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vomiting or fasting. Bulimia nervosa was ranked as 12th leading cause of disability adjusted life years (DALYs) in females aged 15–19 years in high income group countries out of 306 mental and physical disorders [2, 3]. Although this ranking did not change globally to a great extent between 1990 and 2013, ranking has been increased from 58th in 1990 to 46th in 2013 in low-income and middle income countries [2]. The review articles of eating disorders showed that it occurred mostly in the high-risk group of young western females [4, 5]. In 2014 Pike et al. found that eating disorders appear to be increasing in Asian and Arab countries in conjunction with increasing industrialization, urbanization and globalization [6]. In Europe, anorexia nervosa is reported by 1–4%, bulimia nervosa by 1–2% and Binge eating disorders (BED) by 1–4% of women [7]. The highest contributions of total DALY’s caused by eating disorders among women aged 15–49 years was observed in India with over 1.32 billion, China over 1.38 billion along with United States [8]. Eating disorders have global distribution and are associated with increasing health burdens in Asia [9].
Body image has been studied extensively in patients with bulimia nervosa. Body image has been identified as an important factor in eating disorders but little research has been successfully carried out to have meaningful conclusions. Body image dissatisfaction and eating disordered behaviours can affect men and women of varied ages, races, and cultural backgrounds; however psychologists indicate that body image is one of the strongest gender differences in social sciences. Several studies have empirically investigated the role of social influence on body image and dissatisfaction [10]. Factors such as body-image dissatisfaction, the adoption of a perfectionistic attitude towards the body, the restrictive pursuit of thinness, and the development of bulimic tendencies are often indicated in scientific research as predictors of eating disorders [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. However, most researchers focus on selected risk factors and indicate that the risk factors of eating disorders should not be considered separately. These factors seem to constitute the specific syndrome, related to the culture of thinness.
Body image is a multidimensional construct that represents body image evaluation that comprises perceptions, attitudes, and feelings about body size, shape and related behaviours [16]. The attitudinal dimension, also called as body satisfaction, reflects individuals’ feeling about their body appearance, and the perceptual dimension is also called as body perception, which reflects individuals’ subjective expectancy of their body image [17, 18]. Disturbances of body image perception are considered to be one of the central aspects of anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) [19]. According to Garner and Garfinkel [20], body image disturbances consist of two separate aspects, i.e. perceptual disturbance and body dissatisfaction. Perceptual disturbance involves the inability to assess the size of one’s body accurately. Body dissatisfaction includes affective or attitudinal perceptions of one’s body [20].
Body image disturbance (BID) refers to an overvaluation of one’s appearance, possibly combined with difficulties in correctly gauging one’s size and with pronounced body avoidance or checking behaviour. It is a transdiagnostic feature of AN and BN and assumed to be the core psychopathology of eating and weight disorders [21]. The distinction between body size distortion and body dissatisfaction has been studied in bulimic patients [12]. Although these two concepts have not been included in the DSM-III diagnostic criteria for bulimia nervosa, it has been postulated that a disturbance in body image plays a role in the disorder aetiology. Self-report procedures in the form of semi-structured interviews or questionnaires have been established for the assessment of BID, but experimental setups using specific devices are also commonly used [22, 23]. The different measures of BID are assumed to capture different aspects of BID.
Research has revealed associations between sociocultural aspects and women’s perception towards body image. In some cultures, especially for women thinness is accepted as an icon of women whereas in other a medium body mass index (BMI) is accepted. It has been proposed that pressure to be thin from one’s environment increases body dissatisfaction because the message to be thin via media or family fraternity will make the individual to feel discontent with their body image in terms of physical appearance. This view has been supported by perceived pressure leading to subsequent increase in body dissatisfaction [24] and in turn risk of development of an eating disorder [25]. A study was conducted by Massidda et al. [26] to analyse the relations between perceptual body distortion, body dissatisfaction, social influence and body Mass Index and the desire to change in a sample of young women. Results of this study revealed that participants tend to perceive their body as larger than real and they desire their body to be thinner than real which has been supported by Mikolajczyk et al. study [27]. Finally the results revealed that body dissatisfaction appears to be influenced both by social factors and BMI.
Previous research has reported both positive and negative aspects of body image as a psychological construct. A satisfactory body image has been linked to long term mental health and wellbeing [28, 29]. However body image dissatisfaction has been associated with a variety of disturbances that affect psychological functioning and quality of life which has led to unhealthy weight control behaviours and suicidal ideation [30, 31]. In general, people either have a positive or negative impression on the way they look. Some have learned how to be proud and tend to accept the way they look and feel about themselves regardless of what others might say or judge. On the other hand, people with a negative body image usually are dissatisfied. Thus, they tend to exaggerate the evaluation of their whole body or some parts whether bigger or smaller than what they actually are [32].
Based on the western study, women perceived themselves as ‘62% of overestimation’ and ‘33% just right’, while ‘5% of underestimation’ compared with actual weight [33]. Furthermore, Saudi studies reported that only (23.3%) of the students had an agreement between their actual and perceived weight in which ideal body image discrepancies were found among the participants who wanted to be thinner (44.1%) or heavier (19.7%) than their perceived Body image [34]. Preference for a particular body weight and attitudes towards it may be mediated by cultural, personal and familial factors as well as an individual’s own weight status [35].
Overall, the focus on ideal body size rather than on a range of acceptable body sizes has contributed to a literature that emphasizes female body size dissatisfactions [42]. Most of recent studies are conducted from western society. Since the issue of weight and weight perception are universal, the influence of social norms cannot be denied. Furthermore, there is a lack of information on how the misperception might affect Saudi women [43]. So, to understand self-perception, it is a demand to understand how people might feel about themselves as they definitely experience physical changes over their lifespan [46]. Study in south western in Saudi Arabia clarified that 76.7% had a disagreement in relation to misperception of body image [34]. Since it was highly significant in Saudi Arabia, where eating disorders and obesity is on increasing pace, it is incumbent to fill the gap and provide a reliable baseline data that might help the policy makers to develop an intervention program.
A cross-sectional study was conducted in a university, located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Participants are Saudi female from non-health college students and employees ranging in age from 18 to 50 years. The sample size was selected from open EPI website, based on confidence interval 95%. This study included 336 respondents out of which 269 (80%) were students and 67 (20%) were employees. Data was collected by structured self-administered questionnaire and close-ended questions. Some of the questions collected from previous studies and has been modified to be in line of Saudi culture. It includes socio-demographic information (ID, age, marital status, etc.), as well as, questions related to assessment of self-perception of body image, weight perception, socio-cultural factors affecting body image, lifestyle habits, body satisfaction and media influencers. The data was collected after receiving the approval from ethical committee of university.
Results of the study are presented in terms of perceived and actual BMI (Table 1). According to actual measurement in students, the mean BMI was 23.72 = 8.63 (Mean = SD) which belong to normal and in employees, the mean was 27.27 + 5.69) which comes under the overweight category. The perceived mean BMI for students was 22.68 + 9.70, belong to normal and in employees, the mean was 25.74 + 6.05) which comes under the overweight category. The mean for BMI was less to students when compared to employees, though 47.8% of employees belong to 18–29 years of age. In the present study assessing body image self-perception BMI has been used as an indicator of nutritional status associated with determinants of body weight related behaviours. The mean actual BMI was more than the mean perceived BMI both in students and employees. When the perceived BMI is less than the actual and hence this can lead to increase in the obesity incidence in a long run. For preventing and reducing excess weight, the efficacy relies on one’s realistic perception and self-awareness of their own body based on a real body size.
Actual measurements | Students (N = 269) | Employees (N = 67) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | |
Height | 156.86 | 8.03 | 155.65 | 5.42 |
Weight | 56.89 | 11.51 | 66.05 | 14.27 |
Waist circumference | 71.89 | 8.86 | 82.06 | 12.14 |
BMI | 23.42 | 8.63 | 27.27 | 5.69 |
Height | 158.7 | 8.77 | 157.52 | 7.23 |
Weight | 56.07 | 11.01 | 63.79 | 14.87 |
BMI | 22.68 | 9.7 | 25.74 | 6.05 |
Actual and perceived anthropometric measurements of students and employees.
Body image was perceived as positive and negative in comparison with actual BMI of students. Out of 269 students, 71.6% have positive body image perception and 28.4% has negative body image perception. The difference between positive and negative body image perception was statistically significant at
Positive and negative perception towards body image among students and employees in PNU.
The question regarding the sociocultural view towards body image was asked as ‘From 1 to 10 where you think the ideal BI rank according to your sociocultural perspective’. From the mentioned question 1–4 was represented as thin, 5–6 represented moderate and 7–10 as fat. According to actual BMI categories, 132 (40.6%) in normal weight responded that moderate weight is the ideal body in their society. Fat weight was the ideal body image responded by 27 (8.3%) participants of normal weight category. Of normal weight category, thin weight was opted by 32 (9.9%) as ideal weight and only about 4 (1.2%) individuals from underweight category considered their weight as ideal weight (Figure 2). An interesting aspect observed from this study was 24.5% (55 in number) of overweight subjects rated that they belong to moderate scale of body image.
Sociocultural view towards body image according to actual BMI categories among females.
It is evident that 81% of students and 94% of employees felt that it appearance is very important, towards the perceptions of body image. Most of the percentage of the students that is 43.1–61.2% in employees wants to change their abdominal part and the good choice to change is through lose weight (48.7% in students and 68.7% in employees) (Table 2). 52% of students responded that media sometimes affect the perception of body image and 53.7% of employees responded the same. According to social pressure 49.8% of students responded that it never affects the body image. But 47.8% of employees responded that sometimes social pressure affects their body image (Table 3).
Importance of appearance | Students | Employees | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | |
Very important | 81 | 63 | 94 | |
Moderately important | 45 | 16.7 | 3 | 4.5 |
Slightly important | 5 | 1.9 | 0 | 0 |
Not important | 1 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 |
Total | 269 | 100 | 66 | 98.5 |
Upper part | 38 | 14.1 | 8 | 11.9 |
Abdominal part | 116 | 43.1 | 41 | 61.2 |
Lower part | 73 | 27.1 | 12 | 17.9 |
Nothing | 40 | 14.9 | 5 | 7.5 |
Total | 267 | 99.3 | 66 | 98.5 |
Do nothing | 21 | 7.8 | 2 | 3 |
Lose weight | 131 | 48.7 | 46 | 68.7 |
Gain weight | 40 | 14.9 | 4 | 6 |
Maintain as it is | 77 | 28.6 | 14 | 20.9 |
Total | 269 | 100 | 66 | 98.5 |
Descriptive statistics to assess the change towards their appearance of university students and employees.
Media affect | Students | Employees | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | |
Always | 86 | 32 | 20 | 29.9 |
Sometimes | 140 | 52 | 36 | 53.7 |
Never | 42 | 15.6 | 10 | 14.9 |
Total | 268 | 99.6 | 66 | 98.5 |
Always | 37 | 13.8 | 21 | 31.3 |
Sometimes | 97 | 36.1 | 32 | 47.8 |
Never | 134 | 49.8 | 13 | 19.4 |
Total | 268 | 99.6 | 66 | 98.5 |
Descriptive statistics for social affect the body image perception of students and employees.
About 63.9% of students and 53.7% of employees responded that sometimes they compared their body shape with others. Lowered self-esteem is the highest (49.8%) consequence related to the negative perception of body image by students. Lowered self-esteem (37.3%) and gaining motivation to exercise, eat healthier, etc. (35.8%) are the highest consequences reported by the employees. Both the students and the employees sometimes have negative thoughts about their bodies which is 59.9 and 58.2% respectively (Table 4).
Comparing body shape with others | Students | Employees | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
N | % | N | % | |
Always | 23 | 8.6 | 13 | 19.4 |
Sometimes | 172 | 63.9 | 36 | 53.7 |
Never | 73 | 27.1 | 17 | 25.4 |
Total | 268 | 99.6 | 66 | 98.5 |
Being insecure around people | 95 | 35.3 | 17 | 25.4 |
Embarrassment | 37 | 13.8 | 9 | 13.4 |
General unhappiness | 58 | 21.6 | 10 | 14.9 |
Lowered self –esteem | 134 | 49.8 | 25 | 37.3 |
Undesirable to the opposite sex | 13 | 4.8 | 2 | 3 |
Gaining motivation to exercise, eat healthier, etc. | 94 | 34.9 | 24 | 35.8 |
Always | 18 | 6.7 | 13 | 19.4 |
Sometimes | 161 | 59.9 | 39 | 58.2 |
Never | 89 | 33.1 | 13 | 19.4 |
Total | 268 | 99.6 | 66 | 97 |
Descriptive statistics indicate psychological effect of body image of students and employees.
Throughout the adult lifespan, women are experienced to various stages on how they perceive their body which is important to examine the implicit and explicit attitude of self-perception toward body image such as age, education level, marriage, pregnancy, social role changes, retirement, and menopause which can influence one’s perceived level of body satisfaction [36, 37]. From social and psychological dimension, civilized and western societies are increasing the focus on female body image. They are inordinately emphasizing thinness as an ideal standard for beauty. Thus, women receive more social pressure to be beautiful than ever before [38, 39]. Regarding to social pressure, there was a study concerned about social factors and lifestyle associated with obesity among Arab women in Bahrain discovered that the ideal body is the middleweight, which found to be preferred more than thinness and fatness for women that are less socially accepted [34]. The revolution of mass media and fashion models has played an essential role on women perception towards their body image. The media is a powerful channel for transmission and reinforcement of cultural beliefs and values among all ages and ethnicities and other varieties, while it may not be exclusively responsible for determining the standards for physical attractiveness. Advertising, in particular creates a seductive and toxic mix of messages that can be taken seriously for both genders [40]. Nowadays, magazines, celebrities, idols all these agents contributes to make a difference in shaping our lives, changing beliefs and cultures in an imprescriptible way that we cannot even figure. Along with the ideal body image aspect which is being everywhere. A study investigated the satisfaction level in regard to BI among 10-year-old girls and boys. Unfortunately, they were dissatisfied with their bodies after watching their favourite actor or singer in a music video or clip from TV shows [41].
‘Misperception of own weight status refers to the discordance between an individual’s actual weight status and the perception of his/her weight status’ [42]. The discoveries of misperception from a study conducted in Hail about body weight perception, among female university students has shown that, one-third of students misclassifying themselves when compared with actual weight [43]. Several studies show that female has a lot of curiosity about their body image and worried regarding it more than men. In 2014, a study conducted among Malaysian men and women found a misperception of own weight status and was higher among females (34.5%) compared to males (26.7%) [42]. According to the study, possible consequences might result in restrictive dieting and unhealthy weight control methods which may lead to increase the risk for the development of eating disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia nervosa [44]. Otherwise, underestimating one’s own weight is associated with an increase of developing overweight prevalence [45]. Also, it is associated with depression, low self-esteem, feeling of shame, body surveillance, anxious and social isolation [40]. Additionally, Women’s perception may shape into interpersonal relationship satisfaction [37].
Researchers believe that the body image of AN and BN individuals are characterised by distortion and disorder. BN is correlated largely with body image. In females due to high obesity percentages in some countries, characterized by more food intake, followed by depression, anxiety and hypochondriacally neurosis has led to body image distortion. Socio cultural factors largely contribute individual’s perception in terms of body attractiveness which leads to more body self-image satisfaction or dissatisfaction. There is a statistically significant difference in students and employees towards their self-perception in terms of BMI and body image. Individuals with negative BI perception have functional correlations between the level of eating disorders and BI satisfaction.
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The focus will not be placed on the gender differences by themselves but on the ways these differences can positively influence the organizational performance. Our proposed chapter is mainly based on literature review as a methodology in its own right. Since literature review has revealed quite many divergent opinions, we also used questionnaires and interviews as data collection tools and we intend to present some of our results, without aiming to generalize all these results to different cultures. We cannot conclude that men’s leadership skills are more powerful and more important than women’s skills or vice versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should capitalize on them. We consider the word ‘complementary’ is better than the word ‘different’ when talking about leadership styles and that it is possible for leaders to develop a series of skills that are not necessarily traditionally linked to their own gender.",book:{id:"5457",slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges",title:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges",fullTitle:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges"},signatures:"Cătălina Radu, Alecxandrina Deaconu and Corina Frăsineanu",authors:[{id:"189086",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cătălina",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",slug:"catalina-radu",fullName:"Cătălina Radu"}]},{id:"52409",doi:"10.5772/65308",title:"Leadership in Nursing",slug:"leadership-in-nursing",totalDownloads:13144,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The nursing literature, until recently presents the phenomenon of leadership as associated with nurse executives and formal leadership roles. That is leadership is defined in terms of an interactive process where followers are motivated and empowered to accomplish specific goals. The purpose of this chapter is to present the phenomena of nursing clinical leadership and leadership at the bedside, which is a new area of research in nursing. This chapter proposes that leadership is not merely linked to top management levels, but it can be developed and implemented at bedside for nurses. Clinical leadership skills focus on patients and healthcare teams rather than formal leadership position. In addition, clinical leadership relates to nursing professional activities, which provide direct care at bedside, which differs from the traditional nursing leadership notion. Thus, acquiring clinical leadership skills is crucial for nurses who provide direct patient care. This allows nurses to direct and support patients and healthcare teams when providing care. Furthermore, it is crucial that nurses develop an effective leadership role to deliver high-quality care and ensure patient safety while engaging in numerous daily leadership roles. Moreover, it emphasized the importance of the cooperation between nursing education programs and healthcare organizations in preparing nurses to be effective leaders by 2020 for the new era of health care.",book:{id:"5457",slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges",title:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges",fullTitle:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges"},signatures:"Reem Nassar AL-Dossary",authors:[{id:"194238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reem",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Dossary",slug:"reem-al-dossary",fullName:"Reem Al-Dossary"}]},{id:"60565",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76133",title:"The Concept of Leadership in the Health Care Sector",slug:"the-concept-of-leadership-in-the-health-care-sector",totalDownloads:4180,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The health care sector is characterised by constant reforms aimed at the efficient delivery of safe, effective, and high-quality care. Effective leadership is required to lead and drive changes at all levels of the health system to actualise the goals of the ongoing reforms in health care organisations. Leadership in the health care sector is spread across management and clinical workforces, creating peculiar challenges. The chapter examines the concept of leadership in the health care sector within the context of the recent drive by health care organisations to identify essential competencies and training required by health management and leadership workforces for effective performance in roles. It concludes that further research is needed to build the evidence on the relationships between targeted training and professional development interventions, individual competence of leaders from health management and clinical backgrounds and organisational performance.",book:{id:"6781",slug:"leadership",title:"Leadership",fullTitle:"Leadership"},signatures:"Reuben Olugbenga Ayeleke, Annette Dunham, Nicola North and\nKatharine Wallis",authors:[{id:"239989",title:"Dr.",name:"Reuben",middleName:null,surname:"Ayeleke",slug:"reuben-ayeleke",fullName:"Reuben Ayeleke"},{id:"247982",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:null,surname:"Dunham",slug:"annette-dunham",fullName:"Annette Dunham"},{id:"247991",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"North",slug:"nicola-north",fullName:"Nicola North"},{id:"247992",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharine",middleName:null,surname:"Wallis",slug:"katharine-wallis",fullName:"Katharine Wallis"}]},{id:"70045",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90151",title:"Islamic Leadership: Comparisons and Qualities",slug:"islamic-leadership-comparisons-and-qualities",totalDownloads:2845,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter explores the concept and principles Islamic leadership which generate qualities. These qualities differentiate the Islamic leadership with other leadership concepts. The fundamental sources of Islamic leadership and guidance for the Muslim leaders are Al-Qur’an and Hadith. The sub-topics related to the Islamic leadership elaborate all attributes (traits, skills, power, authority) needed by the leaders. This content analysis method is based on a review of literature and other secondary data. The information in this chapter expectedly will give understanding on the importance of the Islamic leadership concept and can be useful or as a reference for further studies.",book:{id:"7799",slug:"digital-leadership-a-new-leadership-style-for-the-21st-century",title:"Digital Leadership",fullTitle:"Digital Leadership - A New Leadership Style for the 21st Century"},signatures:"Ahmad Rafiki",authors:[{id:"307090",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Rafiki",slug:"ahmad-rafiki",fullName:"Ahmad Rafiki"}]},{id:"53615",doi:"10.5772/66656",title:"Waking Up to the Power of Reflection to Unlock Transformation in People, Teams and Organizations",slug:"waking-up-to-the-power-of-reflection-to-unlock-transformation-in-people-teams-and-organizations",totalDownloads:2155,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In our busy and frenetic world, leaders face overwhelm. Never before has there been so much change on so many fronts, demanding attention, squeezing out critical reflective time and thinking space. This is time and space to develop the personal capacities to lead with greater clarity, humanity and wisdom in order for transformation to occur, to learn how to reflect on experience, to sense what is needed and to lean into the futures’ emerging potential, instead of problem solving based on habitual thinking and yesterday's logic. This chapter will give reflection and reflective learning a rebranding, propelling it from dusty classrooms to become centre stage in a leader's toolkit, and will show how to apply the findings of the authors’ important new research in the workplace. The new leadership process “Reflect to Create!” with its seven human capacities for inspiring, creating and leading transformational change in today's VUCA world is introduced. The four core conditions and four key practices to embed the approach are also introduced.",book:{id:"5457",slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges",title:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges",fullTitle:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges"},signatures:"Elaine Patterson",authors:[{id:"189794",title:"M.A.",name:"Elaine",middleName:null,surname:"Patterson",slug:"elaine-patterson",fullName:"Elaine Patterson"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70045",title:"Islamic Leadership: Comparisons and Qualities",slug:"islamic-leadership-comparisons-and-qualities",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter explores the concept and principles Islamic leadership which generate qualities. These qualities differentiate the Islamic leadership with other leadership concepts. The fundamental sources of Islamic leadership and guidance for the Muslim leaders are Al-Qur’an and Hadith. The sub-topics related to the Islamic leadership elaborate all attributes (traits, skills, power, authority) needed by the leaders. This content analysis method is based on a review of literature and other secondary data. The information in this chapter expectedly will give understanding on the importance of the Islamic leadership concept and can be useful or as a reference for further studies.",book:{id:"7799",slug:"digital-leadership-a-new-leadership-style-for-the-21st-century",title:"Digital Leadership",fullTitle:"Digital Leadership - A New Leadership Style for the 21st Century"},signatures:"Ahmad Rafiki",authors:[{id:"307090",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Rafiki",slug:"ahmad-rafiki",fullName:"Ahmad Rafiki"}]},{id:"60433",title:"The Role of Leadership in the Professional Development of Subordinates",slug:"the-role-of-leadership-in-the-professional-development-of-subordinates",totalDownloads:2589,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Professional development is relevant for the workers themselves, for the organizations, and, in a more macro view, also for the countries. In this sense, this chapter aims to discuss the influence of leadership in the professional development of subordinates, pointing out the importance of leadership performance. To achieve this goal, research results are presented on the relationship between leadership and professional development of subordinates. Research in the field shows that professional development is directly related to the day-to-day activities of workers and should be part of a broader process of continuous learning, which results both from formal and informal learning actions. The debate proposed for this chapter considers that professional development is more directly related to the combination of cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes that involve learning than the specific results of certain formal or informal learning actions. Thus, we discuss how the relations established with the leadership in the work environment can influence the professional development of the subordinates besides the type of learning provided to the workers. This discussion can shift the focus of research—currently centered on learning modes—to a focus on leadership practices for skills development and the consequent career progression of subordinates.",book:{id:"6781",slug:"leadership",title:"Leadership",fullTitle:"Leadership"},signatures:"Luciana Mourão",authors:[{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão"}]},{id:"52166",title:"Reflective Leadership: Learning to Manage and Lead Human Organizations",slug:"reflective-leadership-learning-to-manage-and-lead-human-organizations",totalDownloads:3962,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter mainly focuses on the concept of reflection as a process, both individual and collaborative, involving experience and uncertainty under the theme of reflective leadership. This type of leadership basically means learning to manage and lead human organizations. It originates from the concept of reflection defining leadership roles and responsibilities in all types of organizations. Focusing on reflection for learning in an effort to create reflective learning communities for all stakeholders taking part in both administrative and executive positions in organizations, this chapter is expected to contribute to leadership theories, to link theory and practice in concrete terms describing new leadership roles and responsibilities under the reflective thought considering its unique impact on organizational functioning.",book:{id:"5457",slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges",title:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges",fullTitle:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges"},signatures:"Süleyman Davut Göker and Kıvanç Bozkuş",authors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"},{id:"190044",title:"Dr.",name:"Kivanc",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkus",slug:"kivanc-bozkus",fullName:"Kivanc Bozkus"}]},{id:"52779",title:"Leadership and Gender Differences—Are Men and Women Leading in the Same Way?",slug:"leadership-and-gender-differences-are-men-and-women-leading-in-the-same-way-",totalDownloads:5487,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"In this chapter, we aim to highlight the main gender differences in terms of leadership, to provide a critical comparative analysis, to discuss potential barriers that need to be overcome, and to find some ways of increasing organizational performance through a better leadership style. The focus will not be placed on the gender differences by themselves but on the ways these differences can positively influence the organizational performance. Our proposed chapter is mainly based on literature review as a methodology in its own right. Since literature review has revealed quite many divergent opinions, we also used questionnaires and interviews as data collection tools and we intend to present some of our results, without aiming to generalize all these results to different cultures. We cannot conclude that men’s leadership skills are more powerful and more important than women’s skills or vice versa, but it is clear that gender differences do exist and people should capitalize on them. We consider the word ‘complementary’ is better than the word ‘different’ when talking about leadership styles and that it is possible for leaders to develop a series of skills that are not necessarily traditionally linked to their own gender.",book:{id:"5457",slug:"contemporary-leadership-challenges",title:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges",fullTitle:"Contemporary Leadership Challenges"},signatures:"Cătălina Radu, Alecxandrina Deaconu and Corina Frăsineanu",authors:[{id:"189086",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cătălina",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",slug:"catalina-radu",fullName:"Cătălina Radu"}]},{id:"60565",title:"The Concept of Leadership in the Health Care Sector",slug:"the-concept-of-leadership-in-the-health-care-sector",totalDownloads:4184,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The health care sector is characterised by constant reforms aimed at the efficient delivery of safe, effective, and high-quality care. Effective leadership is required to lead and drive changes at all levels of the health system to actualise the goals of the ongoing reforms in health care organisations. Leadership in the health care sector is spread across management and clinical workforces, creating peculiar challenges. The chapter examines the concept of leadership in the health care sector within the context of the recent drive by health care organisations to identify essential competencies and training required by health management and leadership workforces for effective performance in roles. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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