Corn growing period L (LGPt5), optimum, and sub-optimum conditions of tropical lowland, tropical highland, and subtropical and temperature cultivars for grain production, as well as subtropical and temperate cultivars for silage production.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61112",title:"Climate Change Impacts on Corn Phenology and Productivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76933",slug:"climate-change-impacts-on-corn-phenology-and-productivity",body:'Corn (Zea mays L.) is grown throughout the world and as such is subject to a wide variety of climates and potential scenarios of climate change. Production area continues to increase in response to the increased demand for corn grain and the production per unit area (yield) has continued to increase due to enhanced technology (Figure 1). What is imperative to stability and increases in future production is understanding how climate change will impact this trend in corn production and the areas of the world where corn is produced. Corn is a grain crop with both food and feed uses and variation in production at the local scale can have major impact on local economies and local food supplies as well as world food security.
World corn yield and area harvested since 1960 (data obtained from FAO stat, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en, downloaded March 8, 2018).
The trend line for corn yield has shown a steady increase and a small amount of variation among the years; however, at the local scale is where the impacts of seasonal weather and trends in climate become more noticeable. Across the United States, there have been large deviations from the trend line in years in which weather events have caused yield reductions (Figure 2). Throughout this chapter, we will focus on the impacts of climate on corn phenology and production to provide an understanding of the potential for adaptation strategies. In this chapter we will focus on three components critical to corn production: the changing climate, impact of climate on corn phenology and phenological models, and impact of climate on corn productivity.
Deviations from the yield trend line for corn production in the United States from 1950 to 2017. (data obtained from the National Agricultural Statistics Service, www.nass.usda.gov, accessed March 8, 2018).
The production regions for corn show the dominant areas in the Americas followed by Asia accounted for 81% of the world’s corn production (Figure 3). Climate impacts in the Americas and China will dominate the effects on future corn production.
World corn production by region. (data from FAOSTAT, downloaded March 15, 2018).
Projections of climate change are a result of a combined set of simulation models using various scenarios of changes in carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and the associated forcing functions [1]. The current CO2 concentrations are at nearly 400 ppm in 2018 and are projected to increase to a range of 794–1142 ppm by 2100 without any abatement scenarios [1]. The result of these efforts can be summarized as [1, 2]:
Global mean temperatures will continue to increase throughout the twenty-first century if CO2 concentrations continue to increase and under the highest emission scenario would range from 2.6 to 4.8°C.
These temperatures changes will not be uniform across regions with increases over land surfaces being larger than over the oceans.
As the global temperatures increase there will be more hot extremes and fewer cold extremes at both daily and seasonal time scales.
Precipitation will increase with increases in global mean surface temperature and could increase 1 to 3% °C−1; however, there will be substantial spatial variation in these changes.
The water holding capacity of air increases by 7% °C−1. The air can take up more water, and water vapor inclines. That leads to higher intensity of precipitation, i.e. higher amount of rainfall per rain event.
Annual surface evaporation will increase as the temperatures increases; however, over land, evaporation will be linked to precipitation.
These factors will affect corn growth and productivity and this chapter is directed toward showing how these changes in climate will potentially affect corn production in the future. A general summary of climate impacts on crops was prepared by Hatfield et al. [3] and reveal for corn that temperature and precipitation are the two critical factors. Since corn is a C4 plant, the response to increasing CO2 will be minimal. Leakey et al. [4] found that leaf photosynthetic response was 3% to a doubling of CO2 concentrations while total biomass and grain yield increased by 4%. They did observe that leaf stomatal conductance was decreased by 34% under these same experiments. These differences in physiological activity due to increased CO2 are small compared to C3 species and will not the most evident response to the changing climate. Therefore, in this chapter we will focus on temperature and precipitation impacts on corn.
The phenology of corn has been described as the appearance of leaves or leaf collars during the vegetative stage and accumulation of material in the grain during the reproductive stage. The developmental stages of corn has been recently described by Abendroth et al. [5] and similar guidelines are used to quantify the phenological stage of corn during the growth cycle. What is important for assessing the effect of climate on corn is to explore what role climate variables have on corn phenology. The most critical variable in phenological development is temperature and each plant has a specific range of temperatures for growth as defined as the upper and lower limit (threshold) and an optimum [3]. For corn during the vegetative stage this has been identified as 8 to 38°C with an optimum of 34°C [6, 7] while the range for the reproductive stage is 8–30°C [8]. Typically, the lower temperature limit in growth models has assumed to be 10°C. Survival of pollen are sensitive to temperature, e.g., temperatures exceeding 35°C have been proven detrimental to pollen viability [9, 10]. There is a strong interaction of temperature with vapor pressure deficit and the viability in the time of movement from the tassel to the silk has been shown to decrease with decreasing moisture content [11]. These results would suggest that as the temperature increases and vapor pressure deficit increases that disruption of the pollination process could become more likely especially with the potential for more extreme temperature events. Quantifying the impact of episodes of temperature extremes on pollen viability and the disruption of reproductive processes will become more important with the projection that extreme temperature events will increase under climate change (Tebabldi et al. [12]). These temperature ranges and the potential for extreme events will become important for corn growth and production because of the projection that temperatures will increase in the future.
The relationship of corn phenology to temperature has been described through the use of growing degree days with a growing degree day (GDD) calculated as (Tmax + Tmin)/2 – Tbase, where Tmax is the maximum daily temperature, Tmin is the daily minimum temperature and Tbase is the temperature at which growth stops. Kumudini et al. [13] evaluated eight different thermal models for the estimation of corn phenological development. These thermal models were classified into empirical linear typical of the GDD model first shown by Gilmore and Rogers [14] with the most robust model having a Tbase of 10°C and an optimum of 30°C. Another class of thermal models is the empirical nonlinear model described by Brown and Bootsma [15] where the following relationships were used to estimate crop heat units (CHU): if Tmin < 4.4°C then Tmin = 4.4°C to derive CHUmin = 1.8(Tmin – 4.4°C); if Tmax < 10°C then Tmax = 10°C; to derive CHUmax = 3.33(Tmax – 10°C) – 0.084(Tmax – 10°C)2 and CHU = (CHUmax + CHUmin)/2. Stewart et al. [16] used a non-linear empirical model and separated the vegetative and reproductive stages of growth with different functions. The third class of thermal models can be classified as the process-based models similar to the thermal functions used in Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) as described by Wilson et al. [17] which are based on estimates of air temperature at 3 hour intervals throughout the day and given as: if T < 0°C then T = 0°C and if T > 44°C then T = 44°C and calculated for different temperature ranges as 0°C = < T < 10°C: IR = T(10/18°C); 18°C = < T < 34°C: IR = T – 8°C; and 34°C = < T < 44°C: IR = 26°C – (T – 34°C)2.6 and thermal units are given as ∑(IR/8), where IR = instantaneous rates or measurements. In comparing these different approaches, Kumudini et al. [13] found that the precision in terms of goodness of fit was calendar days < empirical linear < process-based < empirical non-linear.
An application of the GDD approach was developed by Neild and Richman [18] where they combined thermal units with precipitation in an agroclimatic index to determine where different corn hybrids could be grown around the world. Currently, this type of model has been replaced with simulation models similar to APSIM [19] to determine climate impacts on corn growth and production. If the thermal units per leaf appearance rate is constant for the vegetative stage of growth then as the temperature increases there will be a more rapid accumulation of leaves in the crop. This effect as observed by Hatfield [20] and Hatfield and Prueger [21] for corn grown under climatic normal (1980–2010) for Ames, Iowa and normal +4°C temperatures throughout the complete growing season for three different corn hybrids. There was no difference in the total number of leaf collars and cumulative leaf area between temperature regimes; however, there was a large difference in yield with the higher temperatures greatly reducing grain yield (Figure 4). Analysis revealed there was no difference in the GDD’s for leaf collar appearance between the two temperature regimes suggesting that as temperatures increase there will be a more rapid rate of advancement in the phenological development with no effect on the size of the corn plant at the end of the vegetative stage. There was a large difference in grain yield between temperature regimes with a faster rate of maturity with a subsequent reduction in grain production.
Differences in total leaf collars, cumulative leaf area, and grain yield of three corn hybrids grown under normal Ames, Iowa temperatures and normal +4°C temperatures. (data redrawn from [20]).
Corn productivity relative to climate is a function of both temperature and precipitation. Effects of increased temperatures have shown a large degree of variation with projections of reduced production by less than 5% with temperature increases of 1°C [3] to over 50% with 4°C increases [22]. Productivity of corn is affected by temperatures exceeding 35° C during pollination due to dehydration of the pollen [3]. Controlled environment studies have confirmed the effect of high temperatures on corn with temperatures greater than or equal to 3°C above normal temperatures showing maize yield reductions of over 50% in grain yield [20, 21]. They observed an increased rate of phenology with increased temperatures; however, the largest effect on productivity was attributed to the increase in minimum temperatures during the grain-filling period. Field studies on corn have shown under field conditions yield reductions from 13 to 88% due to increased temperature 6°C above normal temperatures [23]. The negative effects of high temperatures during the grain-filling period were attributed to pollen survivability and the efficiency of the grain-filling process. Increasing temperatures likely to be experienced under climate change demonstrate several negative effects plant growth and phenology. Lizaso et al. [24] recorded a reduction of corn yield under field and controlled conditions owing to reduced pollen viability as impacted by increased temperatures. A critical knowledge gap under future climate scenarios will be to evaluate the interaction of high temperature and increased humidity on pollen survivability and the efficiency of the pollination process. Lobell and Field [25] found maize yields decreased 8.3% per 1°C rise without any additional effect due to water stress which was confirmed by Mishra and Cherkauer [26] for Midwest corn grain yields. Challinor et al. [27] compiled a meta-analysis of over 1700 published simulations for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), and corn. They found that without implementing adaptation strategies there would be a loss in yield in both temperate and tropical regions with only 2°C of warming. They also found that adaptation practices could increase simulated yields by 7–15% with this same temperature increase; however, the practices were more effective in wheat and rice than for corn. There was consensus among the simulation models that yield decreases were be greater in the second half of the century with the greater declines in the tropical areas compared to the temperate regions. They estimated that corn yields would decrease by nearly 15% in temperate regions with a 4°C increase and no adaptation but showed no decrease with adaptation practices [27].
Temperature and precipitation interact to affect corn productivity. Short-term water deficits and drought reduce growth and grain yield and are often the largest cause of crop losses. In the United States, drought was related to 41% of crop losses, while excess water was attributed to 16% of the yield loss [28]. Drought stress during the early and middle reproductive stages affected grain yields and these phenological stages were found to be the most sensitive to water stress [29]. Increases in spring precipitation can cause yield reductions due to aeration stress caused by flooded soils; however, drought stress remained the primary factor linked with reduced grain production [29]. In rainfed environments where corn is primarily grown, temperature and precipitation changes under climate change will negatively impact grain production and these interactions need to be more fully understood. In an analysis of wheat production in Europe, Semenov et al. [30], stated that understanding of the effects of higher temperatures and drought stresses during the booting and flowering periods would potentially lead to adaptation practices with the potential to reduce losses in grain numbers and grain weight. With both short-term water stress and drought as major factors affecting grain yield, improved water availability through more extensive root system and changes in root architecture would benefit yield stability [31]. The excess soil moisture in the root zone will require improved soil structure to facilitate gas exchange between the root system and the atmosphere [32]. The impact of precipitation is a combination of the precipitation amount and the soil water holding capacity. This was illustrated in an analysis by Egli and Hatfield [33] where they found average county level corn yields were a function of the soils ability to supply water.
Evaluation of corn yield response to climate is complex because of the interactions of the impacts of temperature and precipitation. To provide a more robust framework for evaluating yield response the utilization of the yield gap as the difference between potential yield and actual yield has been utilized ([34]; van Bussel et al. [35]). This concept has been discussed and utilized for several decades but recently has been extended to create a yield gap atlas for the world. The yield gap approach allows for a quantitative assessment of the ability of the crop to achieve its potential yield and the inability of closing the yield gap can often be ascribed to climatic stress. Potential yield has been defined as “the yield of a cultivar when grown in environments to which it is adapted; with nutrients and water not limiting; and with pests, diseases, weeds, and other stresses effectively controlled” [36]. Potential yield (YP) is an expression of the ability of a crop canopy to convert solar radiation into dry matter with no stress during the growth cycle and radiation use efficiency can be used as a measure of this efficiency [37]. The goal of agronomic science is the evaluate practices and increasing the farmer yield (YF) may prove to be more fruitful than increasing potential yield (YP) ([38]; Lobell et al. [39]. Utilizing the yield gap approach provides a framework for evaluating the factors which affect crop yields and the phenological stage which these factors are having the most significant impact during the growing season. These studies are not simple analyses, because of the interactions of multiple factors affecting yield, and Sinclair and Ruffy [40] argue that nitrogen and water limit crop yield more than plant genetics and should be considered as the primary factors limiting yield. Understanding the yield gap requires being able to quantify both potential and actual yield and comparison among studies is often limited by the lack of consistent data and to advance our understanding of yield gaps will require standardized method for yield comparisons [41]. Fischer et al. [41] introduced attainable yield (YA) as a metric between YF and YP defined as the yield achieved by a producer under near optimum weather and management inputs. Hatfield et al. [42] utilized this approach on county level corn yields in the Midwest United States and defined the attainable yield as the years with the highest yield in the long-term record as illustrated in Figure 5. The values for attainable yield are derived by statistically fitting a line through the frontier of the yield observations and then computing the yield gap as the difference between the attainable and actual observed yield for each year. In this analysis, data from 1950 through the present are used because this represents the period of time with corn hybrids and enhanced production technology. This approach has been used for different crops and regions of the world to obtain yield gaps.
Yield gap analysis for Story County, Iowa, USA using attainable yields derived from annual production values. (data obtained from the National Agricultural Statistics Service, www.nass.usda.gov, accessed March 8, 2018).
Hatfield et al. [42] utilized the yield gap approach for the Midwestern US to quantify the effects of climate variability on corn production and found three dominant climatic factors related to the yield gap. These were July maximum temperatures, August minimum temperatures, and July–August total precipitation. Yield gaps increased when July maximum temperatures exceeded 32°C, August minimum temperatures exceeded 20°C, and July–August precipitation totals decreased below 150 mm. The physiological reasons for these variables are related to the disruption of pollination (July temperatures), increased rate of senescence and reduced efficiency of grain-fill (August minimum temperatures), and water deficits during a period of the year with high crop water requirements (July–August precipitation). These relationships were observed for each county in the Midwest and utilized to project the impact of future climate change on the yield gap on corn production. They found that with the trends in temperature for the summer in the Midwest US that yield gaps would exceed 50% by the year 2075 in the southern portion of the Corn Belt. There were some counties in the Midwest in which excess moisture in the spring was related to the yield gap but these relationships were not robust enough for use in projections of future climates. The yield gap framework provides a robust method for assessing the impact of climate on yield variation over time and when combined with efforts similar to those used by Challinor et al. [27] could be used to quantify the impact of adaptation practices.
Corn is produced around the world and within these areas there may be shifts in production areas due to the changing climate. Green et al. [43] have quantified the changes in the US Corn Belt and provided a geographic analysis to depict these shifts in distribution. Development and utilization of agroclimatic indices has value in being able to assess these shifts because they are related to temperature and precipitation. Neild and Richman [18] were among the first to use the GDD concept to define potential differences among corn hybrids. Development of tools to define where crops can be produced is critical to understand crop distribution and productivity [44]. Estimation of crop distribution within arable areas is necessary to determine whether a species can thrive in an agroclimatic zone and will become more critical with the projected increases in temperature. Zomer et al. [45] extended this concept to demonstrate how climate zones could be used to evaluate technologies that would enhance the ability of management practices to offset the impacts of climate change on crop production. There have continued to be advances in the development of agroclimatic indices to evaluate the suitability of a location for a particular crop since Neild and Richman [18]. Siddons et al. [46] cautioned that development of robust agroclimatic indices requires observations collected over long time periods and extensive observations from experimental locations. There has been an evolution in agroclimatic indices to include more factors affecting plant growth and development to derive values that characterize the environment and the potential for crop production. Typical factors are: average daily minimum temperatures below 0°C; daily mean temperature to estimate crop development rates; average daily maximum temperature above 35°C to estimate exposure to heat stress, especially during pollination; average daily soil water availability (precipitation–reference evapotranspiration (ET)); and length of specific phenological periods to estimate the effects of changing phenological development on biomass accumulation and crop yield [47]. They found a positive relationship between productivity and their suitability index [47]. This approach is a refinement of the effort by Neild and Richman [18] and incorporated more factors to more link crop physiological responses with phenological development.
Agroclimatic zones are a combination of factors affecting plant growth to evaluate the potential for grain or forage crop production (e.g., [18, 44, 48?51]). The form of the index depends upon the assumption of the factors limiting growth. Soil water availability is often the determining factor in crop production in all ecosystems and the application has ranged from determination of irrigation water requirements or potential impacts on production caused by water deficits. Daccache et al. [49] incorporated soil water variability to evaluate the need for irrigation for potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) production in England and Wales. Their index was based on the potential soil moisture deficit (PSMD) index defined as:
where PSMDi is the value in month i and PSMDi−1 is the value for the previous month, ETi is the reference ET for the current month calculated with the Penman-Monteith equation formulated by Allen et al. [52], and Pi the precipitation in the current month. They found increased variation in precipitation decreased potato production in an area currently suited for production, unless supplemental water was provide through irrigation. This type of analyses could be utilized to determine the need for supplemental irrigation to ensure crop production.
Another form of this type of framework was developed by Moeletsi and Walker [51] to quantify climate risk for corn production in South Africa. They based their index, Poone AgroClimatic Suitability Index (PACSI), on three climatic parameters; onset of rains, frost risk, and drought risk utilized a weighed distribution of climate parameters as
where O is the probability planting conditions are met, FF is the probability of a frost-free growing period, and the water requirements satisfaction index (WRSI). These indices require sufficient data over a long period of record to develop the probability of the different indices to develop reliable probability assessments [46]. An aspect of this index is the assessment of drought risk which is a complex interaction by soil water holding capacity and any change in the soil affecting water availability (Eq. 2).
Precipitation effects on crop productivity are defined by the occurrence of the water deficits in the soil profile which fail to meet the evaporative demand. Agroclimatic indices for arid and semiarid regions are often based on precipitation amounts adequate to exceed the ET rate at the time of planting in order to ensure crop establishment [18, 47, 48, 49, 51]. Moeletsi and Walker [51] evaluated soil water dynamics based on the WRSI to determine the potential to meet crop water requirements at any phenological stage as
where WRi is the water requirements for a decadal period during growing season, PETi is the potential ET during this decadal period, and kci the crop coefficient for this corresponding phenological period. For any decadal period during the growing season, the soil water balance can be used to estimate plant available water (WAi) as
and Preci is the precipitation in a given decadal period and SWi-1 is the profile soil water content for the previous decadal period. Soil water holding capacity (WHC) becomes a critical component of this method because available SW is a function of WHC. They computed the WRSI as
with WDi the water deficit for decadal period i, defined as
Or
In this process soil water in the profile is quantified as
Using this methodology, Moeletsi and Walker [51] were able to evaluate the suitability for maize production for various planting dates with a correlation of 0.8 between the PACSI and grain yields.
Precipitation is changing in intensity and frequency, and directly affect WAi (Eq. 3). Precipitation patterns are projected to increase in annual totals, with decreasing summer precipitation amounts over the US [1, 53]. If we link these precipitation patterns with the PACSI (Eq. 2), then corn production could become more variable among years because of soil water availability.
Utilization of agroclimatic indices as a tool for the assessment of climate impacts on corn production areas will provide a quantitative view of shifts in production areas but potential risks to production within areas where corn is currently produced. The continued development of these tools will benefit corn production because we can evaluate the potential role of management and genetic resources on increasing yield stability over time.
Simulation models have been extensively used to estimate the impact of a changing climate on productivity. In 2014, Challinor et al. [27] summarized 1700 published reports using simulation models and the number of papers has increased rapidly since that time. Simulation models provide the capability of assessing the potential impacts of the change in temperature and precipitation under a given CO2 regime and often models using the different emission scenarios to determine the expected temperature and precipitation parameters which are then placed into crop simulation models [54, 55]. It has been found that an ensemble of crop models provides a more rigorous approach to estimating crop responses to climate. This is being conducted under the Agricultural Model Implementation and Improvement Project (AgMIP) framework as described by Rosenzweig et al. [56]. Bassu et al. [57] used this framework to compare 23 different corn models and found temperature decreased yield by approximately −0.5 Mg ha−1°C−1 while doubling the CO2 from 360 to 720 μmol mol−1 increased yield by 7.5% across all models and sites. They concluded that temperature increases would be the dominant factor affecting corn yields. Zhao et al. [58] summarized a number of published results and found for each 1°C increase, corn yields decreased by 7.4%. Jin et al. [59] used the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) model to evaluate the effect of different CO2 scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for corn production in the US and found drought will be the largest factor affecting production. However, they stated that combined impacts of temperature and water stress need to be evaluated in breeding programs and adaptation strategies [59]. Earlier, Jin et al. [60] evaluated the algorithms in 16 different corn models and concluded that heat and drought stress was best simulated when models used event-based heat and water stress descriptions, accounted for nighttime temperature stresses, and evaluated the interactions of multiple stresses. Crop models allow for an assessment of the role of genetics and management on productivity for a range of present and future environmental conditions. Hatfield and Walthall [31] utilized this concept as the G x E x M (genetics × environment × management) framework to determine how these interactions would need to be understood to provide food security for the future population growth.
There have been efforts to combine observations with crop simulation models to evaluate changes in yield and yield stability. Leng [61] found yield variability across the US Corn Belt has decreased from 1980 to 2010 with climatic variability the major factor affected variability among years and regions. He found that statistical models explained more of the yield variation than crop simulation models. Bhattarai et al. [62] used the Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (EPIC) model with the combined results for eight general circulation models to show that under low and medium carbon scenarios, corn yields during the period 2080–2099 increased compared to the 2015–2034 period, while under the high carbon scenario yields during these same periods decreased. Lychuk et al. [63]) also used EPIC for the southeastern United States and found in the near-term corn yields increased, but from 2066 to 2070 yields decreased 5–13% because of the increased temperature stress. Huang et al. [64] combined field experiments with crop simulation models to evaluate the potential effect of different growing season length corn hybrids and found the longer growing season hybrid did not yield as high as the medium length hybrid. These results suggest that efforts be placed in evaluating the efficiency of plant growth relative to the changes in temperature and the accumulation of growing degree days.
The Global Agro-ecological zones model (GAEZ) categorizes areas suitable for crop production by climate, soil, terrain, management, and the specific growth limitations of crops, among others [65, 66]. One essential concept of GAEZ climate module is the temperature growing period (LGPt), where air temperature is used as a proxy to estimate days of the growing period with optimal, sub-optimal, and no suitable crop production conditions for a specific crop. The growing period L is defined as the number of days with average daily temperature > 5°C (i.e., LGPt5). The corn-specific LGPt’s are summarized in Table 1. For example, assume a temperate corn cultivar for grain production with a total growing period between 90 and 180 days. During this period average daily air temperature shall not decrease below 5°C, and the number of days with daily average air temperature between 10 and 15°C shall be below ⅟5 of the total growing period to reach optimum growing conditions. In addition to air temperature, the length of the growing period is further limited by the moisture regime, defined as actual ET ≤ 0.5 * reference ET.
Cultivars | Tropics lowland | Tropics highland | Subtropics-temperate | Subtropics-temperate |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop | Grain | Grain | Grain | Silage |
Growing period L (LGPt5) (days) | 90–120 | 120–300 | 90–180 | 105–180 |
Sub-optimum conditions | LGPt < 10 = 0 | LGPt > 25 = 0 | LGPt < 5 = 0 | LGPt > 30 = 0 |
LGPt10–15 < 0.167*L | LGPt < 5 = 0 | LGPt10–15 < 0.250*L | LGPt < 5 = 0 | |
LGPt10–15 < 0.500*L | LGPt10–15 < 0.667*L | |||
LGPt20–25 < 0.333*L | LGPt25–30 < 0.500*L | |||
Optimum conditions | LGPt < 15 = 0 | LGPt > 25 = 0 | LGPt < 5 = 0 | LGPt > 30 = 0 |
LGPt < 5 = 0 | LGPt10–15 < 0.200*L | LGPt < 5 = 0 | ||
LGPt10–15 < 0.500*L | LGPt10–15 < 0.500*L | |||
LGPt20–25 < 0.333*L | LGPt25–30 < 0.333*L |
Corn growing period L (LGPt5), optimum, and sub-optimum conditions of tropical lowland, tropical highland, and subtropical and temperature cultivars for grain production, as well as subtropical and temperate cultivars for silage production.
Adapted and simplified from [66]
The GAEZ model also estimates potential yield of a specific crop in a specific agro-ecological zone, and applies constraint factors, such as heat or water stress, to calculate actual yield and yield gap. For example, periods of potential water stress occur when actual ET is below the total water requirement of a crop, maximum ET, and the difference between both cannot be compensated by precipitation, plant available water, or irrigation. Maximum ET is calculated as reference ET multiplied by crop coefficient kc. Maximum ET is crop specific and changes during crop development by applying crop-development specific kc values (Figure 6). The derived water stress data is then used to calculate yield constraining factors. The GAEZ model also determines which production areas are threatened by climatic changes by applying different climatic scenarios. Using this approach, Teixeira et al. [67] estimated that 5 Mha of cropland suitable for corn production are at risk due to climate change induced heat stress, and that yield declines are expected especially in the Northern hemisphere between 40 and 60°N latitudes.
Crop development specific kc values for corn: kc1, kc2, kc3, and kc4 applies for the initial (d1), vegetative (d2), reproductive (d3), and maturation (d4) development period, respectively. Crop coefficient kc5 applies to the end of the growing period. Corn kc2 and kc4 data are linearly interpolated between kc1, kc3, and kc5. The four corn development stages make up 15, 30, 35, and 20% of the total growing period. Data, equations, and redrawn graph according to IIASA/FAO [66]. In this example, total growing period (day of planting until harvest) was 173 days, for two corn fields nearby Ames, IA, USA from 2006 to 2017.
One of the large challenges and opportunities for simulation models will be to incorporate the expected changes in insect and disease populations affecting corn production and link this with the production models. Integration of these two aspects into a single framework will allow for a more complete assessment of the corn production system being experienced by producers.
Climate impacts on corn production due to the changing temperature and precipitation regimes in the corn growing areas. The largest impact of these changes will be at the local scale where within season weather induced by the change in climate will become more noticeable. Increasing temperatures will increase the rate of phenological development during the vegetative and reproductive stages; however, the most negative effects will be exposure to high temperatures during the pollination and grain-filling stages. The largest impact on corn production will remain linked to the availability of soil water through precipitation and variation in precipitation during the grain-filling period will have the most detrimental impact on corn production. To overcome the effects of climate change there will be shifts in areas where corn is produced; however, these shifts may not be into areas with the capacity of the soil to support high production or have large variation in yield among years due to the variation in within season weather [33]. What will be critical is to increase our understanding of the G × E × M interactions as suggested by Hatfield and Walthall [31] in order to reduce the risk in production from a changing climate. What will be critical will be to use our current knowledge base (i.e. genetic resources (G) and management techniques (M)) to determine the viability of potential adaptation strategies to overcome climate changes (E). Combining experimental studies with crop simulation models will advance our understanding of the complex interactions occurring between the biological system and the physical environment and guide us toward viable adaptation practices with the potential to offset the negative impacts of climate change.
Tibial plateau fractures constitute 1% of all bone fractures [1]. These intra-articular fractures are rare with an incidence of 10.3/100,000 per year [1]. They occur in young adults as a result of high energy trauma (motor accident, fall) or as low energy fractures in elderly patients with poor bone quality. This type of injury has a variety of fracture patterns. Compared to women, men younger than 50 years of age show a higher incidence for these fractures. Incidence increased markedly in women older than 50 years and decreased in men older than 50 years. For both sexes, the highest frequency was between ages 40 and 60 years [1].
Seventy percent of fractures are isolated to the lateral plateau, with 10–30% bicondylar and less than 10% isolated medial condyle fractures [2]. However, after multifragmentary articular surface destruction, they are often associated with a poor postoperative outcome [1]. With bicondylar fracture involvement, arthritis rates up to 44% have been described. Moreover, the medial plateau fractures with >3 mm displacement and anteromedial or posterolateral column fractures in young patients are associated with higher risk of ACL avulsion fracture [3].
Displaced fractures are treated with open reduction and internal fixation. The goals of treatment include restoration of extremity axial alignment, joint stability, and congruity, allowing early motion and prevention of osteoarthritis. Short-term results of surgical fixation of tibial plateau fractures are good; however, longer-term outcomes have demonstrated a significantly higher risk of end-stage arthritis and necessity for total knee arthroplasty [4].
Nontraumatic management of soft tissue with careful surgical incision is crucial in order to avoid further damage of the tissues around the fractured area. The choice of surgical approach is mainly based on the morphology of the fracture and the condition of the soft tissues, the general condition of the patient and the accompanying injuries. Computed tomography has greatly assisted in assessing the pattern of tibial plateau fractures.
It is important to achieve good reduction of the fracture for better long-term results with the proper surgical incision. The ideal surgery approach helps the orthopedic surgeon to evaluate the fracture and place the orthopedic fixation implants successfully.
Lateral tibial plateau fractures are very common. Due to this reason, the anterolateral approach is the most frequently used surgical approach for tibial plateau fractures. This surgical incision can be used for simply split lateral tibial fractures with or without compression and also for comminuted bicondylar tibial fractures.
There are quite a few variations in skin incisions for the anterolateral approach. In this chapter, we will describe the two methods most commonly used. For the first one, the incision starts 2–3 cm proximal to the joint line and ends 3 cm inferior of the tibial tubercle, depending on the fracture pattern. This lazy “s” shaped incision begins directly lateral over the iliotibial band (ΙΤ), curves over Gerdy’s tubercle, and continues distally lateral to the tibial crest (Figure 1) [5]. The iliotibial band is detached from its insertion using sharp dissection with a knife and reflected anteriorly and posteriorly (Figure 2) [5]. The interval between the IT band and the joint capsule is developed with blunt dissection, and care is taken to keep the capsule intact. As far as deep dissection is concerned, the anterior tibialis muscle is retracted posteriorly revealing the anterolateral part of proximal tibia. Consequently, the joint line is identified, and submeniscal arthrotomy is made [6]. Two or three sutures are placed in the peripheral part of the meniscus, and retraction is applied to better visualize the articular surface. These sutures are also used to stabilize the lateral meniscus into the tibia or into the K-wire holes of the plate after fracture fixation.
Skin incision for anterolateral approach lazy “s”.
Iliotibial band curved over Gerdy’s tubercle.
According to the international literature, many orthopedic surgeons use the “straight” incision for the anterolateral approaches of tibial plateau fractures [7]. This is the second method most often used for the anterolateral approach. It consists of an incision that begins proximal to the lateral femoral epicondyle and continues distally behind Gerdy’s tubercle. Depending on the fracture pattern, the skin incision can be either more posterior or anterior. Regarding superficial dissection, extensive subcutaneous soft tissue must be mobilized in order to expose the fascia of the tibialis anterior. The deep dissection that follows is the same as we describe above in “s-shaped” incision, using iliotibial band and fibula head as landmarks.
Typically, the patient is positioned in either supine or lateral decubitus position. Moreover, the patient’s leg can be placed in leg-holter position for better fracture reduction due to permanent ligamentotaxis.
Structures in danger
Short saphenous vein
Superficial peroneal nerve
Anterior tibial artery and deep peroneal nerve
Posterolateral plateau fractures can neither be viewed nor adequately supported with these types of procedures. Posterolateral areas cannot be visualized via the classic anterolateral approach; consequently, other techniques are needed [8]. Several osteotomies have been described for improving exposure via a standard anterolateral approach. These osteotomies help to better visualize the posterolateral part of tibial plateau and manipulate the fragments; however, it is difficult to place the adequate posterior fixation. First, the femoral epicondyle osteotomy has been used for several orthopedic surgeries, such as total knee arthroplasty or meniscal transplantation [9]. In 2015, a case report was described in which the lateral femoral epicondyle was osteotomized for better access to the posterolateral tibial plateau fracture [10]. Second, the fibula resection osteotomy has been described in 2010 and includes resection of the medial and proximal fibula. Third, the digastric fibular osteotomy has been recently described in the literature improving both the visualization of the posterolateral articular surface and the ability to manipulate posterolateral fracture fragments.
The posterolateral approach is ideal for the lateral tibial plateau fractures which have posterior displacement. This approach was initially described by Lobenhoffer et al. [11] in 1997 and was then modified by many surgeons such as Frosch [12] and Solomon [8] either with or without fibular osteotomy.
As Lobenhoffer [11] first described, the head of the fibula and the tibial tuberosity can be used for the orientation of the skin incision. The longitudinal cut runs laterally exactly in the middle of the distance between the tibial tuberosity and the fibula tip and has approximately 10 cm length. The peroneal nerve is identified proximal to the head of the fibula and is looped. The origin of the extensor muscle is then cut away, and the incision is continued tongue-shaped over the fibular neck. If there is a subcapital fibula fracture, this fracture is carefully mobilized. If this is not the case, a fibula osteotomy is performed after careful circumvention of the fibular neck. The origin of the extensor muscles is pushed about 1 cm distally. The meniscotibial ligament is incised, and the lateral meniscus is pulled proximally using holding threads. The fixed ligament of the tibiofibular joint is released, so that the head of the fibula can be pulled upward and back. As a result, the lateral collateral ligament relaxes and enables the lateral joint gap to be opened wide. The posterolateral tibial plateau is brought into the field of the surgeon’s vision in flexion and varus as well as internal rotation. If necessary, the posterolateral tibia shaft is exposed. If extensive exposure is required, the iliotibial tract on Gerdy’s tubercle can also be detached in one layer with the meniscotibial ligament.
Structures in danger
Common peroneal nerve
Popliteal artery
Popliteal tendon
Lateral superior genicular artery
Lateral inferior genicular artery
Nowadays, a modification of the posterolateral approach is used that was described by Frosch et al. [12]. A straight incision, about 8–10 cm, is made from the medial border of the biceps femoris tendon proximally to the posteromedial part of fibula distally. Subsequently, through the skin and subcutaneous tissues, the interval between the biceps femoris tendon and the lateral gastrocnemius muscle is found. In this area, the common peroneal nerve (CPN) can be identified. In particular, it is located medial to the biceps tendon, which gives off the lateral sural cutaneous nerve (LSCN) at this level. The superficial dissection ends at the plane between lateral gastrocnemius muscle with LSCN in the lateral side and biceps femoris tendon with CPN medial. It is important to know that lateral gastrocnemius is the most medial structure in this approach. Distally, the soleus is encountered at its origin on the posterolateral tibia and fibula. Blunt elevation of the soleus will provide exposure of the proximal tibia. Moreover, the anterior tibial artery should be protected in this area, because it travels to the anterior compartment, and the common peroneal nerve. The popliteus tendon is carefully mobilized, protecting the inferolateral genicular artery from injury. Finally, submeniscus arthrotomy can be performed for better visualization of the articular surface. If more exposure is needed, transverse osteotomy of the fibular neck can be performed.
A modification of this approach was described by Solomon, with an incision along the anterior border of biceps femoris and an osteotomy of the fibula [8]. This provides the opportunity to retract the fibular head, the lateral collateral ligament, and the biceps femoris upward.
The patient may be placed in the prone, supine, or lateral decubitus position based on the patient’s other injuries and the surgeon’s preference.
The medial approach is used when an anteromedial fracture pattern of tibial plateau occurs [5]. It is difficult with this approach to obtain a good access of the articular surface without injuring the medial collateral ligament. The adductor tubercle and the medial border of the tibial crest are very important landmarks for this procedure [5].
The skin incision begins from the medial femoral epicondyle, about 2–3 cm over the joint line, and ends 2 cm posterior to the tibial crest, depending on fracture extension. The knee must be flexed about 15°–20° before proceeding with this skin incision (Figure 3). The superficial dissection includes the sartorius fascia, which is incised in a straight line similar to the skin. Next, the gracilis and semitendinosus tendons are identified, which arise posteriorly creating together with the sartorius the pes anserinus in the anteromedial tibia. In regard to the deep dissection, three layers exist in this area [5]. The first is the pes anserinus tendons posterior and proximal, the second is the superficial medial collateral ligament, and the third is the deep medial collateral ligament. The first and second layers can be cut off during this procedure and should be repaired after fracture fixation. The deep medial collateral can be incised by making an arthrotomy for articular surface visualization. In most cases, fracture reduction is carried out without an arthrotomy because it can be subsequently confirmed by fluoroscopic imaging.
Skin incision for medial approach.
Structures in danger
Infrapatellar branch of saphenous nerve
Saphenous vein
Medial inferior genicular artery
Popliteal artery
The patient’s position is either supine with the knee flexed (~50°–60°), the ipsilateral hip external rotated and abducted or in a “leg-holter” position.
The posteromedial approach is mainly used for shear or coronal fractures of the medial tibial plateau [13]. It is an ideal approach because it gives the opportunity to place an antiglide plate for better fixation of this type of fractures. Moreover, it can be done in either the supine or prone position. The prone position has the main advantage of being more comfortable for the surgeon. This is not recommended in dual approach strategies such as performed for concurrent lateral and medial plateau fractures, because of the need for the patient’s repositioning.
The asterisk is pes anserinus tendon. Above this structure is the line for the posteromedial access between pes anserinus and medial gastrocnemius.
In posteromedial approach in supine position [13], the surgeon should stand on the opposite side of the injured leg. The important landmarks for the incision are the medial femoral epicondyle proximal and the posterior tibial border distally. For this approach, it is important to obtain a 30° knee flexion and external rotation of the ipsilateral hip for better access of the posteromedial area. Regarding superficial dissection, the skin incision is about 8 cm, and the sartorius fascia is incised between the medial gastrocnemius posteriorly and the pes anserinus anteriorly (Figure 4). The saphenous nerve runs just anterior to the great saphenous vein. The medial collateral ligament lies deeper than the pes anserinus and therefore cannot be injured during this approach. The semimembranosus and the popliteus muscle insertion in the posterior tibia can be released off the bone using subperiosteal dissection for better access of the fracture area. Moreover, submeniscal arthrotomy can be done to visualize the joint directly, and sutures may be placed into the meniscus for retraction. Finally, fluoroscopic imaging is necessary to confirm the appropriate reduction of the articular surface [5].
On the other hand, the posteromedial approach in prone position was initially described in 2003 [14]. For this procedure, it is important to place a folded blanket under the ipsilateral femur allowing leg hyperextension for easier fracture reduction as mentioned by Moore. The skin incision is about 2 cm posterior and lateral than in the supine position. Its length is 8–10 cm running along the medial border of the medial gastrocnemius. The medial gastrocnemius is then retracted laterally developing the interval between the medial gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus. The pes tendons are placed intact anteriorly. The deep dissection continues with the subperiosteal elevation of the popliteus muscle off its insertion in the posterolateral area of tibia. Finally, modifications of this approach exist that provide additional lateral exposure such as the “S-type” procedure [15].
Structures in danger
Short saphenous vein
Peroneal artery and branches
Posterior tibial artery and nerve
The direct posterior approach is rarely used for tibial plateau fractures. The fracture pattern treated with this approach is a shear posterior bicondylar plateau’s fracture with the main fracture line in coronal plane. This method has an important disadvantage when compared to other surgical incisions, and there is a higher risk for iatrogenic injury of neurovascular structures in the popliteal fossa.
Structures in danger
Popliteal artery
Tibial nerve
Sural nerve and short saphenous vein
Posterior approach was first announced in 1945 as a midline incision through popliteal fossa by Abbott and Carpenter. Many variations have been published over the years of the classic technique as “S – shape” [5], “L – type” incision [16], and lastly the “FCR”’ approach to the knee [17].
An “S-shape” skin incision is made from proximal-lateral to distal-medial. In this incision, the important landmarks are the Biceps Femoris proximal, the popliteal fossa at the joint line, and the medial head of the gastrocnemius distally (Figure 5). We should be attentive in the superficial dissection because underneath the skin lies the lesser saphenous vein and the sural nerve, which rests immediately lateral to the vein (Figure 6). The deep facia is incised, and the sural nerve may be followed proximally helping the surgeon to identify the tibial nerve. The tibial nerve lies superficial and slightly lateral to the popliteal vein and artery. The popliteal fossa is recognized proximally between the medial and lateral heads of the gastrocnemius and distally between the medial border of biceps femoris and the lateral border of semimembranosus. Underneath the biceps femoris is the common peroneal nerve, which is separated from the sciatic nerve just proximal to the joint line. Depending on the fracture pattern, the deep dissection may be continued either posteromedial or posterolateral as we described above (Figure 7). The landmarks are Biceps femoris, the lateral and the medial gastrocnemius, and the semimembranosus tendon.
Skin incision for direct posterior approach.
The skin was mobilized and was identified the lesser saphenous vein and the sural nerve.
The posterior capsule of knee.
An “L-shape” incision starts superiorly and medially at the popliteus space parallel to Langer’s line. A vertical skin incision begins at the medial corner of the popliteal fossa and extends distally. Full-thickness fasciocutaneous flaps are raised protecting the sural nerve and lesser saphenous vein. The medial head of the gastrocnemius should be retracted laterally, protecting the neurovascular structures and exposing the knee capsule. The deep dissection should be done beneath the popliteus muscle in the proximal part from medial to lateral. Subsequently, the popliteus and the soleus origins are mobilized for better visualization of the posterior tibial plateau. In most cases, the entire posterior part of the tibia can be exposed without cutting the medial head of the gastrocnemius [16].
This procedure is performed with the patient in prone position and the knee slightly flexed using a bump under the ankle.
The percutaneous approach is applied to tibial fractures with either small split of the articular surface (Schatzker I classification) or a pure depression of the lateral tibial plateau (Schatzker III classification). The incisions are about 1–2 cm in length, and fluoroscopy or arthroscopy imaging is vital for this procedure.
Percutaneous reduction should be made with a bone tamp, with percutaneous application of bone-holding forceps, and with the joystick technique and ligamentotaxis [18].
Reduction of tibial plateau fractures with small split is achieved by inserting a clamp with its ends on the lateral and medial sides, approximately 1 or 2 cm below the articular surface. The 6.5–7.3 mm cannulated screws are then placed parallel to the articular line. According to the literature, the minimal number of screws required for this procedure is three [18]. Washers are a good choice for better compressing the fracture line.
The reduction of fractures with a slight depression of the articular surface is performed by the mini-open technique. This consists of a small vertical incision on the skin (2 cm) on the lateral or medial side of the tibial metaphysis (Figure 8). Through this incision, a bone window is opened into the cortex, and a bone tamp is pushed for the reduction of the articulated surface (Figure 9). The gap that is created can be filled either with bone autografts or allografts or with calcium phosphate bone cement to support the articular surface. It is recommended to overcorrect the fracture.
Skin incision for lateral plateau fracture with percutaneous approach.
Bone window in the cortex.
Radiological imaging or arthroscopic visualization of the articular surface of the tibia may be performed to evaluate adequate reduction. There are a lot of meta-analyses in the international literature, which indicate that arthroscopic fracture reduction rather than open arthrotomy achieves better functional outcomes in patients [19]. More than 10 mm of plateau depression presents an increased risk of lateral meniscus tear [20]. Therefore, slight depressed monocondylar fractures should be examined with arthroscopy after fracture reduction. It is crucial to acknowledge that knee arthroscopy can cause post-operative compartment syndrome due to fluid escaping into the tibia compartments.
Moreover, fixation plates can be used for fracture fixation, with less bone exposure. In 1989, Mast et al. [21] described the “indirect reduction” technique, thus minimizing the soft tissue damage. Subsequently, in 1997, the minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis was introduced (MIPO) by Wenda [22] and Krettek [23]. An abundance of studies followed in the international literature describes the MIPO technique and compares the advantages and disadvantages of this new method. This procedure includes small skin incisions, the application through these of the fixation plate, and furthermore percutaneous screw placing. Fracture reduction is achieved by distraction using either a distractor, a tension device, or a lamina spreader.
The main advantages of percutaneous approach and MIPO technique are risk reduction of wound complications due to minimal soft tissue damage during surgical dissection and biological fracture healing by preserving the vascularity of the bone [19]. Furthermore, this technique offers paramount benefits such as less blood loss, earlier functional rehabilitation, and shorter hospitalization [19].
Tibial plateau fractures are very common, and orthopedic surgeons should be familiar with this kind of injury. Classic surgical approaches are the lateral, the posterolateral, the medial, the posteromedial, and the direct posterior. Many variations of these techniques have been developed over the years. Nowadays, percutaneous approaches and MIPO techniques are gaining ground but only after specific indications. Before choosing the appropriate approach, it is necessary to evaluate the fracture pattern either with sufficient X-rays or CT scans.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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