolence, or care and interest in others. These different types of goals serve varied functions in our lives, therefore, the content of a goal is important for the message it translates. The type of goal that is pursued can foster different perceptions of a person’s self-control abilities, even if the intensity of the person’s regulation is the same across the varied goals.
If someone is successful in pursuing their agentic goals it will signal high competence and ability in the person. This will subsequently act as a signal for cognition-based trust, which is partially formed from perceptions of ability, and thus cognition-based trust perceptions will increase towards the person. For example, someone that studies for an extra 5 hours during the week may be viewed as highly capable of improving their GPA, and thus more trustworthy in situations that test ability, which could lead to positive downstream outcomes like increased peer acceptance and better school adjustment [26].
In contrast, someone that is successful in pursuing their communal goals, which are based on interpersonal connection and care for others, will signal their high benevolence, promoting perceptions of affect-based trust. For example, a person that dedicates 5 hours a week to calling their family members to catch up may be seen as very caring, which would signal their affect-based trustworthiness. This would likely lead to positive outcomes for that person such as more friendships and greater acceptance from their peers [26, 27, 28].
While the promotion of cognitive-based or affect-based trust is likely beneficial to the perceived person, some recent research suggests that perceptions of high self-control can lead to negative outcomes as well, and those could be the result of a differential activation of the two kinds of trust. In one study, those viewed as high in self-control were seen as more “robot-like,” more competent, and less warm than those perceived as lower in self-control [42]. Those perceptions of high ability and competence would likely foster cognition-based but not affective-based trustworthiness in the perceived person. This asymmetry or lack of perceived benevolence (or warmth) then explains downstream negative social outcomes (e.g., reduced interest in socially connecting with the person) [45]. Additionally, this suggests a possible remedy that the presence of affect-based trust would act as a buffer to the negative outcomes. Fostering affect-based trust through successful self-control of communal goal pursuits, in addition to the already present cognition-based trust, may eliminate the negative outcomes that can be observed from perceptions of high self-control.
Overall, we propose that the goal content (e.g., agentic or communal) has an important impact on the formation of trust perceptions due to self-control, which can potentially lead to both positive and negative outcomes for the perceived. This proposition gives rise to new questions for the study of the relationship between self-control and trust perceptions. We have suggested that the negative social outcomes identified in recent research may be corrected by the addition of affect-based trust perceptions formed from successful communal goal pursuits. Alternatively, would relationships that demonstrate high self-control through only communal goals, producing solely affect-based trust perceptions, also result in negative outcomes? If so, would these consequences be exclusively agentic, and what would they entail? Additionally, how does the ratio of agentic and communal goal success relate to the formation of trust perceptions, and does this differ based on the context of the relationship (e.g., co-workers vs. romantic partners)? Finally, how would failed agentic or communal goal pursuits affect the outcomes of trust perceptions? These questions offer interesting potential avenues for future research.
An additional interesting qualitative factor to consider in the self-control and trust relationship is how differences in beliefs about self-control, in general, can impact perceptions of trustworthiness.
Lay theories of self-control recognize views that are commonly held about a person’s ability to self-regulate. Lay theories, or mindsets, are developed from our socialization and past experiences, and different types of lay theories have been identified in the self-control literature. The first relates to the belief that a person generally has a limited (slowly replenishing) or nonlimited (quickly replenishing) amount of self-control [57]. For example, if an individual successfully demonstrated their self-control abilities, someone with a limited self-control mindset would believe that the person no longer has their full capacity for implementing self-control, and that it will take time to be completely restored. Alternatively, a person with a nonlimited mindset would believe that an individual who demonstrated their self-control ability would have the same full capacity for self-control before their implementation of it, as well as quickly after.
This difference in mindset may create an important nuance for self-control’s relationship with trust perceptions. If a person holds a limited mindset about self-control abilities, they would believe that once an individual exhibits successful self-control, they will be less capable of successfully implementing self-control in subsequent tasks, as they have already used up some of their resource. While this would likely increase self-control perceptions for the already completed task, it may reduce expectations for the person’s future self-control abilities. In other words, the perceiver may have weaker trust perceptions because they expect the person to fail in demonstrating self-control in subsequent tasks, if there is not adequate time for their self-control abilities to replenish. An individual with a nonlimited mindset, however, would likely have greater trust perceptions, as they believe the person who just demonstrated successful self-control will have the same full capacity to do so in all subsequent self-control conflicts. This would likely lead to more positive outcomes for the perceived person.
Future research should test this idea, by investigating if those with limited self-control mindsets view others as less trustworthy after successfully demonstrating self-control. Other interesting questions remain as well, such as “How much time is needed for self-control abilities to replenish?” “Would the perceived person face negative outcomes from reduced trust perceptions?” “Do the types of goals pursued in the self-control action ‘use up’ one’s self-control reserves differently?” “Is self-control for agentic goals different from self-control for communal goals?” Lastly, “Would trustworthiness be reduced overall, or would perceptions of affect-based and cognition-based trust be impacted independently?”
The second type of mindset related to self-control focuses on the trait’s plasticity. It consists of a fixed (stable and unchanging) or malleable (varied and mutable) mindset [58]. Fixed vs. malleable mindset affects dispositional judgments [59]. Someone with a fixed mindset of self-control would believe that the amount of self-control displayed by a person in a particular situation represents their overall self-control abilities. Conversely, someone with a malleable mindset would believe that a person’s self-control abilities are susceptible to change, and therefore, a single instance that demonstrates self-control may not be indicative of the person’s abilities overall.
Similar to limited and nonlimited mindset, the assumptions that a person’s capacity for self-control will, or will not, change could color perceptions of the person’s trustworthiness. For instance, dispositionism in social judgments can be a double-edged sword, depending on the valence of first impressions. Those with a fixed mindset are more likely to believe that a person holds the same amount of self-control across different conflicts, and they would likely base their self-control perceptions off their first impressions of the perceived person’s self-control abilities. Thus, if they initially view a person to have low self-control, they may then see the person as untrustworthy overall. However, if the person is initially seen as high in self-control, they may then view them as an overall trustworthy person. Hence, the timing of the self-control incidence matters, and especially so for those with a fixed mindset of self-control.
The consideration of fixed and malleable mindset in relation to self-control trust perceptions breeds additional important questions. Primarily, since self-control abilities will likely fluctuate at some point, what does this mean for those with a fixed self-control mindset? What effect does a ‘slip up’ have on previously formed perceptions of self-control and trust? In relation to agentic and communal goals, would self-control perceptions formed by one of the goal types translate to assumptions for the other goal type? And regarding those with malleable mindsets, how strong can trust perceptions be if it is understood that one’s capacity for self-control is able to change?
Another way people may conceptualize self-control is in the materialization of their self-control efforts. In the process of pursuing a higher-order and distal goal over a lower-order and proximal goal, one may choose to utilize their willpower to effortfully inhibit the desire and temptation of the proximal goal. Another route the person could take would be to use strategies that allow them to proactively reduce their exposure to, and impact of, the temptation [29]. This can be done through manipulating the situation itself, such as selecting to be in an environment where the desire is not apparent (situation selection), or modifying the situation so it is easier to overcome the temptation (situation modification). Other strategies focus on altering the responses to temptations, such as directing focus away from the desire (attentional deployment) or manipulating the way we think about it, so it becomes less appealing (cognitive change) [60].
Research has shown that both types of strategies are used in self-control conflicts, however, there are mixed findings related to the success and prominence of these different methods [61, 62, 63]. Since both these dimensions of self-control implementation—willpower and strategies—show a range of conflicting results, it is understood that the way people demonstrate self-control can vary, and this could be due to their self-control beliefs. Some people may have a willpower-based mindset where they rely on effortful inhibition to overcome desire, while others could have a strategy-based mindset and utilize one or more strategies in their self-control efforts. The way a person thinks about self-control the method(s) of implementing it could influence how they perceive other’s self-control abilities.
The consideration of willpower-based and strategy-based mindsets in relation to self-control and trust perceptions sprouts several important questions. How does demonstrating control over oneself (i.e., willpower), compared to controlling the environment (i.e., using strategies), impact how trustworthy a person is viewed? Some research has suggested a timeline for when strategies and willpower are implemented in self-control conflicts. It is suggested that situational self-control strategies (i.e., situation selection and situation modification) are used first, followed by intrapsychic strategies (i.e., attentional deployment and cognitive change) [61]. Willpower, also referred to as response modulation, offers the final opportunity to overcome the desire. Since willpower can be considered the “last line of defense” in resisting a temptation, would a person that demonstrates self-control through effortful inhibition (i.e., willpower) be considered less trustworthy, as they could only overcome the desire in their final opportunity to do so? Or, would a person that demonstrates self-control through the use of strategies be considered less trustworthy, as the opportunity to change one’s environment may not always be present? Since one’s environment is more susceptible to change than the person themself, would someone that demonstrates strategy-based self-control be less reliable, and therefore less trustworthy than a person who demonstrates willpower-based self-control?
These questions are important for future research on self-control perceptions and their subsequent effects on trustworthiness. Willpower-based and strategy-based self-control mindsets may also lead to implications for the downstream outcomes of trustworthiness. Future research should examine the potential effects of willpower and strategy-based mindset, along with limited (nonlimited) and fixed (malleable) mindsets, on self-control and trust perceptions to increase insight into the relationship and its related outcomes.
Research has identified that self-control is an important predictor of trustworthiness. In considering the quantitative factors between self-control and trust, the relationship is almost exclusively positive, where greater self-control perceptions lead to increased perceptions of trustworthiness, which result in positive downstream outcomes. However, when considering the less researched potential qualitative factors that can impact the relationship, such as goal content and mindset, the connection between the traits and their subsequent outcomes becomes much more nuanced. This suggests that, future research should examine the impacts of goal content and mindset on the self-control and trust relationship, as well as their (positive and negative) downstream effects in order to form a more holistic understanding of self-control’s relationship with trust.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
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\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
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Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48679,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1490",slug:"affinity-chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography"},signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:"C.",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:6047,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8178,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:108,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3797,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"6",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83015",title:"Acute Changes in Lipoprotein-Associated Oxidative Stress",slug:"acute-changes-in-lipoprotein-associated-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106489",abstract:"As inflammatory and oxidative stress are associated with cardiometabolic diseases, detection of abnormal fasting levels of inflammatory and oxidative biomarkers are indicative disease presence and may be too late for any preventive management. Metabolic flexibility refers to the ability of various metabolic processes to compensate for these acute changes and return all metabolites to baseline levels. By monitoring responses of key biomarkers to a standardized physiologic challenge, it is possible to assess the ability of the body to restore homeostasis, that is a measure of metabolic flexibility. Acute changes in lipoprotein-associated biomarkers of oxidative stress have been demonstrated following meal consumption. These include changes in circulating levels of oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDL), levels of autoantibodies to malondialdehyde-modified LDL, as well as the oxidative susceptibility of isolated plasma LDL. These responses depend on the type and amount of dietary fats in the meal. Management with certain lipid-lowering drugs could also be shown to affect these meal-induced changes. However, plasma levels may be underestimated as we can demonstrate a spike in lipoprotein-associated biomarkers of oxidative stress resulting from the release oxidatively modified epitopes from the arterial wall by an intravenous bolus of heparin.",book:{id:"11671",title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg"},signatures:"Ngoc-Anh Le"},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",abstract:"Global climate change has resulted in alterations in the biotic and abiotic conditions of the planet. This has led to changes in the agricultural system resulting from reduced water availability, increased temperature increase in the population and occurrences of pests and diseases. Plants are adversely affected when they experience any stress retarding their growth, development and productivity. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is an organelle that shows a tremendous response when subjected to stress conditions. Therefore, to explore and comprehend plants’ multidimensional interactions when subjected to stress conditions, an insight into the molecular stress signalling in the ER in response to the stress situation is discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg"},signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. Mahood"},{id:"83046",title:"Gene Expression and Transcriptome Sequencing: Basics, Analysis, Advances",slug:"gene-expression-and-transcriptome-sequencing-basics-analysis-advances",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105929",abstract:"Gene expression studies are extremely useful for understanding a broad range of biological, physiological, and molecular responses. The techniques for gene expression reflect differential patterns of gene regulation and have evolved with time from detecting one gene to many genes at a time laterally. Gene expression depends on the spatiotemporal expression in a particular tissue at a given time point and needs critical examination and interpretation. Transcriptome sequencing or RNA-seq using next-generation sequencing (short and long reads) is the most widely deployed technology for accurate quantification of gene expression. According to the biological aim of the experiment, replications, platform, and chemistries, propelling improvement has been demonstrated and documented using RNA-seq in plants, humans, animals, and clinical sciences with respect to gene expression of mRNA, small non-coding, long non-coding RNAs, alternative splice variations, isoform variations, gene fusions, single-nucleotide variants. Integrating transcriptome sequencing with other techniques such as chromatin immunoprecipitation, methylation, genome-wide association studies, manifests insights into genetic and epigenetic regulation. Epi-transcriptome including RNA methylation, modification, and alternative polyadenylation events can also be explored through long-read sequencing. In this chapter, we have presented an account of the basics of gene expression methods, transcriptome sequencing, and the various methodologies involved in the downstream analysis.",book:{id:"11349",title:"Gene Expression",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11349.jpg"},signatures:"Yogesh Shukla, Amol Phule, Harshvardhan Zala, Nakul D. Magar, Priya Shah, K. Harish, Tejas C. Bosamia, Kalyani M. Barbadikar, Maganti Sheshu Madhav, Satendra Kumar Mangrauthia, Chirravuri Naga Neeraja and Raman Meenakshi Sundaram"},{id:"83043",title:"Applications of CRISPR/Cas9 for Selective Sequencing and Clinical Diagnostics",slug:"applications-of-crispr-cas9-for-selective-sequencing-and-clinical-diagnostics",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106548",abstract:"In this chapter, we will discuss the applications of CRISPR/Cas9 in the context of clinical diagnostics. We will provide an overview of existing methods and their use cases in the diagnostic field. Special attention will be given to selective sequencing approaches using third-generation sequencing and PAM-site requirements. As target sequences in an AT-rich environment cannot easily be accessed by the commercially available SpCas9 due to rarity of NGG PAM-sites, new enzymes such as ScCas9 with PAM-site requirements of NNG will be highlighted. Original research on CRISPR/Cas9 systems to determine molecular glioma markers by enriching regions of interest will be discussed in the context of potential future applications in clinical diagnostics.",book:{id:"11804",title:"CRISPR Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg"},signatures:"Maximilian Evers, Björn Brändl, Franz-Josef Müller, Sönke Friedrichsen and Stephan Kolkenbrock"},{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",abstract:"In this chapter, we will discuss the importance of genetic variations in the IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) gene in driving the process of inflammation-induced carcinogenesis. By applying bladder cancer (BLC) as a model, we will focus on two contradictory genetic mutations within the receptor gene. The first one is enhanced by cancer and induces inflammation-induced carcinogenesis via up-regulating IL-23/IL-17 inflammatory axis. However, the other preventive one deregulates this inflammatory pathway by distorting the protein nature of the receptor, leading to block its binding affinity. During the process of carcinogenesis, cancer genetically inclines the balance towards the protumor, via over-expressing the IL-23R on the surfaces of immune-bearing cells, particularly tumor-associated monocytes (TAMs) and thus increasing the levels of pro-angiogenic cytokines IL-23 and IL-17.",book:{id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy"},{id:"82259",title:"p53 Tumor Suppressor: Functional Regulation and Role in Gene Therapy",slug:"p53-tumor-suppressor-functional-regulation-and-role-in-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105029",abstract:"p53, a homo-tetrameric protein found in mammalian cells, derives its name from the fact that it settles at around 53KDa position in SDS-PAGE, due to a “kink” in its structure. In its functional state, p53 forms a homo-tetramer and binds to the promoters of a wide array of genes. Binding of p53 downregulates the transcription of target genes. Most of the gene targets of p53 are involved in cell cycle progression, and therefore, any malfunctions associated with p53 have catastrophic consequences for the cell. The gene encoding for p53 known as TP53 is the most well-studied gene in the entire genome because of being the most highly mutated gene in all cancer types. It is due to this widely accepted and documented “cell protective feature” that p53 is generally referred to as “the guardian of the genome.” In this chapter, we will discuss the involvement of p53 in relation to carcinogenesis. We will also cover the major functions of p53 under normal conditions, major mutations of the TP53 gene, and their association with different forms of cancer.",book:{id:"10246",title:"P53 - A Guardian of the Genome and Beyond",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10246.jpg"},signatures:"Zeenat Farooq, Shahnawaz Wani, Vijay Avin BR, Rakesh Kochhar and Mumtaz Anwar"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:81},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:332,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:143,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/114454",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"114454"},fullPath:"/profiles/114454",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()