Clusters and the list of keywords in the co-occurrence analysis of publications relevant to psycholinguistic studies on usage-based and pragmatic language processing. Clusters are visualized in the co-occurrence map in Figure 1.
\r\n\tSolar radiation is the radiant energy that originated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths. Solar radiation is the source of renewable energy and can be captured and converted into various forms of energy (e.g. electricity and heat) using different technologies.
\r\n\tA very vast amount of solar energy reaches the atmosphere and surface of the earth and solar energy has been used for heating purposes for a very long-time and after solar cells’ invention in 1954, solar cells have also been used widely for electricity generation. Solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity by the creation of voltage and electric current through the so-called photovoltaic effect.
\r\n\tPhotovoltaic (PV) solar energy has attracted significant attention in the recent decade as a reliable source for power generation due to various merits such as the free source of energy, abundant materials resources, environmentally friendly and noise-free, longtime service life, requiring low maintenance, technological advancements, market potential, and very importantly, low cost. The growth of using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy as a promising renewable energy technology, is being increased more and more worldwide. Therefore, much further research is needed for possible future developments in the field of solar photovoltaic energy.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide detailed information about solar radiation as the source of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy for a broad range of readership including undergraduate and postgraduate students, young or experienced researchers and engineers.
\r\n\tThis should be accomplished by addressing the various technical and practical aspects of solar radiation fundamentals, modeling and the measurement for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy applications.
\r\n\tThe majority of this book should describe the basic, modern, and contemporary knowledge and technology of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar irradiance for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
\r\n\tThe book covers the most recent developments, innovation and applications concerning the following topics:
\r\n\t• Fundamental of solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy
\r\n\t• Solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy potential
\r\n\t• Solar irradiance measurement: techniques, instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
\r\n\t• Solar radiation modeling for photovoltaic solar energy applications
\r\n\t• Solar monitoring and data quality assessment
\r\n\t• Solar resource assessment and photovoltaic system performance
\r\n\t• Solar energy and photovoltaic power forecasting
\r\n\tThese are accompanied with other useful research topics and material.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-859-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-858-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-860-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c3d1319d7286e81bfb15c1f4b20460a",bookSignature:"Dr. Mohammadreza Aghaei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg",keywords:"Solar Radiation Modeling, Solar Data Assessment, Solar Monitoring, Solar Radiation Forecasting, Solar Irradiance Measurements, Solar Instruments, Solar Spectral Distributions, Uncertainty Analysis, Solar Cell Technologies, Photovoltaics (PV), Solar Resource Assessment, Photovoltaics Power Forecasting",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 4th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, a postdoctoral scientist at Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), Chair of the WG2: reliability and durability of PV in EU COST PEARL PV.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"317230",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadreza",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"mohammadreza-aghaei",fullName:"Mohammadreza Aghaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317230/images/system/317230.jpg",biography:"Mohammadreza Aghaei is a senior researcher in the field of photovoltaic solar energy, Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), The Netherlands. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67721",title:"Institutionalizing Co-Management for a Sustainable Future of Protected Areas: The Case of Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86930",slug:"institutionalizing-co-management-for-a-sustainable-future-of-protected-areas-the-case-of-xuan-thuy-n",body:'Located within the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot (IBBH), Vietnam is ranked as the 16th most biodiversity-rich country in the world. It hosts 110 Key Biodiversity Areas [1] and 62 Important Bird Areas [2]. The country also claims two World Natural Heritage sites, eight Ramsar wetlands, eight United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) biosphere reserves, and two Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) heritage parks. Underlying this list of conservation governance arrangements is the country’s high level of species endemism. It is estimated that 10% of Vietnam’s plants are endemic to the country [3], while 12 known species of mammals, 7 species of birds, 48 species of reptiles, 33 species of amphibians, and 80 species of freshwater fish are endemic to Vietnam [4].
To conserve nature and biodiversity, Vietnam has established 164 protected areas, comprising of 30 national parks, 58 nature conservation areas, 10 species and habitat reserves, 46 land/seascape protected areas, and 20 scientific and experimental forest areas [5, 6]. The legal basis of the protected system is the restriction of resource exploitation which can adversely affect biodiversity, natural and cultural landscapes, and scientific resources (Decree 117/2010/ND-CP). Under the rigid set of policies and law enforcement, the protected area system has been evaluated as not supportive of local livelihoods [7, 8, 9, 10], although about 80% of the protected areas are inhabited [11]. This leads to the exclusion of the people out of the system since its establishment [12] and degrading relations between local people and the protected areas [13, 14].
To manage the system, the government plays the sole role. At the national level, the Vietnam Forestry Administration (VFA), within the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD), is primarily responsible for coordinating the national protected area system, including the direct administration of six inter-provincial national parks [15, 16]. Where other habitats and resources involved, protected area management can also involve other branches of the government. For instance, wetlands are divided between the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) and MARD [17]. MARD remains the main authority responsible for marine protected areas [18]. But if cultural or landscape protection is involved in a protected area, then the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism is also involved.
At the provincial level, the Provincial People’s Committees (PPCs) are responsible for the administration of all other protected areas [12]. Based on the size and importance of forests, PPCs might assign district governments to manage and develop activities such as tourism [19]. But the majority of Vietnam’s protected areas is managed by the provincial Departments of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARDs), in collaboration with the provincial Forest Protection Department of Culture, Sports, and Tourism (DOCST) which fall directly under the control of the PPCs [16, 20]. Protected areas that are small in size and not managed by the district-level Forest Protection Department report directly to PPCs. At the operational level, management boards of protected areas are staffed by officials assigned by provincial DARDs and responsible for management and protection [21]. Due to this fragmentation of institutional arrangement, it requires a lot of efforts placed on the coordination for achieving the effectiveness in protected area management [22]. As acknowledged by the Vietnamese government itself, the coordination between the authorities is plagued by overlapping legislation and a lack of clear division between institutional mandates for management by the various authorities involved [4, 5, 16].
Although the relative large number of protected areas has been established, there is a continuous decrease in quality of forests, biodiversity, and wildlife habitats because the government faces shortages in human and financial resources to carry out the management [12]. Beside deficiencies in institutions, it has been dealing with big challenges in nature conservation when there are millions of people still directly or indirectly depending on these protected areas for their livelihoods [23]. According to the Government (2014), about 20 million people in Vietnam have main or partial income from aquatic resources and 20–50% of income of 25 million people from non-timber forest products [24]. This is fueled with the issues of population growth putting more pressures on resource exploitation and socioeconomic development, threatening Vietnam’s natural resources. Moreover, overlapping land use rights is another central issue when 49% of protected areas remain dealing with conflicts over the ambiguities that arise over access to both land and forest resources. Relations between managers, rangers, and local communities still struggled over livelihood and conservation and between statutory and customary laws ([25], p. 11). Conflicts between local users and authorities responsible for nature conservation commonly happen when the former have been forcefully excluded from protected areas [26].
A combination of poor surveillance and weak active engagement with local communities depending on the resources causes problems for protected areas. McElwee [27] argued that extending the protected network areas is not feasible in the case of Vietnam because of the limited capacity of institutions. In recognition of the same issues, the Vietnamese government has attempted through a variety of programs to improve community collaboration in the protected area system and improve the protection of forest habitat and biodiversity [28]. Co-management approach has strong potentials to resolve the issues as suggested by international scholars when it is supposed to provide a meaningful participation through joint decision-making [29, 30, 31], a means of conflict resolution [32], and a reduction in resource management cost with more locally relevant management plans for poverty reduction through diversifying economic activities [33, 34]. And thus it is exactly going to contribute to the sustainable development of Vietnam by ways of integrating nature conservation and development.
Sustainability originated with the 1980 World Conservation Strategy of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It is considered as a strategic approach to the integration of conservation and development consistent with the objectives of ecosystem maintenance, the preservation of genetic diversity, and the sustainable utilization of resources. In general, “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Today, sustainable development remains a controversial topic with different philosophies ranging from resource conservation to socioeconomic equality through environmental justice [35]. Although it views a holistic approach to the relationship between man and the environment, various actors emphasize differing facets of sustainable development depending on their needs. Moreover, cultural and economic differences also lead to different perceptions of sustainable development [35].
Recently, sustainable development is understood and related to four key aspects, comprising of environment, development, society, and linkages, among poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation. The environment composing of nature with biophysical domains and human with socio-economic-political settings constitutes an interdependent global environment and world ecology. By considering the physical-biological basis, the development should not exceed the ability of the environment to natural resources and services. The development is not just as an economic activity but as a process of qualitative and equitable growth. In process of development, sustainability should be positioned in political-institutional arrangements to restructure public power and create social decision-making. For social development, it is important to focus on the well-being of communities, creating jobs, and considering income distribution. By considering society as an interdependent and a world community, global economic growth cannot succeed with an uneven distribution of wealth. And it is worth remembering that environmental problems do not know territorial or economic barriers, national or international, and thus institutional arrangements of development will not just affect the quality of life of some nations. In the process of development, cultural values and beliefs also need to be recognized and considered time by time to guide and justify anthropic actions. Altogether these four key aspects direct the development toward sustainability.
Nature conservation is closely linked to sustainable development, particularly in the developing countries. It is evident that nature conservation is not possible without sustainable development which is aiming at both societal welfare and environmental protection [36, 37, 38]. In Vietnam as elsewhere of the developing world, protected areas do not receive the support of the people because they do not have a positive impact on people’s livelihoods and do not support the development of cultural, social, political, natural, and human resources. People do not appreciate the management processes around the reserves [14]. And nature conservation only improves when relations between protected areas and communities are improved through the improvements of management processes and conservation and socioeconomic outcomes [38]. Therefore, in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, nature conservation is highly embedded across most of the Sustainable Development Goals [39]. Many protected areas around the world have already combined approaches to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in which they facilitate sustainable economic activities in both aspects of environmental ecology and means of livelihood for communities [36, 40].
Additionally, convention on biological diversity (CBD) recognizes communities to play a huge role in biodiversity conservation and preserve traditional cultural values. Commitment to recognize and institutionalize community protected areas has been promoted globally and included in the regulation of the convention on indigenous peoples, local knowledge, and traditional resource use according to the customary law. In the context of CBD implementation, the contents of community protected areas are identified in Aichi Objective 11 on ensuring specific numbers of the area worldwide and Objective 18 with respect to knowledge, indigenous traditional initiatives, and practices in conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In order to implement the international agreements and treaties, many countries have promoted the institutionalization of protected areas managed and registered by communities in the global data system. The leading countries in this work include India, Nepal, China, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Benin, Australia, Canada, Bolivia, and Madagascar, of which many neighbor Vietnam [41]. Therefore, this can be seen as opportunities for co-management to engage indigenous communities in arrangements, contributing to the cultural diversity and the emergence of sustainable societies across the world and so Vietnam alike.
Co-management has been adopted internationally in response to the perceived failure of centralized management in natural resources [12, 33, 42, 43, 44, 45]. It is a process of solving-problem management in which actors at different levels and scales interact to adjust their positions, roles, and activities to harmonize with emerging contexts and circumstances surrounding a natural resource [29]. In this process, power is a result, leading to modifications on the rule of the game and creating win-win solutions [46]. Today, it is defined as an arrangement where responsibility and right for resource management are shared between the government and user groups [44, 47], acknowledging the important role of the people who are living around the resources and impacting on resource uses and management [46]. Therefore, co-management arrangement often includes the devolution of responsibilities associated with day-to-day management of natural resources and in some cases a transfer of power and authority from national government agencies to communities and subnational governments [29, 48, 49]. In terms of participation, co-management arrangement engages local community groups or resource users in decision-making, implementation, and enforcement [50, 51, 52]. In order to ensure the participation, co-management focuses on developing effective local institutions and an enabling environment for sustainable management [37]. According to Jentoft, co-management may be the best available solution to the legitimacy problem because the center to the implementation of co-management is the design of new structure legitimized to bring together stakeholders for decision-making and implementation [53]. This design can be built up on existing arrangements at site levels or supported by donor funding and directed by central government in a top-down manner [54].
Based on the exercise of co-management at locals or on-site levels, adaptive governance evolved. It is a novel type of environmental governance that has arisen in systems characterized by large degrees of dynamism, complexity, and uncertainty [55, 56]. It combines learning, knowledge generation, and problem-solving of the adaptive management with the stakeholder power-sharing and conflict resolution of co-management [55, 57]. Folke et al. ([55], p. 8) broadly define adaptive co-management as “a process by which institutional arrangements and ecological knowledge are tested and revised in a dynamic, ongoing, self-organized process of trial-and-error,” which is known to evolve through stages [58]. In context of conservation conflicts, adaptive co-management is evidenced supporting conflict solving by providing collaborative decision-making processes which involve all stakeholders equitably, trial innovative ideas, and include evaluation to provide learning [56, 59]. It also promotes local sustainability through capacity development and trust building, particularly as if protected area authorities become bridging organizations [57].
To combine nature conservation and sustainable development, many countries have shifted the modes of protected area management from centralized and non-participatory ones to co-management in order to benefit from co-management arrangement and exercise adaptive governance. In order to do so, it requires at least three factors, including the presence of institutional entrepreneurs, a dense central core of network actors, and the prevalence of horizontal ties and vertical linkages held by the community-based organizations responsible for the management of the resource [52]. Lawmakers can set up legislation for co-management in which it can shape decentralized management by recognizing and devolving responsibility to community-based management systems [60, 61]. And this is a necessary ingredient in co-management arrangement [53]. And in the case of Vietnam, although institutionalizing co-management in nature conservation is a must to achieve both ecological protection and sustainable development, it takes time to promote step by step to become legitimized.
To overcome deficiencies in the protected area management, Vietnam has piloted co-management in many protected areas since 2001 through a number of foreign-funded projects [62, 63]. To some extent, the pilots have not led to institutional reforms in protected area management arrangement, but the concept of co-management step-by-step has been included in official documents such as national strategy protected area management in 2003 because of its high potentials [20, 63]. However, in case of Xuan Thuy National Park, co-management has been applied and formed institutions for nature conservation and sustainable development. Based on in-depth interviews with the park management board and literature reviews, the case will be narrative in order to prevail the process of co-management installation in Xuan Thuy National Park and how it supports to overcome shortcomings emerged from the park’s centralized management.
Xuan Thuy National Park was established in January 2003 and administered by the Nam Dinh DARD [64]. In 1988, 15 years prior to its establishment, the park became the first Ramsar site of Vietnam, and in October 2004 it was also acknowledged as the core zone of the Red River Delta Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO [65]. Before 2006, the institutions of Vietnam on natural conservation management strictly prohibited the use of natural resources in the core zone of protected areas. But at Xuan Thuy national park, in order to solve management problems to meet the requirements of local livelihood, the park has conducted interventions to implement policies to wisely use aquatic resources with the principle “Only allowing to exploit common aquatic species which are able to recover well, and absolutely prohibiting activities that lead to mangrove deforestation, depletion of natural resources, landscape changes and environmental pollution” .
The legal grounds for the interventions were not based on national regulations at that time but on Ramsar convention recommendations, advising wise and sustainable uses of wetland resources to meet local community needs for short-term benefits and for latterly long-term national and international benefits. On March 7, 2006, MARD issued an official document 511/BNN-KL expressing its agreement on permitting local community to exploit natural resource of mollusks (Meretrix lusoria and Meretrix lyrata) in Core Zone of Xuan Thuy National Park in conditions that DARD, who directly administrates the management board of Xuan Thuy National Park, was required to construct a feasible proposal on the exploitation management for MARD assessment before being ratified by Nam Dinh PPC. The feasible proposal had been finally completed after being discussed and consulted with state and local specialists. It was ratified by Nam Dinh PPC in the decree of 1951/QD-UBND dated August 24, 2006. In the proposal, “applying co-management to sustainably use aquaculture resources in the area would harmonize integrated targets of nature conservation and development, simultaneously implementing Ramsar convention recommendations and International Biosphere Reserve criterions, and creating healthy environments for human and nature harmoniously living together” [64]. The effective implementation of the intervention was hoped to bring about sustainable development of local socio-economy because it would create incomes for local people, ensuring security and targets of natural resource protection. Local people became the main forces who would proactively and committedly carry out responsibilities toward nature conservation and sustainable development to maintain mutual benefits.
In this co-management arrangement, Giao Thuy DPC assigns agencies under its administration to collaborate with Xuan Thuy National Park to decide plans and methods for activities toward the mollusk exploitation. Nam Dinh PPC also delegates its authority to Giao Thuy DPC to decree the establishment of a management board of the aquaculture resource exploitation in Red River delta within Xuan Thuy National Park. The management board of the mollusk exploitation has been established and comprised of representatives from Giao Thuy DPC; Xuan Thuy National Park; the district divisions of fishery, natural resources and environment, finance planning, and taxes; Commune People’s Committees of Giao An and Giao Thien; security forces of military and police, Giao Thuy District Station of Fishery Inspection; and Forest Protection Bureau of Xuan Thuy National Park. They are in charge of responsibilities relating to (1) planning the exploitation; (2) coordinating activities toward the exploitation; (3) collaborating with fishery branch to construct and manage the area sustainably; (4) checking, monitoring, and collaborating with functional agencies to ensure public security in the location; (5) implementing water surface allocations to households and collecting fees from the allocations and other contributions from households; (6) directing and supporting self-organization groups to implement their responsibilities in the exploitation area; (7) organizing dissemination and education activities toward Xuan Thuy National Park protection to communities; (8) enhancing scientific research and advanced technology exchanges to apply into sustainable exploitation; and (9) periodically reporting and monthly meeting to discuss plans, measurements, and responsibilities of self-organization groups.
Self-organization groups mentioned above are local people involved in the mollusk exploitation and selected by local people to represent them in the management board. The head of a group is a prestige person in a community, and the deputy head of a group is a commune security officer. Responsibilities of self-organization groups are also set up, including (1) protecting natural resource, environment, and security in the area; (2) checking activities in the area and its adjacent areas; (3) following the supervisions of the management board of the mollusk exploitation; (4) collaborating with the national park, military, police, and CPCs to implement their responsibilities; (5) mediating conflicts; (6) discovering and holding violations of regulations on nature resource management; (7) reporting violations to authorities to be measured; (8) weekly meeting to check activities and suggest coming activities; (9) weekly reporting to the management board; and (10) collecting information and reflecting aspirations of community to the management board or authorities to have suitable responses (Figure 1).
Co-management arrangement in mollusk resource exploitation of Xuan Thuy National Park, Vietnam.
As a result, the park has received consensus agreement and supports of the local community. Resources targeted at nature conservation such as mangroves, birds, and wildlife together with ensuring the balance of aquatic resources and environmental protection in the area have been maintained. The local community has a stable income from the exploitation of aquatic resources. The average daily income from this activity is from VND 50 to 100 million. The income from extensive mollusk and shrimp farming models is about VND 200 billion/year. Sharing the above legitimate and reasonable benefits has enticed the local community to participate in nature conservation management of the park through many useful practical activities of the community, including the key mass organization sponsored by the park such as bird conservation club, mollusk farming association, community tourism management board, beekeeping club, and mushroom cooperatives [66]. This pilot project of co-management and the wise use of natural resources at Xuan Thuy National Park have been implemented from 2006 up to now.
The above scheme is a new breakthrough in the policy of protected area management in Vietnam. The relationships of related parties and benefit sharing are clearly institutionalized to secure and protect natural resources. After 4 years of pilot implementation, the local government has collected more than VND 2 billion from leasing land to exploiting natural mollusk seeds. Local communities also get tens of billions of revenue from legal exploitation of the resources while maintaining the quality of the environment . From that, the sustainable exploitation of natural seasonal mollusks resolved conflicts of illegal exploitation. Up to now, with clear and effective management institutions, there is an effective participation of stakeholders. The budget is tied to the responsibilities of local authorities and spent on supporting public welfare and nature conservation. This is a new direction to ensure sustainable financial mechanism for protected area management in Vietnam. It also supports to overcome the shortages in human resource when local people are really engaged in resource use and management. Moreover, after the intervention of Xuan Thuy National Park, there has been a compatible policy shift at national level. The Decision No. 186/2006/QD-TTg dated August 14, 2006, of the prime minister on the promulgation of forest management regulations has recognized the wise use of natural resources in protected areas. This is an innovative approach in which some common species are allowed for harvesting and supporting community livelihood development and nature conservation of protected areas [66].
According to KimDung et al. [67], Vietnamese implementation of co-management in protected areas is best defined as “administrative,” reflecting the stronger role of the central state over communities and others. The authors found that the existing Vietnam policy and legislation provides a foundation for the development of co-management through diversifying the type and number of actors involved in protected area management, matching with the expectations of co-management arrangement. However, the “administrative co-management” arrangement remains centralized and not yet based on the mobilization of actors’ self-interests and economic motivation. The state maintains rights or ownership over protected areas and remains unclear about the notion of “community” in the policy, leading to constraining the practice of customary laws and community-based protected area management. Moreover, there is also a lack of legal and policy guidance on benefit sharing and reinvestment into protected area conservation, limiting the incorporation of economic actors in nature protected areas [67, 68].
As argued by KimDung et al., any amendments to co-management in Vietnam would remain in the hands of lawmakers, who maintain control over law enforcement and capacity building, mobilizing outside support, and creating mechanisms for information transparency [68]. The unique practice of Vietnamese co-management arrangement has been able to implement in Xuan Thuy National Park because it gained strong political supports from global to national and local levels (MARD, PPC, DPC, and CPCs surrounding the park), consequently harmonizing conflicts between the dynamics of local livelihoods, market demands, and nature conservation. In this model, roles of state forest rangers become blurred leading to a question whether they are the force in need as if the engagement of local people is provided. If policy modifications on protected area management are not taking place and innovated, conflicts on natural resources will increase, and the government might have lost their roles to control protected area resource in the context of economic dynamics in which demands on natural resource are highly increased, while the resource becomes short and rare. Recently, the 2017 Forest Law has marked an important milestone in recognizing communities as one of the seven types of forest owners (Article 8). The sacred forest of community is classified as a landscape protection forest under the protected forest system. The Law on Fisheries 2017 also recognizes the co-management model between state forest owners and related communities. In the coming time, the recognition of community conservation areas is advocated by an NGO, People and Nature Reconciliation (PanNature), to be considered and included in the revised Biodiversity Law, linked to the content of access to genetic resources, benefit sharing, and indigenous knowledge development in biodiversity conservation [41].
Additionally, both government agencies and NGOs can be bridging organizations who attempt to install co-management into protected areas. In the case of Xuan Thuy National Park, the strong vertical support by the MARD, in the context of national legislation related to Ramsar, has allowed the management board to largely bypass the control of the PPC administration to not only solve conflicts over resource exploitation but also provide learning and introduce co-management of protected area in Vietnam. To some extent, it is regarded as an institutional entrepreneur for the very first co-management of natural resources and sustainable livelihood development in protected areas of Vietnam. It recognizes the mutual benefit and interdependencies between local people, the park management board, and commune governments, providing the connection between the actors at different levels and the cooperation in practical real-life arrangement to solve resource problems [69, 70, 71].
Moreover, in order to support the development of co-management, NGOs have developed capacities as bridging organizations between protected areas, communities, and government by coordinating collaboration across levels, sectors, and knowledge systems. People and Nature Reconciliation, the Centre for Marine Life Conservation and Community Development (MCD), Vietnam National Park and Protected Area Association (VNPPA), and Fauna and Flora International (FFI), among the NGOs working in Vietnam nature conservation and development, have attempted to foster information exchange and create a common vision of co-management across multiple levels [72]. Those are positive initiatives for co-management developed and brought benefits to communities of protected areas in Vietnam. Finally, to achieve both sustainable development and nature conservation, Vietnam keeps the process of institutionalizing co-management. Next steps should be focused on long-term agreements to ensure the rights to access and share benefits and practices of sacred forest protected areas. Opportunities for economizing the management of protected area and creating sustainable development mechanisms need to be prioritized through the scheme of co-management.
Co-management provides opportunities for the integration of nature conservation and sustainable development. Therefore, it is necessary to institutionalize this mechanism in the context of developing countries like Vietnam. In order to do so, the Vietnamese co-management arrangement needs more flexibility and adaptability to adjust actors’ positions and roles, promoting more policy modifications in protected area management to harmonize practices in and around the areas. One of the most important recommendations is legitimizing the practices of using natural resources in a certain extent at protected areas. By doing so, the role of local people is adjusted to become resource users and responsible for the sustainable use of the resources while keeping their eyes on the other resources for nature conservation in the area of protected areas. The unique practice of this co-management arrangement in Xuan Thuy national park harmonizes conflicts between the dynamics of local livelihoods, market demands, and nature conservation. Although there are some initiatives in this long-run process, potentials reveal that it is worth to pursue for a better sustainable future in which communities truly benefit from protected areas. To do so, the government as lawmaker should lead to facilitate the process in line with the support from communities and civil society such as a force of NGOs.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interests in this work.
Language is communicated with a purpose. As active users of language, we are intrigued in how lexical choices can be used to represent our minds and bodies; how our mother tongue can shape our learning processes; and how linguistic expressions benefit our social interactions with others. These questions naturally fall inside the issue of the processing and the acquisition of language in the real-world setting (or the usage-based and pragmatic processing and learning). On one hand, in the history of psycholinguistics, only a very small group of studies has these relevant focuses. The empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks for language use in real-world scenarios are scarce. Most asked questions regarding how linguistic expressions are processed [1, 2]. Few addressed issues regarding who uses these expressions, and under what context and for what purpose are these expressions chosen. On the other hand, a growing need is foreseen in the field of second-language acquisition studies to combine the theories of L2 acquisition and psycholinguistic paradigm that is developed or adapted to examine the teaching and learning of a second language in the real-world scenarios and to give a higher emphasis to the study of acquisition of pragmatic knowledge in another language. This chapter takes an initiative to provide a quantitative bibliometric analysis on the latest trend in the theme of functional, usage-based, and pragmatic language processing and learning in psycholinguistics and second-language acquisition studies. These trends are partly formed by the successful validation of experimental paradigms and the rapid development of interdisciplinary methods to track the neurocognitive underpinnings related to one’s language behavior and will contribute to a greater understanding of how the language is understood, produced, and picked up in the socio-communicative settings.
\nAccording to the principle of the bibliometric analysis, a co-occurrence analysis based on keywords shows the frequency of the keywords that emerge in one article at the same time and how strong the emergences are [3]. The core themes of a research field can be identified by analyzing the links between keywords and by pointing out the most frequently occurred keywords in the field. We aim to use the co-occurrence analysis based on keywords to understand the evolution of main research themes related to the functional and the usage-based language processing and learning in the field of psycholinguistics and second-language acquisition [4]. To explore the relationship between research contexts and knowledge structure underlying the publication, the bibliographic coupling analysis has been employed between related studies that share at least one bibliographic coupling of cited reference. The more citations two publications share, a stronger bibliographic coupling strength between two publications is indicated, suggesting a similarity between the topics and knowledge. The novelty of the bibliometric coupling is that it finds the related research works, groups them into clusters, and builds a bibliometric network based on strength they connect with each other. Here this method demonstrates the core document (strongly and frequently coupled documents) and the core clusters representing the connections to this core document, among the publications relevant to the pragmatic and usage-based language processing and learning.
\nThe first purpose of this chapter is to address the bibliometric trend of psycholinguistic studies on pragmatic and usage-based language processing. Research articles were selected from the Web of Science Core Collection database with the search function TS = ((‘psycholinguistics’ AND ‘usage’) OR (‘psycholinguistics’ AND ‘function’) OR (‘psycholinguistics’ AND ‘pragmatics’)). The search function resulted in 95 key articles that cover publication years from 2010 to 2019 (by September 14, 2020). The second purpose is to make a bibliometric analysis on the second-language (L2) language acquisition studies that focused on usage-based and pragmatic language acquisition. Searching within the same database with the search function TS = ((‘second-language acquisition’ AND ‘usage’) OR (‘second-language acquisition’ AND ‘function’) OR (‘second-language acquisition’ AND ‘pragmatics’) OR (‘L2 acquisition’ AND ‘usage’) OR (‘L2 acquisition’ AND ‘function’) OR (‘L2 acquisition’ AND ‘pragmatics’)) revealed 601 key articles that cover publications within the 10 years (by January 11, 2020).
\nAll articles were collected in the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), and Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A & HCI) databases. All analyses were performed in BibExcel (Version 2016-02-20 [5]), and network results were visualized in VOSviewer (Version 1.6.13).
\nThe number of publications regarding the topics that bridge psycholinguistics and pragmatics/function/usage has generally grown between 2014 and 2018. The articles were published in altogether 73 journals indexed in the Web of Science Core. The top five journals that have mostly accepted articles with the topic of pragmatics, and the functional and the usage-based language processing in the field of psycholinguistics during the 10 years are: Frontiers in Psychology (Psychology), Journal of Pragmatics (Linguistics), Language (Linguistics), Cognition (Psychology/Linguistics), Slovo a Slovesnost (Linguistics) following a decreasing order. Another eight journals received at least two publications are Psychological Science (Psychology), PLoS One (Comprehensive), Language Sciences (Linguistics), Language Leaning (Linguistics), Journal of English for Academic Purposes (Linguistics), Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics (Linguistics), Revista Signos (Linguistics), and Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (Linguistics). These journals are mainly psychology or linguistics-specialized, or more comprehensive journals, highlighting the cross-disciplinary efforts in publishing articles related to the pragmatic and usage-based language processing. The topics that connect second-language acquisition and pragmatics/function/usage have grown since 2011. These articles were published in 198 different journals with a wide coverage of various focuses. The top five journals that accepted most articles (at least 20) are Second Language Research, Journal of Pragmatics, Frontiers in Psychology, Modern Language Journal, and Language Learning following a descending order. Journals that published at least 10 articles with this topic are System, Applied Psycholinguistics, Lingua, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, International Journal of Bilingualism, Foreign Language Annals, Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, and International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Journals that published between five and nine articles include Applied Linguistics, Language Teaching Research, PLoS One, Hispania: A Journal Devoted to the Teaching of Spanish and Portuguese, Intercultural Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics Review, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Recall, Cognition, Journal of Neurolinguistics, Language Teaching, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Language Sciences, Canadian Modern Language Review: Revue Canadienne des Langues Vivantes, Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, Journal of Phonetics, Brain and Language, Topics in Cognitive Science, and Language Acquisition. These journals are reputable sources that receive empirical studies or systematic reviews and specialize in psychology, second-language acquisition, bilingualism, language teaching and education, pragmatics, and even cognitive science/cognitive neuroscience, suggesting that the second-language acquisition studies on usage-based and pragmatic language processing/learning receive a strong interdisciplinary attention and impact.
\nAltogether 232 authors published articles relevant to the topic of psycholinguistics and the pragmatic/usage-based language processing. The top eight researchers authored at least two of the publications during the last 10 years. They are Professors Valerie L. Shalin (Psychology), Stefan Th. Gries (Linguistics), Matthew Haigh (Psychology), Edward Gibson (Brain and Cognitive Sciences), Lewis Bott (Psychology), Bruce Derwing (Linguistics), John M. Tomlinson, Jr. (Psychology), and Nick Ellis (Psychology). The authors were affiliated in institutions of 22 countries. The countries that mostly published these articles (at least five) as the first author were the United States (33), followed by Spain (9), England (8), Canada (7), France (6), Germany (6), and Italy (5), suggesting that North-American English, Spanish, French, German, and Italian were the mostly interested languages in these publications. Topics relevant to the second-language acquisition and pragmatic/usage-based language learning were contributed by 1418 unique authors. The top contributors who authored at least four publications during the past 10 years are Professors Bardovi-Harlig Kathleen (Linguistics), Saito Kazuya (Linguistics), Roumyana Slabakova (Linguistics), Ellis Nick (Psychology), Emanuel Bylund (Psychology & Linguistics), Antonella Sorace (Linguistics), Jason Rothman (Psychology), Silvina Montrul (Linguistics), and Ping Li (Psychology & Linguistics). Authors from 48 countries contributed to the publication. The most productive countries (at least 10 articles) as the first author were the United States (211), England (45), China (34), Germany (33), Canada (33), Netherlands (20), Australia (19), France (19), Italy (15), Sweden (13), Belgium (12), Japan (12), and Korea (10), suggesting that the topics relevant to the pragmatic and usage-based language learning were interested by research groups with expertise in linguistics and/or psychology, and the languages of interest were more various. Besides the Indo-European languages such as English, German, French, and Italian, the East-Asian languages, in particular, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, are the popular languages of research.
\nThe keywords that appeared at least five times among target publications in the topic of psycholinguistics and pragmatic and usage-based language processing highlighted the following related themes [Language (17), Comprehension (11), Psycholinguistics (10), Speech (8), Speakers (7), Acquisition (6), Information (5), Context (5), and Perception (5)] and methodology [Eye-movements (5) and Children (5)]. In the topic of usage-based and pragmatic language learning, the keywords that occurred at least 10 times among target publications represented the themes highlighting Second Language Acquisition (76) and L2 Acquisition (15), Bilingualism (56), Language Acquisition (23), Spanish (20), Pragmatics (17), Study Abroad (15), Language, (14), Working Memory (14), Second Language (13), English (13), Vocabulary (13), Second Language Learning (12), German (10), Interlanguage Pragmatics (10), and fMRI (10). The comparison of the keywords between these two topics clearly indicates a distinct trend of research interest and methodology of use in the field psycholinguistics and the field of second-language acquisition studies. These trends can be summarized as follows: The former group of studies is interested in comprehension, speaking, and developmental aspects of language and predominantly relying on the online behavioral measurements. The latter group relies more on the neuroscientific methods and focuses on the learning aspects of language and bilingualism.
\nThe co-occurrence analysis conducted on psycholinguistic studies on pragmatic and usage-based language processing revealed nine clusters of 73 keywords (with minimum cluster size set as 5) in total that mutually appear in a pair of target articles over all records based on the search function (see Figure 1). The clusters were ranked in a descending order based on their size and strength of connections. These clusters reflect what readers may rely on to search for the interested articles in the field of psycholinguistic research toward the functional, usage-based and pragmatic language processing (see Table 1 for the list of key words per cluster). The first cluster reflects the trend in examining the processing of patterns and formulaic language usages in L1 and L2 speakers. The second cluster reflects the trend in investigating the usage and representation of formulaic expressions in discourse and conversation and discusses the relevant capacity and cognitive process such as perspective-taking processes. The third cluster reflects the focus on syntactic processing and Broca’s area, in sentence comprehension, the ambiguity and interference during language production and their relation with fluid intelligence, interference, and perspective taking. The fourth cluster reflects the trend of using neurocognitive indices (brain potentials and eye-movements) and modeling approach in lexical decision and recognition paradigms. The fifth cluster suggests the trend of focusing on intonation and speech, highlighting indirect languages such as sarcasm and verbal irony and the contextual impact during comprehension. The sixth cluster shows the trends in speech production and the dynamics of activation of representations during the process. The seventh cluster highlights the trend of investigating the cognitive processes (such as categorization, access to the knowledge, perception, and comprehension) in autistic individuals. The eight cluster shows an independent trend of looking at idiom comprehension, the deficits of it, and its relation with working memory. The last cluster reflects some trend focusing on developmental psycholinguistic research.
\nCo-occurrence map of keywords (n = 73) over publications relevant to psycholinguistic studies on usage-based and pragmatic language processing. Nodes reflect keywords, and the size of the nodes represents their frequencies. Ties reflect the relationships between keywords, and the thicknesses represent the strengths of the relationships. Clusters of keywords are color coded and are shown in details in Table 1.
Cluster number | \nKeywords | \nCluster number | \nKeywords | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \n2nd-language speakers | \n4 | \nModel | \n
1 | \nLexical bundles | \n4 | \nEye-movements | \n
1 | \nList | \n4 | \nInformation | \n
1 | \nPatterns | \n5 | \nIntonation | \n
1 | \nSequences | \n5 | \nSarcasm | \n
1 | \nFormulaic language | \n5 | \nSpeaker | \n
1 | \nAttention | \n5 | \nVerbal irony | \n
1 | \nAcquisition | \n5 | \nLanguage comprehension | \n
1 | \nCorpus linguistics | \n5 | \nWord recognition | \n
1 | \nSpeakers | \n5 | \nContext | \n
1 | \nPsycholinguistics | \n5 | \nSpeech | \n
2 | \nFormulaic sequences | \n6 | \nActivation | \n
2 | \nCapacity | \n6 | \nDynamics | \n
2 | \nDiscourse | \n6 | \nRepresentations | \n
2 | \nGrammar | \n6 | \nSensitivity | \n
2 | \nPerspective | \n6 | \nSpeech production | \n
2 | \nUsage | \n6 | \nWord | \n
2 | \nConversation | \n6 | \nPerformance | \n
2 | \nEnglish | \n7 | \nAutism | \n
2 | \nRepresentation | \n7 | \nCategorization | \n
2 | \nLanguage | \n7 | \nEvolution | \n
3 | \nAttraction | \n7 | \nKnowledge | \n
3 | \nCognitive control | \n7 | \nModels | \n
3 | \nFluid intelligence | \n7 | \nPerception | \n
3 | \nInterference | \n7 | \nComprehension | \n
3 | \nLanguage production | \n8 | \nDeficits | \n
3 | \nPerspective-taking | \n8 | \nErrors | \n
3 | \nWorking-memory capacity | \n8 | \nIdiom comprehension | \n
3 | \nBrocas area | \n8 | \nMind | \n
3 | \nSyntax | \n8 | \nWorking-memory | \n
3 | \nSentence comprehension | \n8 | \nIndividual-differences | \n
4 | \nBrain potentials | \n9 | \nAdults | \n
4 | \nGender | \n9 | \nTranslation | \n
4 | \nLexical decision | \n9 | \nTime-course | \n
4 | \nRecognition | \n9 | \nMemory | \n
4 | \nWords | \n9 | \nChildren | \n
4 | \nFrequency | \n\n | \n |
Clusters and the list of keywords in the co-occurrence analysis of publications relevant to psycholinguistic studies on usage-based and pragmatic language processing. Clusters are visualized in the co-occurrence map in Figure 1.
The co-occurrence analysis conducted on second-language acquisition studies on the pragmatic and usage-based language learning revealed 14 clusters of 296 keywords in total (with minimum cluster size set to 10) that mutually appear in at least a pair of target articles over a consecutive number of records (see Figure 2 and Table 2). The first cluster reveals a strong trend represented by a group of empirical studies on speech and phonological learning with cognitive neuroscience approaches. These approaches included but were not limited to the functional neuroimaging, the eye-tracking, and the recording of other online linguistic behaviors. In this trend, multiple cognitive processes were tapped, and individuals with particular sensory deprivation (e.g., deaf), cognitive impairments (e.g., specific language impairment), or neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., dyslexia) were included as target populations of testings. The second cluster shows a trend of examining the processing different linguistic aspects (such as morphosyntactic, lexical, gestural, pragmatic, referential, and so on). Under the usage-based framework in both adult and second-language acquisition. The third cluster uniquely represents the trend of investigating the second-language acquisition of various functional and discourse markers, for instance, the usage of definiteness and specificity, conversational and scalar implicature, functional words, and mood. The fourth cluster reveals a trend of examining the association of individual’s cognitive control or executive function abilities (including switching, inhibition, attentional monitoring, and working memory) and other related processes with second-language acquisition. The fifth cluster shows a trend of analyzing the role of instructional and learning strategies in second-language acquisition of pragmatic functions in educational and cultural settings. The sixth cluster reveals a latest trend of studying bilingual language processing and reading with functional and structural neuroimaging techniques, focusing on cross-linguistic comparisons that involve Mandarin. The seventh cluster emphasizes the studies on the interface of syntax and pragmatics and the interface of syntax and discourse, with a target language Spanish and heritage languages. The eighth cluster represents a trend of determining the structure of pragmatic competence and characterizing the role of pragmatic capacities in social interaction and adaptation. The ninth cluster represents the studies on the pragmatic acquisition (e.g., speech act) with English as a second language as a testing case. The 10th cluster focuses on the dynamic interplay between the second language and the first language, emphasizing how the acquisition of a second language may interfere or cause the loss of the capacity of using the first language. The 11th cluster mainly deals with the visual language acquisition, including the sign language and the spatial language. The learning of other syntax-related functions is discussed under the usage-based language acquisition framework in the rest of the clusters (e.g., the topics of null subject, of formulaic sequences, and of word order).
\nCo-occurrence map of keywords (n = 298) over publications relevant to second-language acquisition studies on usage-based and pragmatic language learning. Nodes reflect keywords, and the size of the nodes represents their frequencies. Ties reflect the relationships between keywords, and the thicknesses represent the strengths of the relationships. Clusters of keywords are color coded and are shown in details in Table 2.
Cluster number | \nKeywords | \nCluster number | \nKeywords | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nAnxiety | \n5 | \nLexical development | \n
1 | \nAttention | \n5 | \nLiteracy | \n
1 | \nCerebellum | \n5 | \nMethods | \n
1 | \nChildren | \n5 | \nModification | \n
1 | \nCochlear implants | \n5 | \nOral language | \n
1 | \nCognitive processes | \n5 | \nRequests | \n
1 | \nConsolidation | \n5 | \nRole play | \n
1 | \nDeaf | \n5 | \nScaffolding | \n
1 | \nDeclarative memory | \n5 | \nSecond-language learning | \n
1 | \nDevelopment | \n5 | \nSecond-language pragmatics | \n
1 | \nDyslexia | \n5 | \nSituation-bound utterances | \n
1 | \nEye-tracking | \n5 | \nSociocultural theory | \n
1 | \nFast mapping | \n5 | \nTeacher talk | \n
1 | \nfMRI | \n5 | \nUsage-based models | \n
1 | \nFunctional connectivity | \n6 | \nAge of acquisition | \n
1 | \nFunctional magnetic resonance imaging | \n6 | \nArousal | \n
1 | \nGender | \n6 | \nBilingual | \n
1 | \nGene expression | \n6 | \nClassroom | \n
1 | \nHemodynamic response | \n6 | \nCognitive processing | \n
1 | \nL2 | \n6 | \nConcreteness | \n
1 | \nLanguage | \n6 | \nConvolutional neural networks | \n
1 | \nLanguage evolution | \n6 | \nCross-linguistic influence | \n
1 | \nLearning | \n6 | \nDominance | \n
1 | \nMemory | \n6 | \nDTI | \n
1 | \nMethodology | \n6 | \nEEG | \n
1 | \nNeuroimaging | \n6 | \nEmbodied cognition | \n
1 | \nNovelty | \n6 | \nEmotion | \n
1 | \nOnline processing | \n6 | \nEye movements | \n
1 | \nPhonological awareness | \n6 | \nFamiliarity | \n
1 | \nProcedural | \n6 | \nImageability | \n
1 | \nProcedural memory | \n6 | \nLongitudinal study | \n
1 | \nPronoun | \n6 | \nMandarin | \n
1 | \nSLI | \n6 | \nMRI | \n
1 | \nSpecific language impairment | \n6 | \nNeuroplasticity | \n
1 | \nSpeech perception | \n6 | \nReading | \n
1 | \nSpeech production | \n6 | \nSecond-language processing | \n
1 | \nWord learning | \n6 | \nWord association | \n
1 | \nReaction time | \n6 | \nWorking memory capacity | \n
2 | \nAcquisition | \n7 | \nBoundary tones | \n
2 | \nAdult L2 acquisition | \n7 | \nClitic left dislocation | \n
2 | \nAnaphora resolution | \n7 | \nClitics | \n
2 | \nAspect | \n7 | \nDifferential Object Marking | \n
2 | \nCategorization | \n7 | \nDislocations | \n
2 | \nChild L2 acquisition | \n7 | \nErgativity | \n
2 | \nCognates | \n7 | \nHeritage speakers | \n
2 | \nCorpus | \n7 | \nIncomplete acquisition | \n
2 | \nCritical period hypothesis | \n7 | \nInformation structure | \n
2 | \nDummy auxiliaries | \n7 | \nInterface hypothesis | \n
2 | \nDutch | \n7 | \nL2 learners | \n
2 | \nExposure | \n7 | \nL2 Spanish | \n
2 | \nFrequency | \n7 | \nLanguage contact | \n
2 | \nGerman | \n7 | \nLexical semantics | \n
2 | \nGesture | \n7 | \nPolysemy | \n
2 | \nGrammar | \n7 | \nProsodic transfer | \n
2 | \nInput | \n7 | \nSpanish | \n
2 | \nInterfaces | \n7 | \nSyntax-discourse interface | \n
2 | \nInterlanguage | \n7 | \nSyntax-semantics interface | \n
2 | \nIntonation | \n7 | \nTopicalization | \n
2 | \nL1 transfer | \n8 | \nArabic | \n
2 | \nLanguage aptitude | \n8 | \nCode-switching | \n
2 | \nLanguage control | \n8 | \nComprehension | \n
2 | \nLearner varieties | \n8 | \nHebrew | \n
2 | \nLexicon | \n8 | \nInterlanguage pragmatics | \n
2 | \nLinguistic input | \n8 | \nL2 pragmatic competence | \n
2 | \nMorphosyntax | \n8 | \nL2 pragmatics | \n
2 | \nPragmatics | \n8 | \nLexical processing | \n
2 | \nProcessing | \n8 | \nLongitudinal research | \n
2 | \nReference | \n8 | \nMixed methods | \n
2 | \nSecond language | \n8 | \nMultilingualism | \n
2 | \nSLA | \n8 | \nPragmatic awareness | \n
2 | \nUsage-based | \n8 | \nProduction | \n
2 | \nUsage-based theory | \n8 | \nRecognition | \n
2 | \nVocabulary | \n8 | \nSocial interaction | \n
2 | \nWritten corrective feedback | \n8 | \nSociocultural adaptation | \n
3 | \nArticles | \n8 | \nVocabulary learning | \n
3 | \nAwareness | \n8 | \nPragmatic routines | \n
3 | \nCognition | \n9 | \nChinese | \n
3 | \nComputer-assisted language learning (CALL) | \n9 | \nChinese learners of English | \n
3 | \nConversational implicature | \n9 | \nConventional expressions | \n
3 | \nDefiniteness | \n9 | \nDiscourse markers | \n
3 | \nDeterminers | \n9 | \nEnglish as a foreign language | \n
3 | \nEnglish | \n9 | \nInterlanguage pragmatic development | \n
3 | \nEnglish articles | \n9 | \nL2 proficiency | \n
3 | \nExplicit instruction | \n9 | \nPragmatic competence | \n
3 | \nFocus | \n9 | \nPragmatic development | \n
3 | \nFrench | \n9 | \nRequest | \n
3 | \nFunction words | \n9 | \nSecond-language acquisition | \n
3 | \nGlobalization | \n9 | \nSpeech act | \n
3 | \nIdentity | \n9 | \nStudy abroad | \n
3 | \nIndividual differences | \n9 | \nTask design | \n
3 | \nIrish English | \n10 | \nBilingual development | \n
3 | \nL2 acquisition | \n10 | \nConstruction Grammar | \n
3 | \nLexical bundles | \n10 | \nCorpus analysis | \n
3 | \n‘Like’ | \n10 | \nCross-linguistic influence | \n
3 | \nLongitudinal | \n10 | \nDynamic systems | \n
3 | \nProsody | \n10 | \ndynamic systems theory | \n
3 | \nScalar implicatures | \n10 | \nL1 attrition | \n
3 | \nSecond-language acquisition (SLA) | \n10 | \nLanguage attrition | \n
3 | \nSecond-language interaction | \n10 | \nLanguage balance | \n
3 | \nSociolinguistics | \n10 | \nLate bilinguals | \n
3 | \nSpanish subjunctive | \n10 | \nSecond-language development | \n
3 | \nSpecificity | \n10 | \nUsage-based approach | \n
3 | \nUsage-based linguistics | \n10 | \nUsage-based perspective | \n
3 | \nVariation | \n10 | \nLanguage dominance | \n
3 | \nPhonology | \n11 | \nAssessment | \n
3 | \nPragmatic markers | \n11 | \nChild second-language acquisition | \n
3 | \nPronunciation | \n11 | \nEFL | \n
4 | \nArtificial language | \n11 | \nESL | \n
4 | \nAttention network test | \n11 | \nJapanese | \n
4 | \nAttentional monitoring | \n11 | \nLanguage impairment | \n
4 | \nBasal ganglia | \n11 | \nLinguistic relativity | \n
4 | \nBilingual advantage | \n11 | \nMotion events | \n
4 | \nBilingualism | \n11 | \nNarratives | \n
4 | \nCognitive control | \n11 | \nPath | \n
4 | \nEpilepsy | \n11 | \nSign language | \n
4 | \nExecutive control | \n11 | \nSpatial language | \n
4 | \nExecutive function | \n12 | \nDiscourse | \n
4 | \nExecutive functions | \n12 | \nForeign language instruction | \n
4 | \nForm-function mapping | \n12 | \nImplicit learning | \n
4 | \nFrench liaison | \n12 | \nInterface | \n
4 | \nImmersion | \n12 | \nMorphology | \n
4 | \nInhibition | \n12 | \nNull subjects | \n
4 | \nLanguage acquisition | \n12 | \nSequential bilingualism | \n
4 | \nLanguage development | \n12 | \nStatistical learning | \n
4 | \nLanguage proficiency | \n12 | \nSyntax | \n
4 | \nLanguage switching | \n12 | \nSyntax-pragmatics interface | \n
4 | \nLanguage usage | \n12 | \nUniversal grammar | \n
4 | \nLinguistics | \n13 | \nAcademic writing | \n
4 | \nPhonological short-term memory | \n13 | \nCollocations | \n
4 | \nRecasts | \n13 | \nCorpus linguistics | \n
4 | \nSecond-language acquisition | \n13 | \nFormulaic sequences | \n
4 | \nSwitching | \n13 | \nGrammatical development | \n
4 | \nTheory of mind | \n13 | \nInterlanguage development | \n
4 | \nVerbal working memory | \n13 | \nNoticing | \n
4 | \nWorking memory | \n13 | \nPhraseology | \n
5 | \nMaterials | \n13 | \nProficiency | \n
5 | \nChunking | \n13 | \nProficiency level | \n
5 | \nClassroom discourse | \n13 | \nSpeech acts | \n
5 | \nConversation analysis | \n14 | \nAcculturation | \n
5 | \nCorrective feedback | \n14 | \nBiliteracy | \n
5 | \nEnglish as a second language | \n14 | \nCatalan | \n
5 | \nEnglish language learners | \n14 | \nEducation | \n
5 | \nEnglish learners | \n14 | \nEstonian | \n
5 | \nExplicit knowledge | \n14 | \nLanguage ideologies | \n
5 | \nFormulaic language | \n14 | \nLanguage policy | \n
5 | \nGame-based learning | \n14 | \nMorphological awareness | \n
5 | \nInstructional interaction | \n14 | \nTransfer | \n
5 | \nInstructional strategies | \n14 | \nWord order | \n
Clusters and the list of keywords in the co-occurrence analysis of publications relevant to second-language acquisition studies on usage-based and pragmatic language learning. Clusters are visualized in the co-occurrence map in Figure 2.
Among 95 articles relevant to the study of psycholinguistic studies on pragmatic and usage-based language processing between 2010 and 2019, 80 shared citing references. According to the shared citations, the articles were clustered into seven groups, with the minimum number of citations per cluster equals to five (see Figure 3 and Table 3). The first group of research focuses on the psycholinguistic experiments on pragmatic functions. The topics includ irony, presupposition, speech acts, contextual effects, facial expressions, speech acts, communicative norms, discourse particles, indirect speech, and affective meanings. The second group of research concerns the pragmatics-syntax interface and the involvement of cognitive changes in pragmatic processing. The topics includ counterfactual conditionals, indefiniteness, referential informativeness, morphological marking for pragmatics-syntax interface, autism, Parkinson’s disease, mild cognitive impairment, executive control training, selective attention, and theory-of-mind. The third group of research concerns conventional expressions and formulaic languages, which includ the topics such as frequency of lexical use and second-language learning. The fourth group of research discusses the flexibility in pragmatic inferences and the relevant topics includ the scalar inferences and counterfactual inferences. The fifth group of research concerns the individual differences in syntactic and pragmatic processing, such as the working memory constraints on syntactic islands and semantic comprehension, and pragmatic strategy in syntactic attachment. The sixth group of research focuses on bilingualism, which covers the topics including code-switching, cross-modal linguistic transfer, phonological processing, and the consequence of bilingualism. The last group of research discusses communicative and pragmatic function of lexical meanings. The topics includ the noun-noun compounds, polysemy, sublexical constituents, and negation.
\nBibliographic coupling network map for articles with shared citations (n = 80), relevant to the psycholinguistic literature on pragmatic and usage-based language processing. Nodes represent the title of the articles, and the size of the nodes represents the number of citations in that article that co-occur in another article. Ties reflect the relationships between keywords, and the thicknesses represent the number of the shared citations. Clusters of articles are color coded and are shown in details in Table 3.
Cluster number | \nTitle of the article | \n
---|---|
1 | \nA strong link between verbal and emoji-based irony: How the brain processes ironic emojis during language comprehension | \n
1 | \nAccommodating presuppositions is inappropriate in implausible contexts | \n
1 | \nAncient Greek awareness of child language acquisition | \n
1 | \nAre ironic acts deliberate? | \n
1 | \nBeyond mechanistic interaction: value-based constraints on meaning in language | \n
1 | \nCo(n)textual supports in the discursive use of phraseological units | \n
1 | \nCognitive adequacy in a dialogic functional discourse grammar | \n
1 | \nFacial expressions and speech acts: experimental evidences on the role of the upper face as an illocutionary force indicating device in language comprehension | \n
1 | \nIdentifying seekers and suppliers in social media communities to support crisis coordination | \n
1 | \nMisleading health consumers through violations of communicative norms: a case study of online diabetes education | \n
1 | \nPragmatic choice in conversation | \n
1 | \nProcedural meaning and Spanish discourse particles: an experimental approach | \n
1 | \nRationales for indirect speech: the theory of the strategic speaker | \n
1 | \nRobots that say no affective symbol grounding and the case of intent interpretations | \n
1 | \nSentinels of breach: lexical choice as a measure of urgency in social media | \n
1 | \nSources of history for a psychology of verbal communication | \n
1 | \nThe impact of foreign accent on irony interpretation | \n
2 | \nAcoustic marking of prominence: how do preadolescent speakers with and without high-functioning autism mark contrast in an interactive task? | \n
2 | \nApproximation to the semantics of counterfactuals | \n
2 | \nExperimental investigations of weak definite and weak indefinite noun phrases | \n
2 | \nLooking at a contrast object before speaking boosts referential informativeness but is not essential | \n
2 | \nPragmatic comprehension deficit in Parkinson’s disease | \n
2 | \nProcessing complex pseudo-words in mild cognitive impairment: the interaction of preserved morphological rule knowledge with compromised cognitive ability | \n
2 | \nPsychological essentialist reasoning and perspective taking during reading: a donkey is not a zebra, but a plate can be a clock | \n
2 | \nSeeking the -ational in derivational morphology | \n
2 | \nSensitivity to speaker control in the online comprehension of conditional tips and promises: an eye-tracking study | \n
2 | \nSources of variability relevant to the cognitive sociolinguist, and corpus—as well as psycholinguistic methods and notions to handle them | \n
2 | \nThe benefits of executive control training and the implications for language processing | \n
2 | \nThe communicative significance of primary and secondary accents | \n
2 | \nThe director task: a test of theory-of-mind use or selective attention? | \n
2 | \nThreats may be negative promises (but warnings are more than negative tips) | \n
2 | \nTolerant, classical, strict | \n
3 | \nBinomials in Russian speech: semantic types and objective and subjective frequency | \n
3 | \nConventional expressions: investigating pragmatics and processing | \n
3 | \nFormulaic language and second language acquisition: zipf and the phrasal teddy bear | \n
3 | \nHigh-frequency collocations of nouns in research articles across eight disciplines | \n
3 | \nInvestigating academic phraseology through combinations of very frequent words: a methodological exploration | \n
3 | \nLanguage change from a psycholinguistic perspective: the long-term effects of frequency on language processing | \n
3 | \nMore than words: the role of multiword sequences in language learning and use | \n
3 | \nProcessing advantages of lexical bundles: evidence from self-paced reading and sentence recall tasks | \n
3 | \nThe development of formulaic sequences in first and second language writing Investigating effects of frequency, association, and native norm | \n
3 | \nThe effectiveness of focused instruction of formulaic sequences in augmenting L2 learners’ academic writing skills: a quantitative research study | \n
3 | \nUsage-based linguistics and the magic number four | \n
3 | \nWhat do we (think we) know about formulaic language? An evaluation of the current state of play | \n
4 | \nAuthorship attribution, constructed languages, and the psycholinguistics of individual variation | \n
4 | \nCompetition and symmetry in an artificial word learning task | \n
4 | \nEye Movement Evidence for Context-Sensitive Derivation of Scalar Inferences | \n
4 | \nFree choice permission and the counterfactuals of pragmatics | \n
4 | \nIntonation and pragmatic enrichment: how intonation constrains ad hoc scalar inferences | \n
4 | \nLetter and symbol identification: no evidence for letter-specific crowding mechanisms | \n
4 | \nNo delay for some inferences | \n
4 | \nPossibly all of that and then some: scalar implicatures are understood in two steps | \n
4 | \nScalar implicatures: the psychological reality of scales | \n
4 | \nTwo languages, two minds: flexible cognitive processing driven by language of operation | \n
5 | \nA test of the relation between working-memory capacity and syntactic island effects | \n
5 | \nAgreement processes in English and Spanish: a completion study | \n
5 | \nAttachment preference in auditory German sentences: individual differences and pragmatic strategy | \n
5 | \nDetection of speech errors in the speech of others: an ERP study | \n
5 | \nNeurolinguistics: subject, history, methods | \n
5 | \nSimulating cross-language priming with a dynamic computational model of the lexicon | \n
5 | \nSpecific language impairment: markers into semantic and pragmatic areas in Spanish-speaking children | \n
5 | \nThe effect of word predictability on reading time is logarithmic | \n
5 | \nWhich noun phrases is the verb supposed to agree with? Object agreement in American English | \n
5 | \nWorking memory predicts semantic comprehension in dichotic listening in older adults | \n
6 | \nAdaptation of the bilingual aphasia test (BAT) to Sardinian: clinical and social implications | \n
6 | \nCalling for interdisciplinary approaches to the study of Spanglish and its linguistic manifestations | \n
6 | \nCode-switching in multilinguals with dementia: patterns across speech contexts | \n
6 | \nCross-modal bilingualism: language contact as evidence of linguistic transfer in sign bilingual education | \n
6 | \nFamiliarity, comprehension and use of Indian English only L1 Indian English speakers’ psycholinguistic judgments and interview responses | \n
6 | \nGood language-switchers are good task-switchers: evidence from Spanish-English and Mandarin-English bilinguals | \n
6 | \nJuggling two languages in one mind: what bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition | \n
6 | \nMorphosyntactic annotation of CHILDES transcripts | \n
6 | \nMultilingualism and multicompetence: a conceptual view | \n
6 | \nThe nature of the phonological processing in French dyslexic children: evidence for the phonological syllable and linguistic features’ role in silent reading and speech discrimination | \n
7 | \nNoun-noun compounds for fictive food products: experimenting in the borderzone of semantics and pragmatics | \n
7 | \nOptimization models of natural communication | \n
7 | \nPolysemy and word meaning: an account of lexical meaning for different kinds of content words | \n
7 | \nStatistical measures for usage-based linguistics | \n
7 | \nSyllabO plus: a new tool to study sublexical phenomena in spoken Quebec French | \n
7 | \nThe good, the not good, and the not beautiful: on the non-obligatoriness of suppression following negation | \n
Clusters and title of articles in the bibliographic coupling analysis on the psycholinguistic literature on pragmatic and usage-based language processing. Clusters are visualized in the bibliographic coupling network map in Figure 3.
Among 601 articles relevant to the study on second-language acquisition between 2010 and 2019, 571 shared citing references. According to the shared citations, the articles were clustered into eight groups, with the minimum number of citations per cluster sets to 10 (Figure 4 and Table 4). The first research group highlights the empirical studies on factors that affect different aspects of second-language acquisition in children or young adults, with many involving a comparison between the first-language and the second-language acquisition. The second group of research highlights the acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspects of language in L2, distinguishing the role of domain-general (e.g., the cognitive constraint on frequency learning) and domain-specific factors (e.g., the knowledge of linguistic register) in second-language acquisition. The third group concerns the effectiveness of various instructional strategies (e.g., virtual learning environment) and the perception of teaching strategies (e.g., corrective feedback) in the acquisition of pragmatic competencies. The fourth group concerns the development of pragmatic strategies in L2, for instance, the use of speech acts (such as apology request and refusal acts), prosodic strategies, conversational implicature, quotative marking, and conventional expressions. The fifth group concerns the syntax-pragmatics interface during second-language acquisition. Some special themes are discussed, which include the null and overt subject, wh-question, co-reference and anaphora, and left dislocation. The sixth group of research uniquely focuses on the cognitive advantage (especially in the executive function) and the neural consequences of bilingualism, with the aid of neuroimaging techniques. The seventh group aims to examine the factors that affect the second-language acquisition and the first-language attrition in the aspects of syntactic, prosodic, and pragmatic skills (e.g., the age of acquisition, the richness of language input, and the neurocognitive constraints). The last group is devoted to the research on the processing of discourse and pragmatic marker (e.g., the usage of article, scalar implicature, and presupposition) in second-language learner.
\nBibliographic coupling network map for articles with shared citations (n = 571), relevant to the second-language acquisition literature on pragmatic and usage-based language learning. Clusters of articles are color coded and are shown in details in Table 4.
Cluster number | \nTitle of the represented articles | \n
---|---|
1 | \nVariability in the learning of complex morphophonology | \n
1 | \nCan L2-English influence L1-German? The case of post-vocalic /r/ | \n
1 | \nA formalist perspective on language acquisition | \n
1 | \nMulticompetence and native speaker variation in clausal packaging in Japanese | \n
1 | \nAbstracting grammar from social-cognitive foundations: a developmental sketch of learning | \n
1 | \nIndividual differences in child English second language acquisition: comparing child-internal and child-external factors | \n
1 | \nAsymmetrical interlingual influence in the production of Spanish and English laterals as a result of competing activation in bilingual language processing | \n
1 | \nTracking learners’ progress: adopting a dual ‘corpus cum experimental data’ approach | \n
1 | \nLearned attention effects in L2 temporal reference: the first hour and the next eight semesters | \n
1 | \nEffects of input properties, vocabulary size, and L1 on the development of third person singular -s in child L2 English | \n
2 | \nPhrase frequency, proficiency and grammaticality interact in non-native processing: Implications for theories of SLA | \n
2 | \nSecond language construction learning: investigating domain-specific adaptation in advanced L2 production | \n
2 | \nA usage-based approach to preposition placement in English as a second language | \n
2 | \nCognitive linguistics and the second language classroom | \n
2 | \nThe role of multiword building blocks in explaining L1-L2 differences | \n
2 | \nL2 negation constructions at work | \n
2 | \nFormulaic language and second language acquisition: zipf and the phrasal teddy bear | \n
2 | \nExplicit knowledge and processes from a usage-based perspective: the developmental trajectory of an instructed L2 learner | \n
2 | \nFrequency of input and L2 collocational processing a comparison of congruent and incongruent collocations | \n
2 | \nFrequency effects on first and second language compositional phrase comprehension and production | \n
3 | \nEssentials of a theory of language cognition | \n
3 | \nThe role of working memory in processing L2 input: insights from eye-tracking | \n
3 | \nWorking memory and the observed effectiveness of recasts on different L2 outcome measures | \n
3 | \nThe relationship between L2 instruction, exposure, and the L2 acquisition of a syntax-discourse property in L2 Spanish | \n
3 | \nExperience effects on the development of late second language learners’ oral proficiency | \n
3 | \nA corpus-driven study of second-person pronoun variation in L2 French synchronous computer-mediated communication | \n
3 | \nCorrective feedback and the role of implicit sequence-learning ability in L2 online performance | \n
3 | \nERPs recorded during early second language exposure predict syntactic learning | \n
3 | \nExploratory research on second language practice distribution: an aptitude x treatment interaction | \n
3 | \nReinvestigating the noticing function of output | \n
4 | \nThe relative effects of explicit and implicit form-focused instruction on the development of L2 pragmatic competence | \n
4 | \nExpanding the circle to learner English: investigating quotative marking in a German student community | \n
4 | \nHigh-level requests: a study of long residency L2 users of English and French and native speakers | \n
4 | \nImproving Chinese EFL teachers’ English requests: does study abroad help? | \n
4 | \nEnvironmental influence on language acquisition: comparing second and foreign language acquisition of Swedish | \n
4 | \nNews from the pragmatics classroom: contrasting the inductive and the deductive approach in the teaching of pragmatic competence | \n
4 | \nTesting of second language pragmatics: past and future | \n
4 | \nProficiency, length of stay, and intensity of interaction, and the acquisition of conventional expressions in L2 pragmatics | \n
4 | \nSecond language acquisition of Spanish service industry requests in an immersion context | \n
4 | \nThe effectiveness of corrective feedback for the acquisition of L2 pragmatics: an eight month investigation | \n
5 | \nAdult second language acquisition A selective overview with a focus on the learner linguistic system | \n
5 | \nBilingualism effects in Basque subject pronoun expression | \n
5 | \nThe relevance of first language attrition to theories of bilingual development | \n
5 | \nEmbedded wh-questions in L2 English in India inversion as a main clause phenomenon | \n
5 | \nThe effect of construction frequency and native transfer on second language knowledge of the syntax-discourse interface | \n
5 | \nPinning down the concept of interface in bilingualism | \n
5 | \nLeft dislocation in near-native French | \n
5 | \nCase marking in Hindi as the weaker language | \n
5 | \nSecond language acquisition of pragmatic inferences: evidence from the French c’est-cleft | \n
5 | \nTransfer and proficiency effects in L2 processing of subject anaphora | \n
6 | \nChanges in white-matter connectivity in late second language learners: evidence from diffusion tensor imaging | \n
6 | \nLinguistic and cognitive skills in Sardinian-Italian bilingual children | \n
6 | \nBetter early or late? Examining the influence of age of exposure and language proficiency on executive function in early and late bilinguals | \n
6 | \nLanguage use affects proficiency in Italian-Spanish bilinguals irrespective of age of second language acquisition | \n
6 | \nLanguage interference and inhibition in early and late successive bilingualism | \n
6 | \nSecond language lexical development and cognitive control: a longitudinal fMRI study | \n
6 | \nBilingual lexical selection as a dynamic process: evidence from Arabic-French bilinguals | \n
6 | \nDegree of multilingualism, code-switching and intensity of target language contact predict pragma-linguistic awareness in an English as a foreign language context | \n
6 | \nThe efficiency of attentional networks in early and late bilinguals: the role of age of acquisition | \n
6 | \nLanguage exposure induced neuroplasticity in the bilingual brain: a follow-up fMRI study | \n
7 | \nDoes first language maintenance hamper nativelikeness in a second language? A study of ultimate attainment in early bilinguals | \n
7 | \nBidirectional lexical interaction in late immersed Mandarin-English bilinguals | \n
7 | \nThe role of age of acquisition in late second language oral proficiency attainment | \n
7 | \nAge of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains | \n
7 | \nEffects of input training on second language syntactic representation entrenchment | \n
7 | \nThe storage and composition of inflected forms in adult-learned second language: a study of the influence of length of residence, age of arrival, sex, and other factors | \n
7 | \nInflectional morphology in bilingual language processing: an age-of-acquisition study | \n
7 | \nLanguage use across international contexts: shaping the minds of L2 speakers | \n
7 | \nProficiency and working memory based explanations for nonnative speakers’ sensitivity to agreement in sentence processing | \n
7 | \nThe critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition: a statistical critique and a reanalysis | \n
8 | \nReal-time grammar processing by native and non-native speakers: constructions unique to the second language | \n
8 | \nDefinite discourse-new reference in L1 and L2: the case of L2 Mandarin | \n
8 | \nThe role of presuppositionality in the second language acquisition of English articles | \n
8 | \nProcessing of scalar inferences by Mandarin learners of English: an online measure | \n
8 | \nDefinite discourse-new reference in L1 and L2: a study of bridging in Mandarin, Korean, and English | \n
8 | \nIdentifiability and accessibility in learning definite article usages: a quasi-experimental study with Japanese learners of English | \n
8 | \nTeaching the English article system: definiteness and specificity in linguistically-informed instruction | \n
8 | \nRevisiting fluctuations in L2 article choice in L1-Korean L2-English learners | \n
8 | \nHow much do Cantonese ESL learners know about the English article system? | \n
8 | \nThe non-generic use of the definite article the in writing by Turkish learners of English | \n
Clusters and title of articles in the bibliographic coupling analysis on the second-language acquisition literature on pragmatic and usage-based language learning. Clusters are visualized in the bibliographic coupling network map for Figure 4. Given large numbers of article, only articles that weighed top 10 in each cluster were listed. The articles were ranked in a descending order according to their weights in a cluster.
The bibliometric review shows a growing trend of research interest in the function, usage, and pragmatics of language in the field of psycholinguistics and in the field of second-language acquisition. These trends indicate that the existing investigation of language communication and acquisition in real world is still in its infancy and invites further empirical and theoretical contributions. The frequency distribution clearly shows the leading contributors and the journals most attracted to the relevant topic. The co-occurrence and the bibliometric coupling analysis demonstrate that researchers are most interested in the processing of various interpersonal and socio-pragmatic functions in L1 and L2 speakers in the field of psycholinguistics, as well as factors underlying L2 acquisition from children to adults, and the impact of the cognitive and neurodevelopmental impairments in the field of second-language acquisition.
\nOne important direction is to combine the real-time neurophysiological recordings (such as eye-tracking, EEGs and fMRI) with the psycholinguistic paradigms for investigating the real-world language use to reveal the neurocognitive architecture underlying pragmatic language processing and those underlying language acquisition (e.g., [6, 7] for some reviews). The use of virtual reality to create naturalistic scenarios will be a good complementary approach to test the impact of real-world social interaction on one’s language processing and learning [8]. Of special interests is the testing of linguistic phenomena that can be addressed by different categories of communicative functions, such as indirectness (e.g., [9]), presupposition (e.g., [10]), speech/communicative acts (e.g., [11, 12]), and politeness (e.g., [13, 14, 15]), among many others, on both well-represented, dominant languages and under-represented, marginalized languages (e.g., east-Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean and their dialects) and on one’s own and unfamiliar languages [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. These topics are seldomly addressed in psycholinguistic literatures, and the experimental paradigms adapted to address these topics are rare in the second-language acquisition literatures. New computational approaches such as machine learning and computational modeling will provide a solution to the classification of different types of communicative functions in L1 with higher accuracy. However, whether such approaches can reveal the novel feature in the classification of communicative functions in L2 is still an unaddressed question. The capacity of classifying communicative categories in one’s second language with the model built in one’s mother tongue, and the vice versa, is promising to reveal if the mental representation underlying pragmatic functions is shared or distinct between L1 and L2. Other fascinating lines of research are to enhance the understanding of the individual differences in the processing of pragmatic language that is endorsed by professional, political, or cultural background of the language users [21, 22], and the atypical processing that may be revealed by testing individuals with pragmatic impairments or variations (including but not limited to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disordered individuals). With the aid of multimodal approaches to build intelligent recognition system, the profiling for one’s pragmatic language ability is likely to provide a novel way to predict or diagnose individuals with special clinical status [23]. It is still unknown how learning a second language can affect one’s pragmatic language ability in those who suffer from certain clinical status. These new possibilities, combined with what has been indicated from the bibliometric review, will make significant contributions to reveal a new trend in developing new psycholinguistic paradigms for studying the mechanisms underlying the usage-based and pragmatic language processing.
\nOur bibliometric method may be limited in the coverage of literatures given that the literature search was only focused on the published articles in the databases of Web of Science where the journals of these publications are indexed. The nonjournal works such as books, dissertations, and conference papers can also contribute to the latest development in the shift towards pragmatic and usage-based language processing and learning in the relevant fields and could be incorporated for judging the impact of the research. The findings from the present analysis also await verifications from other citation tracking databases, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and PsycInfo. Despite such limits, the bibliometric analysis provides evidence-based descriptions, comparisons, and visualizations of research output [24] and proposes a promising research avenue at the interface of psychological science, language science, and educational science. In particular, the network analysis and the visualization of the network structure for co-occurring keywords and for co-citing articles somehow serve as the tools to monitor the subject collaboration and to identify the cross-cluster research efforts of high performance and high impacts in the field of psycholinguistics and the field of second-language acquisitions (Figures 1–4). These emerging discoveries and trends invite more dedicated and interdisciplinary research outputs to address the arising issues of the functional, usage-based, and pragmatic language processing and learning in the field of psycholinguistics and second-language acquisition studies.
\nThe author is supported by the grant of European Studies: An Interdisciplinary Approach to European Issues (World First-Class Discipline Construction Project of Tongji University).
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\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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