Specification and composition of stainless steel disk
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5332",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vehicle Routing Problem",title:"Vehicle Routing Problem",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) dates back to the end of the fifties of the last century when Dantzig and Ramser set the mathematical programming formulation and algorithmic approach to solve the problem of delivering gasoline to service stations. Since then the interest in VRP evolved from a small group of mathematicians to a broad range of researchers and practitioners from different disciplines who are involved in this field today. Nine chapters of this book present recent improvements, innovative ideas and concepts regarding the vehicle routing problem. It will be of interest to students, researchers and practitioners with knowledge of the main methods for the solution of the combinatorial optimization problems.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-09-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6401-2",doi:"10.5772/64",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vehicle_routing_problem",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5780edf835fe9d95d60ebbc6eb00b38a",bookSignature:"Tonci Caric and Hrvoje Gold",publishedDate:"September 1st 2008",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5332.jpg",numberOfDownloads:25941,numberOfWosCitations:106,numberOfCrossrefCitations:67,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:27,numberOfDimensionsCitations:118,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:27,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:291,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 10th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 31st 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 5th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 4th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 3rd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20440",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonči",middleName:null,surname:"Carić",slug:"tonci-caric",fullName:"Tonči Carić",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20440/images/system/20440.jpg",biography:"Tonči Carić received his B.Sc. and the M.Sc. degree in Computer Science from Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb in 1993 and 2000 respectively. He received his Ph.D. degree in 2004 from Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, University of Zagreb. He is currently working at the Department of Intelligent Transportation Systems, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Science, University of Zagreb as an Associate Professor and Head of Chair for Applied Computing. He participated as a researcher in R&D projects funded by European Commission, national research projects and professional projects in cooperation with industry. His main research interests are: combinatorial optimization, moving object databases and intelligent transportation systems. He is a member of INFORMS, IEEE and Scientific Council for Traffic at Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"20256",title:"Prof.",name:"Hrvoje",middleName:null,surname:"Gold",slug:"hrvoje-gold",fullName:"Hrvoje Gold",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20256/images/system/20256.jpg",biography:"Prof. dr. sc. Hrvoje Gold is a full professor at the Faculty of Transport Science of the University of Zagreb. Graduated and graduated from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing and received his doctorate at the Faculty of Transport Sciences of the University of Zagreb, 1974, 1979 and 1995. He teaches undergraduate, graduate and undergraduate studies of computer and artificial intelligence. Head of the Institute for Intelligent Transport Systems and Head of Computer Science Group of the Faculty of Traffic Science. His scientific interests are in the field of the development of intelligent transport systems, processing of hyperspectral images and development of aviation multi-sensory system for remote research. He is a member of the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), IEEE Intelligent Transport Systems and Intelligent Transport Systems Croatia. He has participated in three research and development projects of the European Commission's Framework Programs and several professional projects in cooperation with international institutions.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"728",title:"Operations Research",slug:"engineering-control-engineering-operations-research"}],chapters:[{id:"4582",title:"Scatter Search for Vehicle Routing Problem with Time Windows and Split Deliveries",doi:"10.5772/5613",slug:"scatter_search_for_vehicle_routing_problem_with_time_windows_and_split_deliveries",totalDownloads:3010,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Patrícia Belfiore, Hugo Tsugunobu and Yoshida Yoshizaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/4582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/4582",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"4578",title:"A Modelling and Optimization Framework for Real-World Vehicle Routing Problems",doi:"10.5772/5790",slug:"a_modelling_and_optimization_framework_for_real-world_vehicle_routing_problems",totalDownloads:3488,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tonči Carić, Ante Galić, Juraj Fosin, Hrvoje Gold and Andreas Reinholz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/4578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/4578",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"4586",title:"An Effective Search Framework Combining Meta-Heuristics to Solve the Vehicle Routing Problems with Time Windows",doi:"10.5772/5638",slug:"an_effective_search_framework_combining_meta-heuristics_to_solve_the_vehicle_routing_problems_with_t",totalDownloads:2391,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Vincent Tam and K.T. 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\r\n\tThe debate on globalization and sustainability issues has gained momentum in the last few years, thus shedding unprecedented light upon their interrelatedness, as well as their cross-cultural dimensions. They range from the trade-off between global and local aspects to the urban-rural polarization, from global health security to international migration flows, and from cultural globalization to glocalization of technocultures, just to mention a few topics in relation to globalization. Turning to sustainability, it comes naturally to evoke the 2030 Agenda as a strategic to-do list, which leads to focus on its Sustainable Development Goals and associated targets. The areas to be further explored include – but are not limited to – sustainable growth, tourism, and food systems.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
Whenever and wherever two surfaces and
Wear tests were conducted on pin-on-disk tribotester (Ducom TR-20LE) wear testing machine. Figure 1 gives a schematic sketch of the pin and disk while Figure 2 displays the actual tribometer device.
Sketch of the pin-on-disk. The dimensions of the pin were
Pin-on-disk tribotester machine.
In Figure 1,
C | Specification/weight percent |
---|---|
Disk dimensions | |
Counter bore | |
Counter bore | |
Holes | |
Chemical composition (weight percent) | |
Carbon | |
Silicon | |
Manganese | |
Phosphorous | |
Sulfur | |
Nickel | |
Chromium |
Composition | Min (weight percent) | Max (weight percent) |
---|---|---|
Silicon | ||
Iron | ||
Copper | ||
Manganese | ||
Magnesium | ||
Chromium | ||
Zinc | ||
Titanium | ||
Aluminum |
Property | Alloy | |
---|---|---|
Aluminum pin A390 | Steel disk SUS304 | |
Density | ||
Hardness | ||
Tensile strength | ||
Yield strength | ||
Young’s modulus | ||
Poisson ratio |
Property | Method | Shell Helix Ultra |
---|---|---|
SAE viscosity grade | ||
Kinematic viscosity | ||
Viscosity index | ||
Density | ||
Flash point PMCC | ||
Pour point | ||
HTHS viscosity @ 150°C (mPa s) |
Physical | R |
---|---|
State | |
Color | |
Smell | |
Specific gravity | |
Boiling point range | >300°C |
Flash point | >200°C |
Viscosity | |
Viscosity | |
Water solubility | L |
Evaporation point | Higher than ether (>34.6°C) |
The experimental work was performed in the Tribology Laboratory of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Test variable | |
---|---|
Material of the wear disk | |
Diameter of the wear disk | |
Mass of the pin | |
Length of the pin | |
Speed of the wear disk | |
Time allocated | |
Sliding speed | |
Sliding distance | |
Mass of the pin | |
Length of the Pin |
Recorded data of the wear test for helix base oil
Test variable | A |
---|---|
Quantity of Helix plus Polytron | 2000 mL |
Load | 196.2 N |
Material of the pin | Al▬Si alloy A390 |
Pin diameter | 10.00 mm |
Length of the pin | 32.00 mm |
Material of the wear disk | Stainless steel SUS 304 |
Diameter of the wear disk | 80 mm |
Speed of the wear disk | 500 rpm |
Time allocated | |
Sliding speed | |
Sliding distance | |
Mass of the pin | |
Length of the pin |
Recorded data of the wear test for the Helix oil plus
In the experiment, an aluminum pin having a diameter of 10 mm was slid against the steel disk. The applied load was 20.0 kg. In the first instance, 100% Helix oil was used and its volume in the graduated cylinder was 2000 mL. In the second instance, 90% Helix oil having a volume of 1800 mL was mixed with 10% polytron additive which amounted to 200 mL volume of polytron. Before running the test, the disk was completely covered with the lubricant by keeping a steady flow rate of the lubricant at nearly 0.5 mL/min. The wear volume was calculated from the diameter of the wear scar generated by the pin. Typical wear versus time curves were obtained with the help of MatLab software and were polynomially fitted in order to decide the data trend.
Wear process is in general quantified by the wear rate. Wear rate is defined as the volume or mass of material removed per unit time or per unit sliding distance. In order to determine the extraordinary contribution of the polytron additive in the helix lubricant, we calculated three key tribological parameters, namely, mass wear rate, volume wear rate, and wear coefficient. The defining equations for these parameters are specified by Eqs. (1–3) as written down below [56].
Eq. (3) is the famous Archard equation of tribology.
The coefficient of friction
In the above equations, the variable
Parameter | Helix base oil (100%) | Helix oil (90%) plus Polytron (10%) |
---|---|---|
Wear | ||
Mass wear rate | ||
Volume wear rate | ||
Coefficient of friction | ||
Wear coefficient | — | |
Total mass loss | ||
Total volume loss |
Computed tribological parameters for the aluminum pin.
The experimentally obtained data and their polynomial fits for the wear behavior of the aluminum metallic pin are displayed in Figures 3 and 4 for two different configurations in which the experiment was carried out. The adopted test configurations in the experiment were: aluminum pin versus Helix oil-on-steel disk, tagged as
Graph of the wear of aluminum pin against time in the
Graph of the wear of aluminum vs. sliding distance in the
Figures 3 and 4 show the plot of the wear pattern of the aluminum pin with the passage of time and then the sliding distance on the steel disk of the experiment under consideration. The red line represents wear in the AHS configuration whereas the blue line symbolizes the wear in the APS configuration. It is very much clear from this plot that the polytron additive provides excellent let-up the wear of the tribosystem consisting of an aluminum pin on a steel disk interposed by an oil film of
Evolution of the COF with time in
Evolution of
It is perceivable from the graph of Figures 5 and 6 that in the
To further clarify the effect of polytron additive, we examined the mass and volume losses of the aluminum pin with regard to time as well as sliding distance and separate graphs were drawn for both the
Graph of the mass loss of aluminum pin vs. time for the
Experimental graph of the mass loss of aluminum pin vs. sliding distance in the
Graph of the volume loss of aluminum pin vs. time in the
Graph of the volume loss of aluminum vs. time in the
In the same vein, the tribological parameters in our research work are much better than those of Anand et al. [61] who used phosphonium ionic liquid additives in diesel engine lubricants. More to the point, the experimental predictions in our research effort on wear and friction minimization are even far superior to the findings of Chen et al. [62] and Su et al. [63] who used nano-additives in different lubricating media. With an advantage, the calculated values of mass and volume losses of the aluminum pin show that polytron additive attenuates the mass wear rate by an order of magnitude while the volume wear rate of aluminum is alleviated by two orders of magnitude and these outcomes in sequence yield just a nominal value for the wear coefficient as can be noticed from Table 8. This outstanding performance identifies that polytron had the capability of permeation into the metal crystal structure of aluminum and subsequent adherence to the metallic surface as an unbreakable surface film that diminished the wear of aluminum surface and consequently curtailed friction between the rubbing surfaces of aluminum and steel.
The wear of the aluminum metal surface in the Helix base oil was circa 70 μm. The addition of 10% of Polytron additive declined the wear to 20 μm, representing an excess of 2/3 decrement in the wear of the metal.
The mass wear rate of the aluminum pin in the Helix base oil was 3.3×10−3 mg/min which decreased by an order of magnitude in the Helix plus Polytron mixture, attaining a value of 8.33×10−4 mg/min.
The mass wear rate of the aluminum pin in the Helix base oil was 1.28 × 10−3 mm3/min and it decreased by two orders of magnitude in the Helix plus Polytron mixture by assuming a value 6.08 × 10−5 mm3/min.
The value of the coefficient of friction in the Helix oil was estimated at
Polytron, due to its polar nature, proves to be an effective antiwear additive in the Helix base oil and hence can intrinsically reduce friction by orders of magnitude in mechanical processes and consequently prolong the life span of mechanical parts and, in turn, contribute to considerable fuel and oil economy.
The authors are obliged to the management of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for providing laboratory facilities and are especially thankful to the cooperative technical staff of the tribology laboratory. S. M. H. Ahmer and L. S. Jan pay special thanks to Dr. Mohamed Ahmed Siddig of Al-Neelain University, Sudan, and Dr. Siti Fazlili Abdullah of Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia, for their valuable suggestions.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
MTC | metal treatment concentrate |
FN | normal force/(load) |
FR | resistive force/friction |
TCP | tricresylphosphate |
ZDDP | zinc dialkyl-diethylthiophosphate |
μ | coefficient of friction (COF) |
The apple (
The redness of apple peel is due to the accumulation of anthocyanins, which are water-soluble plant pigments responsible for the blue, purple, and red in many plant tissues of fruits, flowers, and vegetables. Willett [6] showed that approximately 32% of cancers could be avoidable by changes in diet. People with low fruit and vegetable intake have about twice the risk of most cancers as those with high intake [7]. In addition, a case-control study of a group of 33 women recently diagnosed with breast cancer and a control group of 33 healthy women demonstrated that regular ingestion of apples, watermelons, and tomatoes was associated with protection against breast cancer [8]. Increased intake of apple fruits has been associated with reduced risk of disease, because apple fruits—especially their peel—have strong antioxidant activity [9], which benefits human nutritional health.
This review provides a general overview of the nutritional impacts of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, which serve as antioxidants and counteract the prooxidant load of the human body [10]. The review focuses on anthocyanin in apple fruit peel and its health benefits and the means by which this anthocyanin concentration could be improved by regulating cultivation management and breeding cultivars with high anthocyanin levels. The literature on anthocyanin synthesis in red-fleshed apple fruits is not reviewed here; the details of genetic, environmental, and plant hormonal factors involved in anthocyanin synthesis have been reported by Honda and Moriya [11].
Polyphenols are among the most numerous products of the secondary metabolism of plants and are an integral part of the human diet [12]. They constitute more than 8000 phenolic structures and can be divided into at least ten different classes, depending on their basic chemical structure. The recent interest in food phenolics has increased greatly owing to their possible benefits to human health, such as prevention of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other pathologies. The polyphenolic concentration of plant foods can vary by several orders of magnitude [12], with the cereals barley and sorghum having considerably higher levels than those found in some more commonly consumed foods (e.g., fruits, nuts, and vegetables). In the fruits mentioned in the review [12], blackcurrant has the highest polyphenolic concentration, followed by grape, raspberry, and apple. Therefore, apples can serve as an important source of polyphenols as dietary foods.
Plant flavonoids constitute one of the largest groups of naturally occurring phenolics, and they possess an ideal chemical structure for antioxidant activity. They commonly contain diphenylpropanes with a 15-carbon skeleton (C6▬C3▬C6), which comprises two aromatic rings linked through three carbons that usually form an oxygenated heterocycle. The flavonoids in foods comprise 13 types of basic structure, one of which is anthocyanidin [12]. The glycosides of anthocyanidin are referred to as anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins vary in the number and position of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups on the basic anthocyanidin skeleton. There are over 600 naturally occurring anthocyanins. Approximately 17 anthocyanidins are found in nature, and 6 of them—cyanidin, delphinidin, petunidin, peonidin, pelargonidin, and malvidin—are ubiquitously distributed in nature.
Antioxidants are present at high levels in apples [13], and the antioxidant activity of apples has significant positive relationships with total phenolic and flavonoid concentrations [10]. When compared with many other commonly consumed fruits, apples have the second-highest level of antioxidant activity [13]. Antioxidant activity provides a measure of protection that slows the process of oxidative damage, which is an important cause of disease initiation and progression in the human body [14].
Many studies have shown that polyphenol, flavonoid, and anthocyanin concentrations and antioxidant activity in apples differ between the edible parts of the fruit. In a study of four cultivars, “Rome Beauty,” “Idared,” and “Cortland” (all three red-skinned), and “Golden Delicious” (golden-skinned), total phenolic and flavonoid concentrations were highest in the peel, followed by the whole fruit and then the flesh [9]. The peels of these apple cultivars also had significantly higher total antioxidant activities than the whole fruit or the flesh. In a study of ten different cultivars in New Zealand, on average, 46% of polyphenols in whole apples were in the peel, and essentially all of the flavonols (quercetin derivatives) were found to be present in the peel [15]. In a more recent study of “Fuji” (bright red skin with green patches) and “Epagri COOP24” and “Epagri F5P283” (both deep red skin) cultivars, the total phenolic and total flavanol concentrations and total antioxidant activity were also highest in the peel, followed by the whole fruit and then the flesh [16]. The peel and whole fruit possessed 1.1–4.1 times the total phenolic concentration, 1.2–4.9 times the total flavanol concentration, and 1.1–3.9 times the total antioxidant activity of the flesh. The total phenolic concentrations of the flesh, the whole fruit, and the peel were all positively associated with total antioxidant activity [16]. From a nutritional point of view, the above findings suggest that regular consumption of apples with peel is recommended to enhance the dietary intake of antioxidant compounds.
In apples, pigmentation is controlled by the relative concentrations of anthocyanin pigments; the main pigment responsible for the red is cyanidin-3-galactoside (idaein). The anthocyanin concentration of the peels of mature apples of eight “Gala” strains (bright red over yellow background) provided regression coefficients of determination (
Regular consumption of apples is inversely associated with breast cancer occurrence and affords some degree of protection against the development of the disease [8]. Wolfe et al. [9] investigated the effects of the apple peel, the whole fruit, and the flesh in inhibiting the growth of HepG2 human liver cancer cells in vitro by estimating the median effective concentration (EC50; expressed as concentration of apple component (mg mL−1)) as an indicator of antiproliferative activity. Phytochemical extracts of the apple peels of each cultivar tested (“Rome Beauty,” “Idared,” “Cortland,” and “Golden Delicious”) inhibited the growth of HepG2 cells more effectively than extracts of the flesh or the whole fruit. The peels also had a lower EC50 than the flesh and the whole fruit components, representing higher antiproliferative activity. The inhibitory effects of the cancer cell proliferation varied widely depending on the apple cultivar, with “Rome Beauty” apple peels showing the greatest bioactivity.
Anthocyanin production depends mainly on carbohydrates (especially galactose), which are formed during photosynthesis and glucose metabolism in apple leaves and are later transported to the fruit [18]. Therefore, anthocyanin synthesis is closely associated with plant metabolism and depends on the stage of fruit development. For instance, during fruit growth, anthocyanin concentrations in “Gala” apple peel are low and fluctuating, and they then increase markedly on the blush side near maturation [19]. Similarly, Chalmers et al. [20] found that anthocyanin accumulation in red apple cultivars occurs rapidly during the transition from the immature to mature stages and precedes the normal harvest date by about 2–3 weeks. Honda et al. [21] also reported that anthocyanin production proceeded rapidly in the fruit peel of potted trees of red-skinned cultivar “Misuzu Tsugaru” during the last week before harvest, not only under control conditions (25°C 12 h/15°C 12 h) but also under hotter temperature conditions (29°C 12 h/19°C 12 h) for 5 weeks. A continuous increase in anthocyanin concentration, especially in the last 2 weeks before harvest, on both the blushed and shaded sides of the apple fruit was also found in a superior redness sport of “Shotwell Delicious” called “Topred Delicious” [18]; later, the authors reported that the largest increase in anthocyanin concentration and color development in the eight “Gala” apple strains occurred from 2 weeks before the commercial harvest date, and the increase continued for up to 1 week after the harvest date [17]. These findings show the importance of the ripening period for anthocyanin accumulation in apple fruit peel.
Anthocyanin synthesis in apple fruits is affected by environmental factors and internal plant conditions, including biotic and abiotic factors such as light, temperature, nutrients, and plant hormones, and by the type of cultivar. The use of special cultivation methods and cultivars that produce high levels of anthocyanin has been proposed for improving anthocyanin concentration and redness of apple peel.
Development of redness in apple fruit peel requires light [22, 23], and the amount of anthocyanin synthesized is correlated with the light intensity received [24]. Therefore, redness development in apple fruit peel is higher on the side that receives more exposure to light (the blushed side) than on the shaded side (Figure 1). Hamadziripi et al. [25] revealed the effects of microclimate at different positions in the apple tree canopy “Starking” on peel redness and anthocyanin concentration. They found that the outer-canopy fruits were redder and contained more anthocyanins than the inner-canopy fruits. This seemed to be related to microclimatic differences in irradiance, because outer-canopy fruits were exposed to almost 30 times the irradiance as fruits in the innermost portion of the canopy, and the average peel temperature of outer-canopy fruits was about 10°C higher than that of the inner-canopy fruits. In addition, among the eight “Gala” strains mentioned in Sections 2.3 and 4, the anthocyanin concentration on the blushed side was about three to five times that on the opposite shaded side at commercial harvest and after the harvest in low- and medium-high-coloring “Gala” strains [17]. Apparent differences in anthocyanin concentrations between the blushed and shaded sides of “Gala” apple peel occur near maturation (125 days from flowering), when the anthocyanin concentration increases markedly only on the blushed side [19].
Occurrence of anthocyanins in “Fuji” apple peel on the blushed side (the right side in this photo), which receives more exposure to sunlight.
To enhance peel color, cultivation techniques that are effective in promoting anthocyanin synthesis and improving color in apple peels have been developed. In red-skinned cultivars, to allow the apple skin to receive more exposure to light and thereby promote redness, the leaves covering fruits are removed before harvest [5]. Rotating the fruit and branch management such as pruning and putting support posts beneath the canopy can also improve the redness of apple peel [5]. Placing reflective films on the ground also effectively increases the intensity of light entering the apple tree canopy (Figure 2) [26, 27]. Ju et al. [27] reported that, after film application, the light intensity inside the tree canopy “Fuji” increased from 30% of daylight to 50–68% of daylight for foil film (crinkled aluminum foil bonded onto cloth) and metalized film (aluminum metalized polypropylene film); the anthocyanin concentration and percent redness of the fruit peel at harvest were also increased.
Reflective material laid on the soil surface between tree rows in a “Fuji” apple orchard to enhance the trees’ interception of sunlight.
Anthocyanin synthesis in apple fruit is highly dependent on light quality, such as ultraviolet-B (UVB) and visible light (e.g., red, blue, and white fluorescent light). UVB and white fluorescent light are essential for anthocyanin accumulation, regardless of the temperature, but white fluorescent light alone does not increase anthocyanin concentration [23]. Anthocyanin synthesis is stimulated more by irradiation with UVB with an emission peak at a wavelength of 312 nm (UVB312) than by UVB353 [28]. UVB312 is more effective in stimulating anthocyanin production than red or blue light. Simultaneous irradiation with UVB312 and red light [28] or UVB312 and white fluorescent light [29] produces much higher anthocyanin than irradiation with either light alone. This synergism seems to have an important role in development of the desirable red peel under field light conditions.
Temperature has a major effect on anthocyanin synthesis in apple plants. As a result of recent global warming, there are increasing concerns that global warming may be detrimental to fruit reddening.
In general, apples redden best in climates with clear bright days and cool nights during the preharvest period [26]. Night temperatures below 18°C enhance reddening in “Fuji” apples [26]. Reay [23] reported that a cool temperature of 4°C in the dark period followed by 20°C with UVB-visible irradiation was the most effective condition for anthocyanin accumulation in apple peel of “Granny Smith.” This is the equivalent of cool nights followed by warm clear days. With continuous 20°C temperature in both dark and UVB-visible irradiation periods, the anthocyanin accumulated was less than half that with the former temperature condition. This result shows the importance of a low-temperature period in the development of the red blush on apple peel.
Generally, high temperatures increase the respiration rate and carbohydrate consumption of apple trees, thus reducing anthocyanin synthesis in the fruit. Wang et al. [30] reported that anthocyanin accumulation during the ripening period in the peel of “Royal Gala” red-skinned cultivar grown in hot climates (17–35°C, using artificial heating of fruit on the tree over two 7-day periods) caused a dramatic reduction in peel anthocyanin concentration and decrease in redness compared with those in unheated control fruit (7–22°C for unheated apples). Proctor [24] had earlier found that redness cultivars of “McIntosh,” “Northern Spy,” and “Cortland” did not color with supplementary light when the 48-h average temperatures were greater than 20°C, suggesting that anthocyanin accumulation requires temperatures lower than 20°C. Consistent with this notion, Honda et al. [21] showed that 15°C was generally the optimal temperature for anthocyanin accumulation during fruit ripening of redness cultivars, “Tsugaru,” “Tsugaru Hime,” and “Akibae,” whereas anthocyanin accumulation was repressed under 30°C.
Iglesias et al. [18] have noted that poor fruit coloration has already become a problem owing to frequent periods of high temperatures (>30°C) with very low rainfall in summer in many apple-producing areas in Spain. Seasonal differences in temperature and rainfall in the period before harvest often cause harvesting to be delayed in order to attain a certain degree of color, a practice that has negative effects on quality—especially firmness and flavor. This lack of color is an important cause of reduction in grade and is generally associated with poor consumer acceptance. To overcome this problem, Iglesias et al. [18] applied overtree microsprinkler irrigation for 25–30 days preceding the harvest to improve fruit redness and increase anthocyanin concentration in “Topred Delicious” cultivars. Similarly, the warm climate of California can delay harvest owing to inadequate reddening of “Fuji” apples; this has been associated with physiological problems such as skin cracking and internal browning [26].
On the basis of 30–40 years of climate records, Sugiura et al. [31] pointed out that the annual mean air temperature in Japan has risen by 0.31–0.34°C per decade. They proposed that since such climate warming brings earlier blooming and higher temperatures during the maturation period, it is likely to change the taste (acidity and soluble solids) and texture (fruit firmness and watercore development) of apple fruits. They suggest that the slower advance toward the benchmark blush rate caused by warming during the maturation period will offset the advance in fruit maturity induced by the earlier blooming. Honda and Moriya [11] demonstrated that the temperature during fruit ripening of apple trees is an important factor in anthocyanin synthesis in both apple fruit peel and fruit flesh. They observed that the anthocyanin concentrations in the flesh of mature “Pink Pearl” (normal fruit flesh color, pale pink or red; fruit color, red and orange flush) harvested in 2016 were considerably lower than the typical level, probably because of the high temperatures recorded during the ripening period in that year. This suggests that the higher temperatures caused during fruit ripening by recent climate warming may be detrimental to fruit reddening.
Many reports about the effects of treatment-induced changes (e.g., light, temperature) on the characteristics of fruit peel color in apples indicate that production areas for apple fruits will likely increasingly suffer from inadequate reddening owing to ongoing climate warming. Therefore, further research is needed to clarify the effects of ongoing climate warming on the rate of anthocyanin synthesis in apple peel at each growth stage.
Fruit nutrient composition has a strong association with fruit color. In general, nitrogen (N) negatively affects apple fruit redness [32, 33]. The percentages of well-colored fruit of “Jonathan” apples were higher in trees given ammonium nitrate fertilizer at 0–5 g N m−2 year−1 than in trees given the same fertilizer at higher rates of up to 10–20 g N m−2 year−1 from 1978 to 1983 (Figure 3) [32, 34]. The excessive nitrogen application decreased the redness of the apple peel. Similarly, in “Elshof” (bright red with yellow background color), the anthocyanin concentration and percentage of blush are generally decreased by increasing the amount of N fertilizer [35]. Foliar application of nitrogen by using urea spray lessens the increase in anthocyanin concentration in the blush-side peel of “Gala” apples at maturity [19]. Furthermore, Awad and Jager [35] reported that the anthocyanin concentration in the peel of “Elshof” and “Elstar” (mostly red with yellow showing) apples at maturity is negatively correlated with the concentrations of N and magnesium (Mg) and with the N to calcium (Ca) ratio in the fruit at maturity, but the most important nutrient factor associated with anthocyanin concentration at maturity is the N concentration in the fruit during growth and at maturity. The result obtained from Awad and Jager [35] suggests that the maximum level of anthocyanin concentration in apple fruit peel could be achieved if the N concentration could be maintained at marginal N fertility levels to minimize the N concentration in the fruit.
Effects of N application as ammonium nitrate on the percentage of well-colored “Jonathan” fruit. (A) Percentages of well-colored fruits from 1978 to 1983 in a long-term N fertilization field, Japan. A well-colored fruit is designated as one in which over 80% of the peel is colored. Data are running averages from 3 years ±SD, n = 3. Data are from [
Anthocyanin synthesis in apple fruit is associated with not only N but also phosphorus (P) and Ca nutrients. P-Ca mixtures with mineral ions, such as Phostrade and Seniphos, have been used widely to enhance fruit coloration. Superior redness of fruit and high anthocyanin concentrations could be achieved in “Braeburn” apple fruits with foliar application of Phostrade Ca (23.6% P2O5, 4.3% CaO, and 3% N); this effect was due to the P and Ca, not the N [36]. They showed that the anthocyanin concentration in the peel of treated apples at harvest was 20 times, whereas the concentration in the untreated apple peels (control) at harvest was only 9 times those at 5 weeks earlier of the harvest. Another P-Ca mixture, Seniphos (310 g L−1 P2O5, 56 g L−1 CaO, and 30 g L−1 total N: 1% NO3 and 2% NH3, the Phosyn Ltd. Company (Phosyn PLC, York, UK)) is also used commercially to improve peel color in apples. The positive influence of Seniphos on apple redness has been reported in various cultivars, such as “Starking Delicious” [37, 38] and “Fuji” [39], but it is not effective in “Jonagold” [40]. Gómez-Cordovés [37] showed that application of Seniphos increased the anthocyanin concentration in “Starking Delicious” apple peel over the ripening period and also altered the percentage composition of anthocyanins.
Sucrose can promote reddening of apple peel. Anthocyanin concentrations of peel disks of wax apple fruit (light to dark red, sometimes green) increase in a linear fashion with concentration of sucrose in the culture solution [41].
Ethylene, a hormone involved in maturation processes, plays an important role in regulating anthocyanin synthesis in apples. A close relationship between internal ethylene accumulation and anthocyanin accumulation in “Fuji” apple fruits [27] and in “Jonathan” apple fruits [42] has been reported. Therefore, ethylene can be used commercially to increase anthocyanin accumulation in red apples. Ethephon (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid), an ethylene releasing compound that acts as a growth regulator, effectively promotes anthocyanin synthesis in “Starking Delicious” [37, 38] and “Fuji” [39] when light and temperature requirements for reddening are met [26]. Awad and Jager [40] compared the effects of the following seven growth regulators on the accumulation of anthocyanin in “Jonagold” apple peel: ethephon, CCC (2-chloroethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), prohexadione-Ca (3-oxido-4-propionyl-5-oxo-3-cyclohexane-carboxylate), GA4 + 7, plantacur-E (a vitamin E formulation containing 25% alpha-tocopherol), shikimic acid, and galactose. Among these growth regulators, ethephon resulted in the highest anthocyanin concentration in fruit peel at commercial harvest.
The above results differ from reports that did not find a positive relationship between ethylene synthesis and anthocyanin accumulation in apple fruits that were irradiated with UV for “Starking Delicious,” “Jonathan,” “McIntosh,” “Fuji,” “Ralls Janet,” “Tsugaru,” “Jonagold,” “Mutsu,” and “Golden Delicious” cultivars [29] or subjected to hot climatic conditions [21]. For instance, apple trees of “Misuzu Tsugaru” subjected to hot climatic conditions (29°C 12 h/19°C 12 h) had lower anthocyanin accumulation in fruit at harvest but 9 times the ethylene production of those grown under the control (25°C 12 h/15°C 12 h) conditions [21]. These findings suggest that ethylene does not always play a role in regulating anthocyanin synthesis in apple fruits when the trees were grown under such light and hot temperature conditions.
In addition to ethephon, the plant hormone methyl jasmonate can alter anthocyanin accumulation. Treatment of apple peel disks of “Tsugaru” (yellow-green background covered in red-pink blush with occasional striations) with methyl jasmonate stimulates anthocyanin accumulation regardless of the fruit growth stage [43]. “Fuji” apple fruit after harvest that was treated with increasing concentrations of methyl jasmonate shows decreasing hue angles (Δh°) (redness) of the peel [44], and field application of methyl jasmonate to apple fruit can also decrease the hue angle [45]. Therefore, the application of methyl jasmonate can enhance apple fruit anthocyanin formation and peel reddening. Daminozide, paclobutrazol, auxins, and auxin analogs, which are growth regulators, can also promote reddening [44].
Fruit color development of apple peel varies greatly with the cultivar. The most colored strains of “Royal Beaut” and “Buckeye Gala” (both semistriped) and “Ruby Gala” (blushed) redden on both fruit sides, with a greater average fruit surface colored, whereas the less colored strains of “Galaxy” and “Mondial Gala” (both striped) exhibit different colorations between sides, more bicolor fruits, and lower average fruit surface colored [17]. Furthermore, the reddest strains (“Royal Beaut,” “Buckeye Gala,” “Ruby Gala,” etc.) have high coloring potential even at the early stages of fruit development or under environmental conditions associated with hot temperatures or with low-light conditions such as the shaded parts of tree canopy. However, in medium or poorly colored strains (“Galaxy,” “Mondial Gala,” etc.), color development depends mainly on fruit maturity. The genotype is therefore one of the main factors determining the degree of redness in apple fruits, and this provides important information on how to make the best use of apple in breeding.
Consumption of apple contributes to improved health and well-being by helping protection from diseases, including cancer and cardiovascular disease. Increasing the consumption of apple antioxidants requires the development of apples with high antioxidant content without sacrificing taste or storability. One of the most effective means of improving the antioxidant content of the diet is by apple cultivar selection. In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors before and after harvest can influence antioxidant content. Cultivar selection and the manipulation of cultivation could lead to specific conditions for optimal antioxidant enhancement. This would offer the consumer a wide selection of health-promoting cultivars and would result in premium prices for high antioxidant produce. Continued research will require integrated studies such as metabolomic and ionomic approaches to factor analyses that will identify specific conditions for enhancing the antioxidant content of apple products.
The author is grateful to Mr. Mitsuhiko Nukada, Mr. Yuichi Saito, and Mr. Yuji Ono, Fruit Tree Research Center, Agricultural Technology Center, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, for their cultivation management of “Jonathan” apple trees in the long-term nitrogen-fertilization experimental field. Parts of the results in this review were obtained from the long-term nitrogen-fertilization experimental field. The continuous research “Long-term changes in yield, fruit quality, mineral contents, and soil chemical properties in the apple “Jonathan” orchard to which ammonium nitrate had been applied for over 40 years” has been conducted in this field, which was supported by Grants for Environmental Research Projects by the Sumitomo Foundation to K. Matsuoka in 2014 (no. 143404).
No conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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DNA polymorphism serves as a genetic marker for its own location in the chromosome; thus, they are convenient for analysis and are often used as in molecular genetic studies.",book:{id:"6719",slug:"genetic-diversity-and-disease-susceptibility",title:"Genetic Diversity and Disease Susceptibility",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity and Disease Susceptibility"},signatures:"Salwa Teama",authors:[{id:"249329",title:"Dr.",name:"Salwa",middleName:null,surname:"Teama",slug:"salwa-teama",fullName:"Salwa Teama"}]},{id:"58467",title:"Generation of Antibody Diversity",slug:"generation-of-antibody-diversity",totalDownloads:3163,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Because of the huge diversity, the immunoglobulin repertoire cannot be encoded by static genes, which would explode the genomic capacity comprising about 20,000–25,000 human genes. The immunoglobulin repertoire is provided by the process of somatic germ line recombination, which is the only controlled alteration of the genomic DNA after meiosis. It takes place in mammalian B lymphocyte (B cells) precursors in the bone marrow. The genome germ line sequence of undeveloped B cells is organized in gene segments and compromise V (variable), D (diversity), and J (joining) gene segments constituting the variable domain of the heavy chain and only V and J genes for building up the variable domain of the light chain. The rearrangement of the variable region follows a strict order. The following processes that participate in the generation of antibody diversity were summarized—allelic, combinational, and junctional diversity, pairing of IgH and IgL, and receptor editing—which all together produce the primary antigen repertoire (pre-antigen stimulation). When a B cell encounters a foreign antigen, affinity maturation and class switch are induced. Thereby the antibody repertoire increases. The resulting secondary immunoglobulin repertoire reveals in humans at least 1011 specificities for different antigens.",book:{id:"5784",slug:"antibody-engineering",title:"Antibody Engineering",fullTitle:"Antibody Engineering"},signatures:"Oliver Backhaus",authors:[{id:"177685",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Backhaus",slug:"oliver-backhaus",fullName:"Oliver Backhaus"}]},{id:"61204",title:"Polymorphisms",slug:"polymorphisms",totalDownloads:2057,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Polymorphism or variation in DNA sequence can affect individual phenotypes such as color of skin or eyes, susceptible to diseases, and respond to drug, vaccine, chemical, and pathogen. It occurs more often than mutations (frequency ≥ 1%). The common polymorphism is single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) which is a single base change in a DNA sequence that occurs most commonly in the human genome. SNPs have been used as molecular markers in a wide range of studies. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) searches for SNPs that occur more frequently in person with a particular disease than in person without the disease and pinpoint genes or regions that may contribute to a risk of disease. This topic describes about polymorphisms, SNPs, GWAS, linkage disequilibrium (LD), minor allele frequency, haplotype, method for SNP genotyping, and application of SNPs and genome-wide association study in human diseases and drug development.",book:{id:"6719",slug:"genetic-diversity-and-disease-susceptibility",title:"Genetic Diversity and Disease Susceptibility",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity and Disease Susceptibility"},signatures:"Wasana Sukhumsirichart",authors:[{id:"238537",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wasana",middleName:null,surname:"Sukhumsirichart",slug:"wasana-sukhumsirichart",fullName:"Wasana Sukhumsirichart"}]},{id:"21711",title:"Screening of Bacterial Recombinants: Strategies and Preventing False Positives",slug:"screening-of-bacterial-recombinants-strategies-and-preventing-false-positives",totalDownloads:28495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"375",slug:"molecular-cloning-selected-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",title:"Molecular Cloning",fullTitle:"Molecular Cloning - Selected Applications in Medicine and Biology"},signatures:"Sriram Padmanabhan, Sampali Banerjee and Naganath Mandi",authors:[{id:"46458",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriram",middleName:null,surname:"Padmanabhan",slug:"sriram-padmanabhan",fullName:"Sriram Padmanabhan"},{id:"136523",title:"Prof.",name:"Sampali",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"sampali-banerjee",fullName:"Sampali Banerjee"},{id:"136524",title:"Prof.",name:"Naganath",middleName:null,surname:"Mandi",slug:"naganath-mandi",fullName:"Naganath Mandi"}]},{id:"49200",title:"Human Embryology",slug:"human-embryology",totalDownloads:3573,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The study of human embryology has a very long history. Modern embryology owes its initial development to the key embryo collections that began in the 19th century. The first large collection was that of Carnegie, and this was followed later by the major 7 collections. The second role of the Carnegie collection was for researchers to establish a defined set of Carnegie stages based on embryo morphological features. Today, embryos are imaged three-dimensionally (3D) by a range of imaging modalities including, magnetic resonance microscopy (MRM), episcopic fluorescence image capture (EFIC), phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography (pCT), and optical projection tomography (OPT). Historically, embryo serial images were reconstructed using wax-plate and model techniques. The above new 3D imaging techniques now allow 3D computer reconstructions, analysis, and even 3D printing. This chapter will describe how the classical embryology collections and techniques have developed into today’s imaging and analysis techniques, giving new insights to human embryonic development.",book:{id:"4588",slug:"new-discoveries-in-embryology",title:"New Discoveries in Embryology",fullTitle:"New Discoveries in Embryology"},signatures:"Shigehito Yamada, Mark Hill and Tetsuya Takakuwa",authors:[{id:"49486",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigehito",middleName:null,surname:"Yamada",slug:"shigehito-yamada",fullName:"Shigehito Yamada"},{id:"90205",title:"Prof.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Takakuwa",slug:"tetsuya-takakuwa",fullName:"Tetsuya Takakuwa"},{id:"175453",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Hill",slug:"mark-hill",fullName:"Mark Hill"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"54",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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