\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9977",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"IoT Applications Computing",title:"IoT Applications Computing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The evolution of emerging and innovative technologies based on Industry 4.0 concepts are transforming society and industry into a fully digitized and networked globe. Sensing, communications, and computing embedded with ambient intelligence are at the heart of the Internet of Things (IoT), the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), and Industry 4.0 technologies with expanding applications in manufacturing, transportation, health, building automation, agriculture, and the environment. It is expected that the emerging technology clusters of ambient intelligence computing will not only transform modern industry but also advance societal health and wellness, as well as and make the environment more sustainable. This book uses an interdisciplinary approach to explain the complex issue of scientific and technological innovations largely based on intelligent computing.",isbn:"978-1-83968-690-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-689-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-691-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87800",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"iot-applications-computing",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"adf308a0840ede98439d031a21ba73a6",bookSignature:"Ishwar Singh, Zhen Gao and Carmine Massarelli",publishedDate:"January 7th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9977.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3389,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"333793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"ishwar-singh",fullName:"Ishwar Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031TBdSQAW/Profile_Picture_1616070554137",biography:"Ishwar Singh is an adjunct professor in the School of Engineering Practice and Technology (SEPT), McMaster University, Ontario, Canada. Previously, he was the founding associate director of the four-year BTech programs, a joint venture between McMaster University and Mohawk College, Ontario, Canada, and the chair of the process automation program. He coordinated the design, development, and implementation of process automation, automotive and vehicle technology, and biotechnology programs. He also contributed to the establishment of the energy engineering technology degree BTech program as well as online conversion of the software program. More recently, he has been involved in the establishment of the SEPT Learning Factory for Industry 4.0 Education, Training & Applied Research, and MEng programs.",institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpfU1QAI/Profile_Picture_1640002411379",biography:"Dr. Carmine Massarelli (Environmental technologist at Italian National Council of Research, Water Research Institute)is an expert in the development of Smart Technologies for water management and environmental monitoring, characterization and monitoring of contaminated and degraded sites, integration of spatial data such as standard methodologies, interoperability and data infrastructures.\r\nHe is also an expert in Geographic Information Systems, database administration, programming and IT-related roles, maintenance and creation of geographic data (accuracy and quality), use of scripting, and building cartographic output applying the principles of cartography using open-source IT systems for the processing, analysis, and integration of remote sensing data with airborne and satellite sensors for thematic purposes.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"353808",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhen",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"zhen-gao",fullName:"Zhen Gao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/353808/images/system/353808.jpg",biography:"Zhen Gao is an assistant professor in the School of Engineering Practice and Technology (SEPT), McMaster University, Ontario, Canada, where he is the program lead of the MEng in Systems & Technology. He has published more than 100 papers in highly reputed journals and international conferences, one book, and four book chapters in areas of advanced automation and robotics, sensors and actuators, and artificial neural networks. Dr. Gao has been serving as the associate editor for the Conference Editorial Board of the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society. He is the editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Intelligent Machines and Robotics. His current research interests include advanced robotics, brain-computer interfacing, artificial intelligence/ deep learning, and their applications in manufacturing and healthcare.",institutionString:"McMaster University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"McMaster University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"557",title:"Intelligent System",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering-intelligent-system"}],chapters:[{id:"76547",title:"Radiofrequency Energy Harvesting for Wireless Sensor Node: Design Guidelines and Current Circuits Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97627",slug:"radiofrequency-energy-harvesting-for-wireless-sensor-node-design-guidelines-and-current-circuits-per",totalDownloads:274,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Given their omnipresence, electromagnetic energy offers the most attractive and recent energy supply solutions for low consumption power devices. The most targeted application is the wireless Sensor (WS) node, which is indispensable in all computing systems. This work proposes the design guideline for harvesting radiofrequency (RF) energy using the Rectifying Antenna circuit known as rectenna. The rectenna design issues are then developed to introduce new solutions for optimizing the performance of the circuits. Note that the end-to-end efficiency analysis must incorporate both receiving antenna characteristics, rectifying diode parameters, and matching filter components. However, in most studies, only one or at most two of these aspects are treated. We then want to overcome this lack by offering a global view highlighting all the design issues for optimal RF/DC conversion efficiency. The specific case of rectennas based on patch antennas and Schottky diodes, easily integrated into the circuit boards, is considered. The results of this chapter show that although the harvestable energy levels of ambient RF waves are low, some recent designs offer solutions to take advantage of these ambient waves.",signatures:"Alex Mouapi, Nadir Hakem and Nahi Kandil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76547",authors:[{id:"337950",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alex",surname:"Mouapi",slug:"alex-mouapi",fullName:"Alex Mouapi"},{id:"338013",title:"Prof.",name:"Nadir",surname:"Hakem",slug:"nadir-hakem",fullName:"Nadir Hakem"},{id:"338014",title:"Prof.",name:"Nahi",surname:"Kandil",slug:"nahi-kandil",fullName:"Nahi Kandil"}],corrections:null},{id:"75873",title:"Improved Multi Target Tracking in MIMO Radar System Using New Hybrid Monte Carlo–PDAF Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95948",slug:"improved-multi-target-tracking-in-mimo-radar-system-using-new-hybrid-monte-carlo-pdaf-algorithm",totalDownloads:254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article deals with the multi-target tracking problem (MTT) in MIMO radar systems. As a result, this problem is now seen as a new technological challenge. Thus, in different tracking scenarios, measurements from sensors are usually subject to a complex data association issue. The MTT data association problem of assigning measurements-to-target or target-state-estimates becomes more complex in MIMO radar system, once the crossing target tracking scenario arises, hence the interference phenomenon may interrupt the received signal and miss the state estimation process. To avoid most of these problems, we have improved a new hybrid algorithm based on particle filter called “Monte Carlo” associated to Joint Probabilistic data Association filter (JPDAF), the whole approach named MC-JPDAF algorithm has been proposed to replace the traditional method as is known by the Extended KALMAN filter (EKF) combined with JPDAF method, such as EKF-JPDAF algorithm. The obtained experimental results showed a challenging remediation. Where, the MC-JPDAF converges towards the accurate state estimation. Thus, more efficient than EKF-JPDAF. The simulation results prove that the designed system meets the objectives set for MC-JPDA by referring to an experimental database using the MATLAB Software Development Framework.",signatures:"Khaireddine Zarai and Adnan Cherif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75873",authors:[{id:"121445",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",surname:"Cherif",slug:"adnan-cherif",fullName:"Adnan Cherif"},{id:"336436",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zarai",surname:"Khaireddine",slug:"zarai-khaireddine",fullName:"Zarai Khaireddine"}],corrections:null},{id:"77205",title:"Vehicle Collision Avoidance System Using Li-Fi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98616",slug:"vehicle-collision-avoidance-system-using-li-fi",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent times, large numbers of road accidents occurring all over the world are mainly due to collisions between vehicles. More than 1.2 million peoples were died in road accidents in 2019, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Human safety features are much needed in the manufacturing of vehicles. The proposed method mainly focuses on reducing the number of accidents in our daily lives by avoiding collision between the vehicles. There are several factors corresponding to such difficult conditions that may results in death or disabilities. The causes are sudden loss of concentration of the driver, braking failure and stability issues. These criteria can be reduced only if there is a possibility for communication between the vehicles and the drivers in order to avoid accidents. There are various vehicular communication system models like Dedicated Short Range Communication and Vehicular Ad-Hoc network operating less than 5.9 GHz. These radio frequency based communication also has some limitations such as interference, congested spectrum and security. These drawbacks can be reduced by implementing the Visible Light Communication (VLC) in vehicles. It provides larger bandwidth, security, interference immunity, and high data rate. High speed data transmission and reception can be achieved using visible light based data communication system. This technology is known as Light Fidelity (Li-Fi). This chapter presents the innovative method to evade collision between two vehicles (rear and front). This communication system is cost effective with high speed data rate capabilities.",signatures:"P.M. Benson Mansingh, G. Sekar and T. Joby Titus",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77205",authors:[{id:"333637",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"P.M.",surname:"Benson Mansingh",slug:"p.m.-benson-mansingh",fullName:"P.M. Benson Mansingh"},{id:"421752",title:"Dr.",name:"G.",surname:"Sekar",slug:"g.-sekar",fullName:"G. Sekar"},{id:"421753",title:"Dr.",name:"T.",surname:"Joby Titus",slug:"t.-joby-titus",fullName:"T. Joby Titus"}],corrections:null},{id:"77031",title:"The Role of Ubiquitous Computing in the Transformation of the Healthcare System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98303",slug:"the-role-of-ubiquitous-computing-in-the-transformation-of-the-healthcare-system",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, keeping the financial balance in health services has been a challenge for governments and private companies. Factors such as population aging, medical inflation and the lack of adherence to treatments raise costs and stimulate debates around the world on how to maintain systems’ budget viability. During the last decades, we could observe the phenomenon of computation needing less hardware, becoming more portable and migrating to our offices, pockets, clothing, and finally, to our body, thus allowing us to envision a range of solutions for these problems. The only way for society to offer such quality services and overcome these challenges is through the solutions that the convergence of new technologies brings to us now. The applications of ubiquitous computing have the potential to immensely benefit patients, managers and the society that finances the health system.",signatures:"Ana Lídia Corrêa da Silva Moreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77031",authors:[{id:"330908",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana",surname:"Lídia Corrêa da Silva Moreira",slug:"ana-lidia-correa-da-silva-moreira",fullName:"Ana Lídia Corrêa da Silva Moreira"}],corrections:null},{id:"78243",title:"A Thermal and Energy Aware Framework with Physiological Safety Considerations for Internet of Things in Healthcare and Medical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99655",slug:"a-thermal-and-energy-aware-framework-with-physiological-safety-considerations-for-internet-of-things",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Healthcare, lifestyle, and medical applications of Internet of Things (IoT) involve the use of wearable technology that employs sensors of various kinds to sense human physiological parameters such as steps walked, body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and other cardiac parameters. Such sensors and associated actuators can be worn as gadgets, embedded in clothing, worn as patches in contact with the body and could even be implanted inside the body. These sensors are electronic, and any electronic activity during their sensing, processing and wireless transmission is associated with the generation of heat. This dissipated heat can cause discomfort to the subject and has the potential of damaging healthy living tissue and cells. In the proposed work, the author does a performance check on the intrinsic safety aspects of an IoT healthcare network with respect to the functioning of the wireless sensors involved and routing of sensor data samples. The author also suggests an optimized thermal and energy aware framework to address the issue of temperature rise due to processing and data transmission from sensors through signal processing approaches that help in reducing thermal hazards and simultaneously enhancing the network lifetime through energy conservation.",signatures:"Amitabh Mishra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78243",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78243",authors:[{id:"333556",title:"Dr.",name:"Amitabh",surname:"Mishra",slug:"amitabh-mishra",fullName:"Amitabh Mishra"}],corrections:null},{id:"76738",title:"Environmental Management and Data for the SDGs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97685",slug:"environmental-management-and-data-for-the-sdgs",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ambient intelligence data is key for the global scope of climate, biodiversity, water, air pollution, and general environmental control. The account of carbon emissions, water and air pollutants, sea and freshwater life, and earth nature quality, are key for a healthy environment, in local or global concerns. Controlling initiatives and data management for the environment are part of sustainability strategies for governments, businesses, and entities in general. Such initiatives are increasingly connected to key mankind issues such as poverty, hunger, health, education, gender and equality, among others. Altogether, they are clearly addressed in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, to be met in 2030. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a relevant connection of environmental intelligence systems with public policies, research, international cooperation, and technology transfers. In a detailed analysis of their targets, they offer the stimulus for a vast array of technical applications linking sustainability issues with Ambient Intelligence technologies. The SDGs should be considered the benchmark for action towards a healthy environment given their global concern and interconnectivity of multiple issues related to a better quality of life. The SDGs should become, ultimately, the main driver for the spread of present and new technologies to promote better monitoring and control of the environment. The growth and advances of Ambient Intelligence technologies to new areas of knowledge should be enhanced by their connectivity with the SDGs.",signatures:"Luiz Cruz Villares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76738",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76738",authors:[{id:"336459",title:"M.A.",name:"Luiz",surname:"Cruz Villares",slug:"luiz-cruz-villares",fullName:"Luiz Cruz Villares"}],corrections:null},{id:"79133",title:"Impact of IoT on Renewable Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98320",slug:"impact-of-iot-on-renewable-energy",totalDownloads:293,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The emerging computing technology in this era is the Internet of Things. The network of intelligence that bridges various devices, systems located in remote locations together by means of cloud portal. IoT maybe equipped with millions or billions of devices. IoT handles large volume of data, process the huge data and performs useful control actions to make our life safe and simple. IoT evolves Human-human communication with thing-thing communication. IoT applications are not confined to a particular sector. In the fields such as health care, smart homes, industries, transportation, etc., the technology which is more influential is IoT. Energy sectors are now undergoing transformation. The transformation is driven by IOT. Green energy without IoT cannot be imagined in this energy sector. Renewable energy sources will be the major power producers among all the other sources due to the depletion of conventional energy sources. Among the renewable energy sources, Solar and Wind contributes more when compared to geothermal, biomass, etc. Renewable energy power production depends on environmental factors such as temperature, wind speed, light intensity etc. These factors affect the performance of energy conversion in renewable energy sources. Since our future generation will depend only on renewable energy, it becomes necessary for the researchers to integrate IOT to provide reliable and affordable energy. Renewable power generation helps in reducing the toxic level of gases which may be produced by thermal power stations during power generation. IoT brings about changes from generation to transmission to distribution. For example, let us compare the traditional grid with that of the smart grid. In the case of traditional one-way communication exists that is power produced from the power station is transmitted to the customer. The customer has to pay for the energy consumed. But smart grid has two-way communication. The customer has the capability to pay for the energy consumed only and if excess power produced can be transmitted to the grid. IoT helps in analyzing the demand as well the wastage of energy, helps in scheduling the load in order to reduce the cost. The sensors and data sciences with IOT helps in achieving the automation and intelligent operation of renewable energy farms, increases the efficiency and reliability of the farms to meet our future power demand.",signatures:"Sivagami Ponnalagarsamy, V. Geetha, M. Pushpavalli and P. Abirami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79133",authors:[{id:"331550",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivagami",surname:"Ponnalagarsamy",slug:"sivagami-ponnalagarsamy",fullName:"Sivagami Ponnalagarsamy"},{id:"419213",title:"Dr.",name:"V.",surname:"Geetha",slug:"v.-geetha",fullName:"V. Geetha"},{id:"419214",title:"Dr.",name:"M.",surname:"Pushpavalli",slug:"m.-pushpavalli",fullName:"M. Pushpavalli"},{id:"419215",title:"Dr.",name:"P.",surname:"Abirami",slug:"p.-abirami",fullName:"P. Abirami"}],corrections:null},{id:"75008",title:"A Panglossian Dilemma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95944",slug:"a-panglossian-dilemma",totalDownloads:240,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ambient intelligence is a factual phenomenon of increasing magnitude. It also invites intrigued attention as carrier of meanings. Meanings are produced in a variety of contexts, which are here the focus of attention. In order to analyze contextual narratives and their effects, concepts such as intelligence, optimization, rationale, rationality and ambience are discussed. One meaning of ambient intelligence is its indicative contribution to increased unilateral control of the many by the few. Ethical guidelines may be part of prevailing rhetoric, but their success as a self-controlling factor seems fairly unrealistic. Moral confusion is not only related to artificial intelligence, but to the very essence of modern society.",signatures:"Christer Johannes Bengs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75008",authors:[{id:"336786",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Christer",surname:"Johannes Bengs",slug:"christer-johannes-bengs",fullName:"Christer Johannes Bengs"}],corrections:null},{id:"76652",title:"Internet of Things and Machine Learning Applications for Smart Precision Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97679",slug:"internet-of-things-and-machine-learning-applications-for-smart-precision-agriculture",totalDownloads:711,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Agriculture forms the major part of our Indian economy. In the current world, agriculture and irrigation are the essential and foremost sectors. It is a mandatory need to apply information and communication technology in our agricultural industries to aid agriculturalists and farmers to improve vice all stages of crop cultivation and post-harvest. It helps to enhance the country’s G.D.P. Agriculture needs to be assisted by modern automation to produce the maximum yield. The recent development in technology has a significant impact on agriculture. The evolutions of Machine Learning (ML) and the Internet of Things (IoT) have supported researchers to implement this automation in agriculture to support farmers. ML allows farmers to improve yield make use of effective land utilisation, the fruitfulness of the soil, level of water, mineral insufficiencies control pest, trim development and horticulture. Application of remote sensors like temperature, humidity, soil moisture, water level sensors and pH value will provide an idea to on active farming, which will show accuracy as well as practical agriculture to deal with challenges in the field. This advancement could empower agricultural management systems to handle farm data in an orchestrated manner and increase the agribusiness by formulating effective strategies. This paper highlights contribute to an overview of the modern technologies deployed to agriculture and suggests an outline of the current and potential applications, and discusses the challenges and possible solutions and implementations. Besides, it elucidates the problems, specific potential solutions, and future directions for the agriculture sector using Machine Learning and the Internet of things.",signatures:"R. Sivakumar, B. Prabadevi, G. Velvizhi, S. Muthuraja, S. Kathiravan, M. Biswajita and A. Madhumathi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76652",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76652",authors:[{id:"331479",title:"Prof.",name:"R.",surname:"Sivakumar",slug:"r.-sivakumar",fullName:"R. Sivakumar"},{id:"346727",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",surname:"Prabadevi",slug:"b.-prabadevi",fullName:"B. Prabadevi"},{id:"346729",title:"Dr.",name:"G.",surname:"Velvizhi",slug:"g.-velvizhi",fullName:"G. Velvizhi"},{id:"346730",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",surname:"Muthuraja",slug:"s.-muthuraja",fullName:"S. Muthuraja"},{id:"346731",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",surname:"Kathiravann",slug:"s.-kathiravann",fullName:"S. Kathiravann"},{id:"346732",title:"Dr.",name:"M.",surname:"Biswajita",slug:"m.-biswajita",fullName:"M. Biswajita"},{id:"346733",title:"Dr.",name:"A.",surname:"Madhumathi",slug:"a.-madhumathi",fullName:"A. Madhumathi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76215",title:"Artificial Intelligence and Water Cycle Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97385",slug:"artificial-intelligence-and-water-cycle-management",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Artificial intelligence applications play a crucial role in improving environmental quality from all points of view. Digital technologies have revolutionized our way of life as they are permeated to a capillary level in our daily life. On the other hand, the data produced every second cannot be managed by a human mind due to a certain physical and temporal impossibility, so artificial intelligence, algorithms written by men to perform human reasoning, they can accomplish this arduous task. In this chapter we will address the potential of artificial intelligence to process important amounts of data and analyze existing relationships also through a focus on the conservation capacity of one of the most precious resources: water.",signatures:"Carmine Massarelli, Claudia Campanale and Vito Felice Uricchio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76215",authors:[{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli"},{id:"315745",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Campanale",slug:"claudia-campanale",fullName:"Claudia Campanale"},{id:"315746",title:"Dr.",name:"Vito Felice",surname:"Uricchio",slug:"vito-felice-uricchio",fullName:"Vito Felice Uricchio"}],corrections:null},{id:"78119",title:"Analyses of Open Security Issues for Smart Home and Sensor Network Based on Internet of Things",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97851",slug:"analyses-of-open-security-issues-for-smart-home-and-sensor-network-based-on-internet-of-things",totalDownloads:135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A lot of communication are developed and advanced with different and heterogeneous communication techniques by integration of wireless and wire connection. Conventional technology is mainly focus on information technology based on computer techniques in the field of industry, manufacture and automation fields. It consists of individual skill and technique. As new technologies are developed and enhanced with conventional techniques, a lot of new application is emerged and merged with previous mechanism and skills. The representative application is internet of things services and applications. Internet of things is breakthrough technologies and one of the innovation industries which are called 4 generation industry revolution. Many different types of object and devices are embedded in sensor node. They are inter-connected with optimized open system interconnection protocol over internet, wireless and wire medium. Most of communication is fully inter-connected with conventional techniques at point to point and end to application in general. Most of information in internet of things is weak against attack. This may induce vulnerable features to unauthorized and outside attacker over internet protocol, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and so forth. As high and low efficient equipment are merged into heterogeneous infrastructure, IoT communication surroundings has become more complex, Due to limited resources in IoT such as small memory, low power and computing power, IoT devices are vulnerable and disclosed with security problems. In this chapter, we analyzed security challenges and threats based on smart home network under IoT service.",signatures:"Jung Tae (Steve) Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78119",authors:[{id:"331450",title:"Prof.",name:"Jung Tae (Steve)",surname:"Kim",slug:"jung-tae-(steve)-kim",fullName:"Jung Tae (Steve) Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"78101",title:"IIoT Machine Health Monitoring Models for Education and Training",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99032",slug:"iiot-machine-health-monitoring-models-for-education-and-training",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"IoT, IIoT and Industry 4.0 technologies are leading the way for digital transformation in manufacturing, healthcare, transportation, energy, retail, cities, supply chain, agriculture, buildings, and other sectors. Machine health monitoring and predictive maintenance of rotating machines is an innovative IIoT use case in the manufacturing and energy sectors. This chapter covers how machine health monitoring can be implemented using advanced sensor technology as a basis for predictive maintenance in rotating devices. It also covers how sensor data can be collected from the devices at the edge, preprocessed in a microcontroller/edge node, and sent to the cloud or local server for advanced data intelligence. In addition, this chapter describes the design and operation of three innovative models for education and training supporting the accelerated adoption of these technologies in industry sectors.",signatures:"Ishwar Singh, Sean Hodgins, Anoop Gadhrri and Reiner Schmidt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78101",authors:[{id:"333793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",surname:"Singh",slug:"ishwar-singh",fullName:"Ishwar Singh"},{id:"345168",title:"Mr.",name:"Sean",surname:"Hodgins",slug:"sean-hodgins",fullName:"Sean Hodgins"},{id:"345169",title:"Mr.",name:"Anoop",surname:"Gadhrri",slug:"anoop-gadhrri",fullName:"Anoop Gadhrri"},{id:"345170",title:"Mr.",name:"Reiner",surname:"Schmidt",slug:"reiner-schmidt",fullName:"Reiner Schmidt"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3789",title:"Affective Computing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eec76730bfb0d91b404d56208c6403b6",slug:"affective_computing",bookSignature:"Jimmy Or",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3789.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"132978",title:"Prof.",name:"Jimmy",surname:"Or",slug:"jimmy-or",fullName:"Jimmy Or"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1915",title:"Practical Applications of Agent-Based Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8b3cc5e7b1d82005f4412bc9c99a362",slug:"practical-applications-of-agent-based-technology",bookSignature:"Haiping Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106838",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiping",surname:"Xu",slug:"haiping-xu",fullName:"Haiping Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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After more than 30 years of teaching earth modeling classes, it is clear that the base knowledge of geostatistical principles has grown amongst earth modelers, yet, there remains a great deal more to learn. Many modelers today have become lost in software products and rely too heavily on embedded defaults, or suggestions from colleagues.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to be a companion to modelers interested in knowing the practical meaning of what is behind the buttons they are pushing. It is not a textbook on the mathematics of geostatistics or the evolution of its theory. It is a guide to help make practical decisions and simply explain the “why” and “how” of what works and what does not. Further, it will attempt to answer questions where difficult choices and resulting implications are not clear; e.g. What variogram model should I use? What simulation algorithm is best? How many realizations should I run? After a review of basic principles and common pitfalls, case study examples will be drawn from both conventional and unconventional reservoirs. The case studies will be followed by a constructive review from a panel of experts geostatisticians articulating both strong and weak points of the models, and offer suggestions. Finally, the impact of high-performance computing, machine learning, data analytics (big and small), Python, and R will be discussed with a view towards successful earth modeling for the next decade.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-502-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-501-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-503-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",keywords:"Variograms Kriging, Conditional Simulation, Nugget Effect, Nested Models, Clastic Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, Geothermal, Solar, Soil, Nitrates, Machine Learning, Advanced Data Analytics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 21st 2023",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 20th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor at the Case Western Reserve University with more than 42 years of industry experience, one of the creators of the Earth Modeling software in 2006 that is a core module on the DecisionSpace Geoscience Suite even today.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Maucec is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant with Reservoir Description and Simulation Department at Saudi Aramco in Saudi Arabia. He has authored more than 80 peer-reviewed and professional conference papers, co-authored a reference book on Intelligent Digital Oil & gas Fields, and is an inventor on 30 US patents and patent applications. Formerly, he has worked internationally with Halliburton/Landmark, Shell International E&P, and in nuclear research and industry.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Tim Coburn is a Professor of Systems Engineering at Colorado State University (CSU) and Research Associate in the CSU Energy Institute. He also held professional externships at Sandia National Laboratory, the US Geological Survey, and the Kansas Geological Survey, and is active in numerous geoscience, engineering, and energy-related professional organizations.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Michael is an Associate Professor in the Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. Michael has written over 60 peer-reviewed publications, a Python package, and a textbook on spatial data analytics with Oxford University Press. He is currently an associate editor with Computers and Geosciences, and on the editorial board member for Mathematical Geosciences. Previously, he conducted a great impact and led the research with Chevron’s technology company.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/78011/images/system/78011.jpg",biography:"Jeffrey Yarus is a Professor at the Case Western Reserve University and a retired Halliburton Technology Fellow for Landmark with over 42 years of industry experience. Jeffrey’s specific areas of thought leadership include Earth Modeling and Geostatistics, and he is the technical lead and a Senior Manager of DecisionSpace Earth and Reservoir Modeling software.\r\nEarly in his career, Dr. Yarus enjoyed the opportunity to work with a number of Major Oil Companies and Technology Service Companies including Amoco, Marathon, Beicip-Franlab, and Roxar. In 2001, Yarus and a business partner were responsible for funding their own research and consulting company – Quantitative Geosciences (QGSI) – specializing in applied Earth Modeling. The QGSI staff along with Dr. Yarus joined Landmark Graphics Corporation in 2006 to build an Earth Modeling software product; today a core module on the DecisionSpace Geoscience Suite.\r\nDr. Yarus earned his Ph.D. and master’s degree in Geology from the University of South Carolina and his bachelor’s degree in Geology from the College of Wooster. Yarus served as a Chair of a number of AAPG’s committees including the Computer Applications, Publications, and Reservoir Development Committees. He has authored many papers and abstracts on reservoir modeling and Geostatistics including AAPG volumes on Stochastic Modeling and Geostatistics, the chapter on Reservoir Characterization and Geostatistics and the recent SPE Petroleum Engineering Handbook, Volume 6.\r\nAn acknowledged lecturer and author in the industry, Dr. Yarus earned the distinction of 12-year Adjunct Faculty Member for the University of Houston Department Of Petroleum Engineering. He is one of the senior editors of the Stochastic Modeling volumes in AAPG’s Computer Applications Series. In 2016, Dr. Yarus received the prestigious, George Matheron Lecturer Award from the International Association of Mathematical Geosciences.",institutionString:"Case Western Reserve University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Case Western Reserve University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"429659",title:"Dr.",name:"Marko",middleName:null,surname:"Maucec",slug:"marko-maucec",fullName:"Marko Maucec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429659/images/system/429659.jpg",biography:"Marko Maucec is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant with Reservoir Description and Simulation Department at Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. His main responsibilities cover the development and implementation of methods for uncertainty quantification, dynamic model inversion with assisted history matching, production optimization, and data- and physics-driven predictive modeling into reservoir simulation practices. Formerly, Maucec has worked internationally with Halliburton/Landmark, Shell International E&P, and in nuclear research and industry. He has authored more than 80 peer-reviewed and professional conference papers, co-authored a reference book on Intelligent Digital Oil & gas Fields, and is an inventor on 30 US patents and patent applications. Maucec holds Ph.D. and MSc degrees in Nuclear Engineering and BSc degree in Electrical Engineering. Dr. Maucec is an active member of SPE and currently serves in Reservoir Advisory Committee to Technical Director for SPE’s Reservoir technical discipline.",institutionString:"Saudi Aramco",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"429658",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:"C.",surname:"Coburn",slug:"timothy-coburn",fullName:"Timothy Coburn",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003CPXIwQAP/Profile_Picture_1630390934296",biography:"Dr. Tim Coburn is Professor of Systems Engineering at Colorado State University (CSU) and Research Associate in the CSU Energy Institute. His teaching, research, and consulting are focused on the applications of data science and analytics across the energy landscape. Previously, Coburn served as Founding Director, School of Energy Economics, Policy and Commerce at The University of Tulsa, and Founding Director, School of Information Technology and Computing, Abilene Christian University. Prior to his academic career, Coburn worked in various administrative and technical positions in the data science arena at Marathon Oil Company, Phillips Petroleum Company, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. He also held professional externships at Sandia National Laboratory, the US Geological Survey, and the Kansas Geological Survey, and is active in numerous geoscience, engineering, and energy-related professional organizations. He currently serves on the lectures committee of the International Association of Mathematical Geoscientists (IAMG), the education advisory committee of the Professional Petroleum Data Management (PPDM) Association, and the energy statistics committee of the American Statistical Association (ASA). Coburn is the author of numerous technical and professional publications, and, with Jeffrey Yarus, is co-editor of two prior texts on spatial data analysis: Geographic Information Systems in Petroleum Exploration and Development and Stochastic Modeling and Geostatistics, Vol. 2.",institutionString:"Colorado State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Colorado State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"437107",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Pyrcz",slug:"michael-pyrcz",fullName:"Michael Pyrcz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003FVU4kQAH/Profile_Picture_1640088624476",biography:"Michael is an Associate Professor in the Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering, Cockrell School of Engineering and the Department of Geological Sciences and Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences at The University of Texas at Austin where he teaches and conducts research on subsurface data analytics, geostatistics and machine learning. In addition, Michael accepted the role of Principal Investigator in the College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, of the freshman research initiative in energy data analytics and teaches widely in the energy industry. Before joining The University of Texas at Austin, Michael conducted and led research on reservoir data analytics and modeling for 13 years with Chevron’s technology company. He was an enterprise-wide subject matter expert, advising and mentoring on workflow development and best practice. Michael has written over 60 peer-reviewed publications, a Python package and a textbook on spatial data analytics with Oxford University Press. He is currently an associate editor with Computers and Geosciences, and on the editorial board member for Mathematical Geosciences. For more information see www.michaelpyrcz.com, and his course lectures at https://www.youtube.com/GeostatsGuyLectures, along with the demonstration numerical workflows at https://github.com/GeostatsGuy and contributions to outreach through social media at https://twitter.com/GeostatsGuy.",institutionString:"The University of Texas at Austin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"The University of Texas at Austin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429341",firstName:"Paula",lastName:"Gavran",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"paula@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Although it is possible to speak of the presence and existence of various kinds of lies and manipulation techniques before the emergence of the Internet, no medium has provided such opportunities for the dissemination of fake news as does the digital space [1]. It is for this reason that journalists, whose ambition is to honestly verify and obtain information, are faced with various pseudo-media, blogs and social media accounts on a daily basis, presenting more or less thoughtfully and with certain goals various half-truths, information taken out of context or visual and audiovisual lies [2]. The creators of the news have thus (un)plannedly expanded their professional duties, namely on the one hand to identify the fake news itself and on the other hand to state the correct facts in the given context. In addition, their work on health and disease issues is very important, where disinformation and hoaxes directly threaten the health of individuals and, as we can see during the coronavirus pandemic, the lives of the whole of society. However, this activity is often underestimated by the recipients because, as psychologists claim, individuals find it very difficult to change their attitudes and admit that they were wrong. The reason is a lack of critical thinking and its insufficient support and teaching by educational institutions. An appropriate method of publishing a combination of facts or arguments, however, can help change the attitudes of larger groups of people. Specifically, the phenomenon of debunking, the intention of which is to clarify the primarily false information presented and thus force the recipient to think more deeply about the published facts. The present study therefore deals with the current state of application of debunking in the Slovak media during the coronavirus pandemic.
Apart from the entertaining role of the media, the information needs of individuals have become one of the fundamental reasons for their reception of any media content, whether printed, radio, television, or, as currently dominant, online. Information-saturated content has the goal of presenting new knowledge, or to expand the recipient’s knowledge of already known facts. In conjunction with the above, however, we can now talk about the origin and presence of the phenomena of disinformation, fake news, hoaxes or misinformation, which are respectively phenomena occurring mainly in the current online environment, which are described in layman’s terms as a purposeful imitation of relevant information or the production of misleading messages and which furthermore, unfortunately, also fulfill the cognitive needs of recipients. It is also important to note that multimedia in particular has made a significant contribution to the development of this phenomena, in which even a nonjournalist can publish any information, and at the same time publish it both very quickly and easily [3].
The term “
The presented findings thus indicate that false information can be broken down mainly according to its production as either being intentional or unintentional. However, within the researched issues, they found, mainly in the foreign online media space, usability in many forms. One form of misleading news, which has also established itself in the Slovak media, is the
Due to the noticeable presence of disinformation and its specific forms in media content, current (especially online) journalism is not only focused on the searching, processing and subsequent publication of information, but also on the verification of already presented knowledge, respectively on the identification of untruths and falsehoods. The given method of detecting false facts is called
Thanks to the current development of multimedia, the behavior of the recipients themselves has been modified in journalism, among other things. Apparently passive consumers of messages have become active users who choose for themselves, from a considerable amount of content, what they will select [17], p. 37. The disadvantage is that, in addition to serious and truthful knowledge, there is also a large body of disinformation, fake news, or misinformation in online media spaces, which the audience can barely identify. This fact determined the emergence of the so-called method of debunking, potentially a new area of journalistic work. However, its implementation and application in practice is challenging, as it is, on the one hand, to ascertain the untruthfulness of the presented report and, on the other hand, to rebut it, relating to achieving a change in the perception of a certain message by individuals.
In the context of debunking, journalists must focus on the cognitive processes already mentioned, which reflect how people not only perceive information but also how they accept the change in knowledge they have recently adopted. It is thus a kind of update to the recipient’s knowledge and memory. In their work, J. Cook and S. Lewandowsky clearly state that at the moment of receiving disinformation, it is really difficult to additionally remove the impact on the recipient of the lie or misrepresentation. The authors give an example in an experiment from 1994, when a report on a fictitious fire in a warehouse was published. Immediately, the journalists published a correction of the information, which was untrue, but despite receiving the corrected data, the recipients showed a lasting effect of disinformation at the moment when anyone asked them for the exact wording of the event. The first rule of debunking is therefore the so-called “the familiarity backfire effect.” The authors claim that in an attempt to publish corrective information to previous disinformation, it is necessary not to mention the original falsehoods (not even in the title of the presented article). The best approach is therefore to focus exclusively on the “new” facts that the journalist wants to communicate to his recipients and raise their awareness in society. The second, equally appropriate approach is “the overkill backfire effect.” The essence of the application of this effect is the fact that easily understandable information is more likely to be accepted by the recipient than true information. The “less is more” rule therefore applies. A simple argument is thus much more effective than refuting several (and at the same time complicated) lies. The content presented should therefore not only be short, but also of good readability regarding the use of simple language [18], short sentences and an acceptable number of subtitles or paragraphs. Illustration of facts in the form of infographics also seems to be a suitable strategy here. The last and at the same time the most effective method of debunking is the implementation of “the worldview backfire effect.” This strategy is based on the assumption of the complicated nature of cognitive processes in people who often unknowingly receive information in a biased manner. This group of individuals reinforces their misconceptions even more strongly when confronted with counter-arguments for disinformation (e.g., by searching exclusively for information that confirms their previous opinion). If possible, the information should also reflect the experience of the average individual with the phenomenon, which makes the presented facts more acceptable to the rest of the audience, or possibly frame the fact by emphasizing selected attributes that the journalist considers the important in this context, making it more successful in forming the opinion of the recipient. Comprehensively speaking, when disinformation is published and subsequently refuted, a so-called “mental gap” arises in the mind of the recipient, which is often dealt with by accepting an incorrect statement rather than respecting an unexplained falsehood or lie [15], p. 2–5. The debunking method should therefore adhere to the following rules:
Disclosure of falsehoods should focus on highlighting the facts, with the author omitting previously published disinformation.
Before making any mention of falsehood, the author of the recipient should point out that the following information is misleading.
The text should always contain an alternative explanation of the refuted disinformation, and thus not only say that the information presented was false, but also explain in more detail what specifically mislead the recipient.
The simple graphic processing of the message also presupposes a clearer acceptance of the intended message.
In that regard, Reid complements the findings of Cook and Lewandowski, arguing that it is equally important to focus on:
Disclosure of an idea and not of a person—authors seeking to point out widespread disinformation should focus on rumors and lies relating more to the subject of the event and not on the subject that is part of the event.
Storytelling—recipients find it easier to remember the facts if they are presented in the form of a continuous narration. The role of the debunker is to choose a suitable narrative structure for presenting arguments about particular falsehoods.
Selection of relevant sources—the author should work clearly in their text and refer to credible sources (not only textual, but also, for example, auditory or audiovisual), which increase the legitimacy of his statement.
Presence of positivity—as M. R. X. Denthit also mentioned, the term “debunking” as such is mostly associated with negative connotations. It is therefore important for the journalist to apply positive language in his or her efforts to uncover lies or misinformation, thus making a more positive and credible impression on the recipient [19].
In many cases, however, despite the successful application of debunking to the online journalistic environment, individuals continue to trust the disinformation presented. The most common reason is their lack of critical thinking or inadequate media literacy. Mr. Rogers considers that one of the main reasons for the recipient’s confidence in disinformation is the fact that they did not learn to work with information or to orient themselves correctly in such informational overload. We often accept information unquestioningly, we do not question the sources and intentions of the authors and we do not have well-established mechanisms or techniques by which we can distinguish false reports from quality information. The theorist adds that this fact is mainly due to the fact that our society has significantly shifted technologically in recent years, but the recipients have not been able to adapt their way of thinking. The presence of multimedia has not only accelerated the reception and processing of knowledge, but has also reduced the time to read the articles themselves or the time to think about the messages presented [20]. Also, thanks to the wide availability of modern technology, today anyone can be considered as a form of media or journalist (including authors of blogs, videos, etc.). However there is a difference in reading an article by a serious journalist or anonymous blogger, in which W. Rogers sees dangers, as according to him the average recipient cannot distinguish these two polar opposites, in other words they are not media literate. Most individuals are not able to think critically about media content and are unable to ask questions that help them to understand the reality of the everyday media [21], p. 120, 121. In this context, J. Markoš adds that people’s trust in disinformation often lies in their being “tailor made for the recipients.” A serious journalist cannot write what their readers would like to read—they are limited by the truth. However, authors of false reports are not interested in the truth of the message, so the more enticing and tempting they can make ideas, the more believed they are, despite the fact that they are misleading. Equally acceptable for the recipient is an ordinary sensory experience, which absolutely does not have to be based on truth, preferable to information of a scientific nature, which is often confusing or complicated for Internet users [5], p. 88–99. J. Makoš calls the belief in disinformation, or in other words restricting our rationality, cognitive distortion. According to him, the most important are:
anchoring—in an unknown situation, the recipient considers the first information to be the relevant message, even though it may be false,
peak-end bias—past events are evaluated as (un) true according to their most recent or most significant positive or negative experience,
survivalship bias—when evaluating an event, individuals tend to trust the version of successful, well-known people (although they can be misleading), ignoring the words of those considered less well-known or unsuccessful,
confirmation bias—recipients subconsciously seek confirmation of their (often false) opinions. As a result, they create groups of like-minded people on social networks, where they support each other in their belief in false information,
contrast bias—the human mind often uses comparisons and contrast in perceiving and evaluating certain (e.g., fictitious) events, which reassures it of its (incorrect) opinion [5], p. 175.
The findings of theorists are currently supplemented by practical findings. One example is logistic regression analysis, dealing with the perception of democracy and governance, carried out across 10 countries of the European Union. The research, among other things, identified five key factors that influence people’s beliefs in disinformation and conspiracy theories. Above all was seen their willingness to trade their freedom for other benefits, support of an autocratic leader, distrust of the media as such, and dissatisfaction with the social system and imbalance in their own lives. However, the presented analysis shows that the tendency of individuals to believe false information is also related to the historical and political significance of a country. According to the degree of belief in disinformation and conspiracy theories, the Slovak Republic ranked first (56%), while the least believing in published lies are Lithuanians (17%) from EU countries. Most Slovaks interviewed believed five out of six published conspiracy theories [22]. Similar data is published by the Reuters Institute in the Digital News Report 2020. They involved 40 countries in their research, and focused their attention partly on mapping the concerns of the population about media-presented disinformation and misinformation. Although more than half of all respondents (56%) are concerned about the fact that there is a significant amount of fake news on the Internet, there are more concerns about the reception of falsehoods in countries in South America or Africa than in Europe. The given results can be conditioned by several aspects. On the one hand, the greater trust by the European population in disinformation may be due to their weaker digital literacy, in contrast to countries such as Brazil, Kenya, etc. [23]. On the other hand, it does not have to be strictly just about technical and technological progress, in terms of the educational level of society, but also about its socio-cultural growth. Every nation has a certain cultural identity, while individuals belonging to it often intuitively try not to admit the fact of their ignorance, or errors in their ways in terms of belief in fake information [5], p. 233. By declaring their own ignorance, they would degrade their social roles, or social status.
It is the existence of the fact concerning the trust of the recipients in the fake news that raises the question of improving the implementation of debunking in journalistic practice, or in individual online media. As part of the discursive analysis, we will therefore try not only to point out the apparent dissemination of erroneous information in the current online media space, but also to map effective and at the same time heterogeneous journalistic creative procedures in the field of debunking.
The primary goal of the presented study is to discover the current state of practical implementation of debunking, which is used by the media in the Slovak Republic in order to refute fake news. Secondly, we also notice what new elements are brought by selected web media to this specific field. To achieve the above goals, we decided to use qualitative content analysis, or discursive analysis. Using the mentioned research method, we discover how selected Slovak web media notify about detected disinformation and hoaxes. Following on from the authors mentioned in the theoretical part of the work, specifically J. Cook, S. Lewandowsky and A. Reid, we note how domestic journalists follow the “rules” of debunking. We monitor specifically the “the familiarity backfire effect” (i.e., whether they mention the “original” untruths in the texts or in the titles of the presented texts, or present only new facts with which they try to orientate readers in the issue), “the overkill backfire effect” (whether they write short or reasonably large and comprehensible texts), and “the worldview backfire effect” (i.e., whether they publish disinformation, which they immediately deny or refute).
In connection with the method of qualitative content analysis, which always includes the determination of selected analytical categories, we map the following:
authorship of the text—downloaded agency text/author’s text;
character of the title—informs/does not notify about disinformation;
character of perex—informs/does not notify about disinformation;
the nature of the opening attached image—evokes/does not evoke disinformation;
placement of arguments refuting the disinformation (first/second half of the text);
indication of the most relevant (key, most important) information (first/second half of the text);
indication of the context of disseminated disinformation (yes/no);
warning of disinformation, if it is in the text (yes/no);
maintaining the objectivity of the text in terms of focusing on the event itself and not the subject, as well as maintaining the positivity of the journalistic speech;
using the story and visualizations as tools to illustrate published facts;
intelligibility of the text (simple language and clear formatting);
accompanying visual and audiovisual material.
We perform the analysis using an encryption key composed of two numerical categories. Category 1 indicates that the text follows the given rule of debunking, while category 2 concerns journalistic speech that does not correspond to the expected creation rules. Within a certain research area, we subsequently create the median, when generalizing the facts from the analyzed coding units.
Type of information in the perex: 1—it is not mentioned that it is disinformation; 2—it is mentioned that it is disinformation;
Introductory image material: 1—does not evoke disinformation, 2—evokes disinformation;
Refutation of disinformation: 1—in the second half of the text; 2—in the first half of the text;
Location of the most important fact within the correct information—point with respect to key information: 1—beginning of the text (title, perex, first paragraph); 2—rest of the text (second part of the text);
Using the story as a tool to explain: 1—yes; 2—no;
Disinformation context: an explanation of what was introduced, or why: 1—yes; 2—no;
Warning of misleading information if it appears in the text: 1—yes, 2—no;
Data visualization: 1—yes; 2—no;
Emphasis on the event itself, not on the entity that disseminates it: 1—event; 2—subject;
Presence of positivity in the text, which presupposes the rejection of defamation of the other party‘s opinion, ridicule, etc.: 1—yes (preservation of objectivity, i.e., both parties were given space); 2—no.
However, we also focus our attention on analytical categories, which cannot be explicitly included in the encryption key. These are as follows:
Stylistic level and comprehensibility of the text;
Other accompanying visual/audiovisual material included—videos, photo galleries, photos, etc.;
Description of the sequence of information in the text (in paragraphs), while the publication of truthful information must be in chronological order to create a universal formula for the implementation of debunking in the Slovak media space;
Data concerning the number of mentioned disinformation in the text and the amount of sources used (with the aim of creating a comprehensive picture of the problem addressed).
When following the chosen research method, we ask ourselves the following research questions:
RQ 1: How is the debunking method implemented in the Slovak media space?
RQ 2: In what sequence does the Slovak media configure information in debunking?
RQ 3: How does the Slovak media use complementary journalistic methods of debunking, which are story, visualization and comprehensibility of the text?
RQ 4: Does the Slovak media observe objectivity in the form of debunking, in the form of focusing on the event itself, and on positivity of the text?
The selected research material represents the 10 most read portals in the Slovak Republic (according to the IAB Slovakia system as at 18 July 2020), from each of which we chose by random a selection of five journalistic texts reflecting the issue of disinformation published in connection with the coronavirus pandemic. Among the most widely read serious portals at present are, highest read first: Aktuality.sk, Pluska.sk, Topky.sk, Čas.sk, Sme.sk, Pravda.sk (but this online medium did not address hoaxes), Tvnoviny.sk, Hnonline.sk, Dennikn.sk, Dnes24.sk and Startitup.sk (as an alternative to Pravda.sk, which also did not deal with the issue of disinformation). Together, we analyzed 50 texts and, based on our findings, drew conclusions about notifying the general public about published and disseminated disinformation.
In the following part of the text, we present the results of the discursive analysis of the selected (the five most visited) web media, focusing on the nature of debunking and compliance with debunking rules. Each analysis represents an evaluation of the approach of the work of each medium and is a summary/synopsis of the analysis of five journalistic texts. Data related to medians are given in parentheses, e.g. (), (2).
The tabloid online portal
Based on not only the above findings, but also on findings from unpublished discursive analyzes of the remaining five mentioned web portals, we can state that the implementation of debunking within the Slovak media environment does not reach the required level. This is mainly due to the fact that a considerable amount of information is acquired from press agencies. At the same time, much of this information does not even go through the minimum editorial changes [24]. Even in ideal cases, only minor corrections are made, mainly concerning modification of the title, subtitles and perexes, or modification or addition of the accompanying visual or audiovisual material [25]. As an example, we can mention the misleading infographics on the Aktuality.sk and Startitup.sk portals publishing the numbers of victims of the Covid-19 virus in comparison with other diseases. While the headline on Aktuality.sk reads “Coronavirus: Infographics comparing COVID-19 with other causes of death is misleading,” Startitup.sk has it worded as follows: “Thousands of Slovaks shared an infographic that is a misleading hoax.” In both cases, however, the authors (“incorrect”), immediately in the title, point out the disinformation. The perex and the subtitles used are also changed (two are used in both cases). From our experience with the analyzed texts, we can say that the more the author’s intervention in the article, the better the text is in terms of fulfilling the principles of debunking.
The most widespread problem in newsrooms is the work of journalists with headlines and perexes [26]. Although the intention of the editors to publish and identify disinformation at the very beginning of the article is sufficient, as they want to draw attention to often dangerous lies, it is not so effective. The disinformation is refuted in the first paragraphs of the press text, which is also not in line with the worldview backfire effect, and is without the desired effect. In addition, the examples studied use incorrect terminology and disinformation is called hoaxes. Therefore, they apply the opposite procedure to debunking to that which is recommended. In general, the process is as follows: disinformation—a key fact—argumentation—refutation of disinformation. If we start with the analytical categories we chose, which reflect the findings from professional literature related to the issue of debunking, we must negatively evaluate the constant interpretation of disinformation in the texts (on average 5.24 times). These alternate between arguments and facts, while their authors draw on various authorities, experts, institutions (on average 4.46 times). This is an incorrect procedure within the implementation of the debunking method, the essence of which is the logical placement of various types of information. However, when it comes to setting the context, it is necessary that authors rely on relevant sources explaining the real situation regarding the topic of debunking. In many cases, the authors also unnecessarily explain where and through what media the disinformation spreads and also how many times it was shared. We also noticed that if the author works with only one argument, the text does not seem entirely plausible.
On the positive side, up to half of the articles contained key information in the introductory paragraphs of the speech, which is a desirable persuasive technique in debunking. With a few exceptions, there are no stories in the texts on the basis of which the negative consequences of the spread of disinformation in the field of health could be suitably illustrated. There are also no visualizations in the form of graphs, tables or infographics, suitably illustrating the issue with exact statistics. We also consider positively the preservation of the objectivity of the media, in terms of notification about the event, not the subjects. This fact assumes that the analyzed articles have retained a certain degree of positivity. Journalists thus avoid insulting and publicly criticizing the so-called “opposite camp,” which could discourage the reading of the corrected type of news by the most important target group, namely people who tend to trust disinformation. As far as the formal and linguistic aspects of the texts are concerned, they were mostly news texts; the authors tried to write clearly without using complicated sentences. Unfortunately, the topic of coronavirus also requires the application of technical terms from medicine or pharmacy. However, they are not explained in more detail in the argument. In addition, the journalistic texts discussed do not include videos or photographs, and in many cases it is only text that is appropriately divided by subtitles or paragraphs, and this strategy is based on the rules of the formal editing of articles on websites. If we were to look at the level of debunking in the Slovak media environment, according to the average values of the median of individual analytical categories, we could state that the Slovak online media adhere to the work with the introductory cover photo (1), appropriately state the context (1), put emphasis on the event and not on the subject (1) and maintain positivity (1). The median therefore reaches 1.5. The headline, perex, refutation of disinformation, warnings about fake news, work with the story and visualization received the median number 2. Based on the facts obtained, we can answer the research questions:
The research shows that the Slovak media generally do not follow the recommended principles of effective debunking. The editors include mentions of the falseness of the information right in the introductory parts of the text (title, perex, preview image), which clearly do not reflect the presented theoretical knowledge. We also perceive negatively the fact that the interpretation of disinformation in the form of stories is used by the authors of texts only very sporadically. Likewise, the authors do not draw the attention of their recipients to the upcoming publication of disinformation, nor do they use visualizations (in the form of clear graphs, infographics, and tables), which can quickly orientate the user regarding the problem. It can also be concluded that the editorial offices do not use offensive language, thanks to which, in our opinion, they are be able to address wider groups of readers. On the other hand, the use of a number of credible sources, adherence to the objectivity of the text, sufficient argumentation, appropriate placement of the event in context and focusing the creator’s attention on the event itself, not on the disseminator of disinformation, should be emphasized.
In most of the analyzed media, the sequence of configuration of information was similar, and therefore: disinformation—key fact—argument—refutation of disinformation. In the title, the editors usually state their awareness of the hoax. The same procedure applies in the case of perex, while the preview images have a different character (they fluctuate between title images with depictions of disinformation to illustrative shots that do not evoke disinformation). Subsequently, the journalistic texts present key facts, which they immediately substantiate with appropriate arguments (drawn from relevant sources). In the end, the author usually refutes the disinformation (often in the form of a quote or paraphrase from a recognized expert familiar with the presented issues).
The findings evidently suggest that the selected Slovak media do not use the story as a method of explanation of disinformation. The presence of narration can be observed in journalistic texts only if it follows on from the context of the given topic. The examined text also frequently lacks visualization in the form of graphs or tables, which would be able to clearly supplement the necessary facts and arguments. However, the articles are written clearly, while the analyzed media adhere to the regularity frequency, in terms of their publication, the adequate scope of paragraphs and their work with subtitles. In many cases, the language of selected journalistic expressions suits the lay audience, but in some places technical terms or abbreviations also appear, which cannot be replaced by colloquial synonyms.
In their journalistic texts, selected web media try to maintain objectivity and do not significantly attack opponents who spread disinformation or half-truths. They mention them only in the context of spreading disinformation, mostly on or via social networks. Even if the media criticizes scientific authorities or other entities for publishing lies, a degree of decency via argument is maintained.
Thanks to the knowledge earned from theoretical reflection and from the subsequent empirical research, we were able to define several fundamental problems that the Slovak web media have in connection with the implementation of debunking. Recognizing the importance of truthful information, which is the basis for a realistic picture of individuals or of society as a whole about what is happening in the world and also for their advancement in various areas of human activity, we propose a number of suitable solutions for journalists and for entire newsrooms:
Journalists or editorial staff should also devote themselves to debunking from an author’s point of view and not simply acquire content from press agencies. Although it is time-consuming and costly for the editors to draw attention to all disinformation themselves, the individual departments within the news, could identify the key topics they would like to address in the area of debunking. The texts from press agencies are written schematically [27], and the editorial staff should adapt this content to the target group and also to the basic rules of debunking methodology. As we stated in the introductory chapters, this is a formula or a template into which the required information can be inserted in such manner so as to increase the impact. Subsequently, it is also possible to convert press releases into the form required by the false detection method.
Editors should receive training on how to implement debunking. As this is a very straightforward and simple procedure, training should not be time consuming. Once they (for example, one of the members of the editorial board) are able to master the technique, on the basis of an understanding of the appropriate literature, they can in turn train other competent journalists.
We also consider it desirable to limit information on the volume and route of disinformation disseminated through various channels and also to stop emphasizing which specific media or authorities shared the false information. This method of disclosing facts is not relevant in the context of debunking, as it may give too much weight to the fake news, and instead should focus primarily on verified and truthful information.
An appropriate way to draw attention to disinformation is, for example, in the form of a subtitle clearly referring to the most recent lie. Mentioning it in the sentence just before the disinformation, which points to the possible lie, is also considered an adequate technique. We must not forget to choose appropriate language, and thus avoid expressions such as “lying,” “false,” “hoax,” “lie” and rather focus on words and phrases as “not very relevant,” “fictitious,” “wrong,” and so on.
However, if it is necessary to mention disinformation in the text, journalists should focus more on the story, or link it to the real experience of the participants in the event, which draws attention to the irrelevance of the fake news. This procedure is especially appropriate concerning health issues.
The average reader does not understand technical or pharmaceutical technical terms. It is therefore ideal to omit these words and phrases as mentioned by the press. However, if the author is forced (due to context) to use these terms, it would be appropriate to explain them in more detail (for example in parentheses or visually).
There are several useful tools for the above-mentioned visualization of information that can efficiently process different types of data. These include, for example, quadrigram.com, datamatic.com or datavisu.al and many others.
When implementing debunking, it is necessary to focus on the scope of the article. It is not possible to explicitly quantify how long the text should be, as each topic requires a different argument. On the other hand, research shows that only 10–20% of users actually read a complicated (online) journalistic text [28]. Therefore, this motto must be followed: All the essentials must be mentioned, and nothing more.
At the same time, the texts need to be created with a clear structure, which the reader will get used to and in which they will be able to orientate quickly. Therefore, we recommend that the editors choose a uniform formal arrangement of journalistic texts published on one page and avoid dividing the articles, via hyperlinks, into several pages.
Within the content of a published text, journalists should not focus exclusively on relevant sources, but should also explain the reasons why someone is spreading a chosen lie and what the consequences may be of this act. It is also a good idea for the authors to clarify exactly how the disinformation arose, as it is often a matter of modifying the truth and real facts or manipulating photographs, recordings, audiovisual content and also a subjective selection of information from the context.
We believe that it would be helpful for editorial offices to regularly include hyperlinks in their texts, which appeared only rarely in the articles we analyzed. They have a credible effect on readers, enabling them to search for and verify the interpreted information, often also from primary sources (since in many cases the editors worked only with agency sources, i.e., secondary sources—in the form of quotations or paraphrases selected by the agency).
In connection with the correct reference to sources and the publication of statements by experts, we do not recommend the media to refer primarily to their own texts, but rather to facts from other media or sources. People who believe conspiracies, often believing in various theories and condemning of certain types of media, may perceive work with such resources as self-serving.
Whether a person who believes in some disinformation receives a message that applies the debunking method also depends on the nature of the caption, the perex, and the appropriate introductory photograph. If the headline, perex or photograph suggests that the article refutes a previously published lie, the recipient’s acceptance level of the newly published information is reduced. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose a neutral headline stating the key facts and resulting from a range of arguments in support of the truth, which should later be followed by the perex itself. When choosing a cover photo, it is necessary to choose illustrative shots, ideally those that show people, because they are more believable to the average recipient. Last but not least, it is essential to implement the debunking method quickly, including in the context of information sharing on social networks.
This chapter was elaborated within a national research project supported by the Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (VEGA) No. 1/0283/20, titled ‘Synergy of the Media Industry Segments in the Context of Critical Political Economy of Media’.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), often known as “venereal diseases,” are among the most contagious diseases and are caused by a variety of microorganisms that differ in symptomology, size, life cycle, and treatment susceptibility. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa are indeed the pathogens of STDs [1, 2].
These germs can spread from one person to another through blood, sperm, vaginal, and other physiological fluids. As a result, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are passed from one person to the next by close physical contact, primarily but not solely through sexual intercourse. Ejaculation does not have to occur for STIs to be transmitted from person to person [1, 3].
Nonsexual transmission of these infections happens often from mother to newborn during pregnancy and childbirth, through blood transfusions, and through the sharing of unsterilized needles. Any sexually active individual should discuss his or her risk factors for STIs with health professionals and ask to get a test because anyone may have an STI even without showing any symptoms [1].
Although some infections, including meningitis, can be transmitted through sexual contact, they are not considered STDs because the germs that cause meningitis can already be found in the body or in the environment, and people can get the disease for a variety of reasons [1, 2].
The prevalence of STDs remains high in poor nations, with emerging countries bearing a disproportionate share of the burden. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 374 million new infections with one of four STIs will occur in 2020, which indicates that there are almost 1 million STIs acquired every day. The most prevalent STI is Chlamydia, which accounts for 129 million new infections each year. Gonorrhea has 82 million new infections per year, and syphilis has 42 million new infections annually [3].
Common bacterial STIs may affect the anorectum and perianal skin. Some of these infections are a result of the contiguous spread of sexual intercourse. Worldwide, the incidence of bacterial STIs has shown a gradual increase in recent years. The fast spread of these infections may be due to their varied clinical presentation, which includes pharyngeal, rectal, and urogenital involvement, as well as a significant number of asymptomatic cases [4, 5].
The symptoms of STIs differ between individuals depending on the causative pathogens, and commonly, many people may not experience any symptoms at all. Immediate initiation of STIs treatment is important to minimize the long-term complications of STIs and also prevent the transmission of infections to other people. Common bacterial sexually transmitted diseases are Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis [1].
The infection is more likely transmitted during unprotected sexual intercourse through vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone with the infection, even though semen does not have STI pathogens to transmit the infection from person to person. Women can get Chlamydia in the cervix, rectum, and throat. Men can get Chlamydia in the urethra, rectum, and throat [6, 7, 8]. During childbirth, chlamydial infection is also passed from mother to baby [9, 10].
For behavioral, biological, and cultural reasons, sexually active young individuals are at high risk of getting chlamydial infection. Multiple abnormalities can result from C. trachomatis infection in women including pelvic inflammatory diseases (PIDs), ectopic pregnancy, and infertility. Sometimes women receiving a diagnosis of uncomplicated cervical infection may have asymptomatic upper genital tract infection [6].
Chlamydial infection is commonly asymptomatic both in women and men. Health sector institutions frequently rely on screening tests for all sexually active women aged <25 years, and recommended annual screening for high risky individuals (women aged ≥25 years who have more than one sex partner, a new sex partner, or a sex partner who has an STIs) to detect chlamydial infection [2].
Chlamydia is a global public health problem that is the leading bacterial sexually transmitted infection in developed and undeveloped countries.
Even though evidences are insufficient to recommend routine screening for C. trachomatis among sexually active young men because of different factors (i.e., efficacy, feasibility, and cost-effectiveness), where there are clinical settings with a high prevalence of Chlamydia sexually active young men should be screened. The primary focus of women diagnosed with Chlamydia infection should be to detect and treat the infection, prevent complications, and to treat their partners, whereas men should be screened for Chlamydia only when resources permit and prevalence is high [2].
No genital symptoms are specifically correlated with chlamydial cervical infection. But over 70% of men experience symptoms, such as urethral discharge, penile discomfort, and dysuria, which may cause serious complications that result in irreversible damage, including infertility [13].
Chlamydial infection may cause induced endocervical bleeding and mucopurulent endocervical discharge. The observation of purulent yellow or greenish cervical discharge on a cervical swab is associated with the presence of chlamydial infection [14]. When a woman does not receive treatment; Chlamydia can spread into the uterus or fallopian tubes, causing PIDs, which occur in about 10–15% of women [6, 15, 16]. In young, sexually active men, about 70% of acute epididymitis appears to be attributable to chlamydial infection [17].
Since chlamydial infections may not have specific symptoms and are often indistinguishable, laboratory diagnosis is necessary to identify the correct etiology; the cell culture, and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) were the gold standard tests for detection for years. Cell culture is the most sensitive test to use on easy-to-obtain specimens [10, 13].
The other most widely used diagnostic methods are the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) tests. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the diagnosis of chlamydial infection has also been a gold standard [18]. Chlamydial trachomatis infection can be diagnosed by cervical or vaginal swabs or first-void urine for women, and for men can be diagnosed by testing a urethral swab or first-void urine similar to women [2].
Chlamydia can be cured easily with antibiotic medications. Although medical treatment will cure the infection, the disease will not repair any long-term damage alone. To prevent spreading the infection to sex partners, patients starting single-dose antibiotic therapy should not have sex until the treatment is completed [6]. In some cases, chlamydial infection recurs 3–6 weeks after treatment [19].
Adolescent and adult chlamydial infection treatment regimen: doxycycline 100 mg orally two times/day for 7 days; alternatively; azithromycin 1 g orally in a single-dose or levofloxacin 500 mg orally once daily for 7 days are recommended.
Azithromycin 1 g orally in a single dose is recommended for chlamydial infection during pregnancy or amoxicillin 500 mg orally three times per day for 7 days.
The following is the recommended treatment regimen for neonatal chlamydial infection: Erythromycin base or ethyl succinate 50 mg/kg body weight per day, divided into four doses per day for 14 days
For pregnant women with chlamydial infection, a single dose of azithromycin 1 g orally is recommended, and alternatively amoxicillin 500 mg orally three times a day for 7 days [2].
An individual treated for Chlamydia infection should be instructed to abstain from sexual intercourse for 7 days after single-dose therapy to minimize disease transmission to their sexual partners. To minimize the risk of reinfection, an infected person should abstain from sexual intercourse until all of their sex partners have been treated.
Multiple coinfections may happen when a person receives a diagnosis of Chlamydia infection and should be tested for human immunodeficiency virus
Gonorrhea is an STD that is caused by the bacterium
It can cause infections in the genitals, rectum, and throat, which affect young people ages 15–24 years. Men who experience symptomatic urethral infections may seek curative therapy, whereas women frequently experience asymptomatic infections caused by
Gonorrhea can spread by having sexual contact with an infected person, and from mother to child during childbirth. Gonorrhea is the second commonly reported bacterial sexually transmitted diseases, and the incidence of new cases of gonorrhea is especially high in developing countries, which can produce symptoms in men that cause them to seek curative treatment to prevent complications [22, 23].
Annual screening for
Gonorrhea may have no symptoms, but some men may have a burning sensation when urinating; white, yellow, or green discharge from the penis; painful or swollen testicles, and some women may often have a painful or burning sensation when urinating; increased vaginal discharge/vaginal bleeding, which may have a risk of developing serious complications [24].
If gonorrhea is not appropriately treated, it can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, and ectopic pregnancy. Pregnant women can pass the gonorrheal infection to their babies during childbirth, and the newborn can become blind or have life-threatening infections as a result [21].
Anorectal gonococcal infection shows a thick purulent discharge that is expressed from the anal crypts in response to external anal pressure. Nonspecific findings of mucosal erythema, edema, friability, and pus are noted in infected individuals with proctitis from rectal infection [4].
Specific microbiologic diagnosis of
The standard diagnostic procedure for men with symptomatic urethritis is the gram stain, because of its high specificity and sensitivity. However, in asymptomatic men or women with genital infections, the Gram stain is less useful because of its lower sensitivity. Gram stain of endocervical specimens, pharyngeal specimens, or rectal specimens is not sufficient to detect infection and therefore is not recommended [25].
The result of cultural diagnosis may be reduced if lubricants with antibacterial agents are used during anoscopy, which makes water a recommended lubricant in this setting. There are no approved nucleic acid amplification tests for rectal infection, while nonculture techniques are gaining acceptance in genital gonococcal infections [26].
Certain NAATs that have been demonstrated to detect Neisseria species might have low specificity when diagnosing oropharyngeal specimens for
Gonorrhea treatment is complicated by the ability of
Many of the previously recommended therapies are no longer effective, which makes treatment opportunities for
Recommendation regimen for gonorrheal infection of the pharynx, cervix, urethra, or rectum that is not complicated. If chlamydial infection has not been ruled out, treat for 7 days with doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day.
Alternative regimens if ceftriaxone is not available; gentamicin 240 mg IM in a single-dose, plus azithromycin 2 g orally in a single dose, or cefixime 800 mg orally in a single-dose [2].
Gonorrhea treatment may be complicated by the ability of
Syphilis is one of the most prevalent bacterial STDs caused by the
It is a contagious disease that can cause serious health problems, such as arthritis, brain damage, dementia, and blindness, and may lead to death if left untreated. Syphilis is often difficult to diagnose, and the patient may not have any symptoms for years [1].
Syphilis infection is divided into four stages with different symptoms that appear in the patient. The symptoms and signs associated with each stage may overlap each other, and symptoms may not appear in order. Some patients have not had any symptoms for years. After the initial infection, the bacterium
The infection is highly contagious during this stage. The symptoms at this stage will go away when the treatment is initiated. Without the right treatment, the infection will move to the latent and tertiary stages of syphilis [1, 5, 29]. The majority of untreated symptoms of syphilis spontaneously resolve after 12 weeks. One-fourth of these untreated patients will experience early latent syphilis [4].
Dark field microscopic examinations and molecular tests for detecting
A nontreponemal test (i.e., venereal disease research laboratory [VDRL] or rapid plasma reagin [RPR] test) and a treponemal test (
For adults and adolescents with primary, secondary, or early latent syphilis; benzathine penicillin (G 2.4 million units) is administered intramuscularly in a single dose.
For adults and adolescents with late latent syphilis or latent syphilis of unknown duration; benzathine penicillin G 7.2 million units total, administered as three doses of 2.4 million units each administered intramuscularly at weekly intervals.
For neurosyphilis, ocular syphilis, or otosyphilis; aqueous crystalline penicillin G 18–24 million units per day, administered as 3–4 million units intravenously every 4 hours or continuous infusion for 10–14 days [2, 32].
All individuals who have primary and secondary syphilis are encouraged to take an HIV test at the time of diagnosis and treatment and recommended to offered HIV PrEP for negative HIV test results. Persons who have symptomatic neurologic syphilis disease should have an evaluation that includes cerebral spinal fluid analysis and individuals with syphilis who have symptoms of ocular syphilis should have cranial nerve and ophthalmologic examinations [2].
Clinical and serologic investigations should be needed within 12 months of treatment; if conditions for follow-up are uncertain more frequent evaluation might be prudent. Assessing serologic response to treatment can be difficult, and definitive criteria for evaluating treatment outcomes by serologic criteria have not been well established [33].
In addition, nontreponemal test titers might decrease more slowly for persons previously treated for syphilis. Among individuals with neurologic findings without any reported sexual exposure during the previous 3–6 months indicating that treatment failure might be possible, a cerebral spinal fluid examination is recommended, and should also be reevaluated for HIV infection [34].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
CNS | Central Nervous System |
CIAs | Chemiluminescence Immunoassays |
DFA | Direct Fluorescent Antibody |
EIA | Enzyme Immunoassay |
LGV | Nonlymphogranuloma Venereum |
NAATs | Nucleic acid amplification tests |
RPR | Rapid Plasma Regain |
STDs | Sexually Transmitted Diseases |
STIs | Sexually Transmitted Infections |
TP-PA | Treponema Pallidum Passive Particle Agglutination |
VDRL | Venereal Disease Research Laboratory |
WHO | World Health Organization |
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