Microcrystalline parameters of various PI films heat-treated at different temperatures.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7289",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Like management of disease, management of pain is as old as the human race. When patients come to us with their pain, they present us with a wonderful opportunity: the chance to understand them, to understand how their pain is affecting their lives, the challenge of discovering what is causing their pain, and finally the opportunity to prescribe medications and lifestyle changes to help them gain relief from their pain. It is hoped that this book will provide the latest evidence-based updates on pain management in special circumstances and will serve as a ready reference for those embarking on pain management. Its intent is not to be a heavy book that can only be stored on a bookshelf, but a pocket-sized reference that can be carried, be easily navigated, and be available whenever a conceptual gap compromises pain physicians and their ability to treat their patients.",isbn:"978-1-78923-964-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-963-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-807-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74765",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4043c5c08f3764c0de2d283a40d07c3c",bookSignature:"Nabil A. Shallik",publishedDate:"November 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7289.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10067,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:41,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 7th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 16th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"202782",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil A.",middleName:null,surname:"Shallik",slug:"nabil-a.-shallik",fullName:"Nabil A. Shallik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202782/images/system/202782.png",biography:"Dr. Nabil A. Shallik, MD, is Assistant Professor of Clinical Anesthesiology at Weill Cornell Medical College, Qatar, Assistant Professor of Clinical Anesthesiology, Qatar University, and Assistant Professor of Anesthesiology and Surgical Intensive Care, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Egypt.\n\nHe is deputy chair of the anesthesia department and associate head of anesthesia services in Ambulatory Care Center, Hamad Medical Corporation, Qatar. \n\nHe also works as a senior consultant at Anesthesia, ICU, and Perioperative Medicine at Hamad General Hospital, Qatar. He has published more than fifty articles in national and international peer-reviewed medical journals, including perioperative, pain, and airway publications. He is also a reviewer and editorial board member for many international peer-reviewed medical journals. He is the official reviewer for the Hamad Medical Research Center team. \n\nHe is the principal author of numerous book chapters and editor of many books. He is a leading researcher in airway management in the Middle East, and his research interests focus on perioperative care and new tools for airway assessment and management. \n\nDr. Nabil is a pioneer in anesthesia education and a dedicated clinical teacher with more than 25 years of anesthesia practice and 20 years of faithful anesthesia teaching. Dr. Nabil is a core faculty member of the Anesthesia Residency Program, and the program’s director of head and neck anesthesia & advanced airway management fellowship. He received the Award of Excellence in Medical Education in Qatar and the best teaching material award from the International Sleep Surgery Society. He is a leader of the Anesthesia Department Continuous Professional Development program. \n\nAs a course director for all airway workshops and courses at Itqan Clinical Simulation and Innovation Center, he is continually testing, inventing, and tailoring basic and advanced educational modules related to airway skills to suit different healthcare providers. Dr. Nabil is an active contributor to international anesthesia societies, including Airway Management Academy, European Airway Management Society, Society of Head and Neck Anesthesia, and Difficult Airway Society. He is the founder of the Difficult Airway Management Training and Innovation Society (DAM Society). He received innovation funding from the Academic Health System in HMC for the development of three projects and is frequently invited as a guest speaker in national and international conferences.",institutionString:"Hamad Medical Corporation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Hamad Medical Corporation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Qatar"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1116",title:"Algiatry",slug:"algiatry"}],chapters:[{id:"62969",title:"Non-Pharmacological Pain Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79689",slug:"non-pharmacological-pain-management",totalDownloads:2973,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Non-pharmacological pain therapy refers to interventions that do not involve the use of medications to treat pain. The goals of non-pharmacological interventions are to decrease fear, distress and anxiety, and to reduce pain and provide patients with a sense of control. When deciding the most effective non-pharmacological technique, take into consideration the patient’s age, developmental level, medical history and prior experiences, current degree of pain and/or anticipated pain. The advantage of non-pharmacological treatments is that they are relatively inexpensive and safe.",signatures:"Ahmed El Geziry, Yasser Toble, Fathi Al Kadhi, Muhammad Pervaiz\nand Mohammad Al Nobani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62969",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63560",title:"Pain Management for the Sickle Cell Patient",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79495",slug:"pain-management-for-the-sickle-cell-patient",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a condition very common in the United States of America and its most common presenting symptom is pain related to vaso-occlusive events (VOE). The cost associated with healthcare for the sickle cell population exceeds 1 billion $USD yearly, and the majority of this cost is associated with admission related to vaso-occlusive events. With the increase longevity of patients with SCD, due to new therapies and vaccination against common infection related to SCD, the prevalence of older individuals experiencing VOE will likely increase. The psychological impact inflicted on patients with SCD can further complicate adequate care of patients experiencing acute or chronic pain and the latter must be taken into consideration when planning an optimal treatment regimen. This chapter reviews the short- and long-term management options of pain related to VOE, their limitations as well proposed regimen that could pave the way for the future of pain management of SCD.",signatures:"Thomas Zouki, Armen Haroutunian and Tennison Malcolm",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63560",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62711",title:"Is Chronic Post-Surgical Pain Preventable?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79500",slug:"is-chronic-post-surgical-pain-preventable-",totalDownloads:1006,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Chronic post-surgical pain (CPSP) is a common problem following surgery. It has significant impact on the patients’ quality of life, chronic pain treatment services and resources in general. The prevalence of CPSP ranges between 5 and 50% of all surgical patients, but severe CPSP is present in less than 10% of the patients. The recognised potential risk factors for CPSP are young age, female gender, overweight, psychological factors, genetic tendency, pre-operative pain, surgery-related factors and severe post-operative pain. Hence, early identification of patients at risk will help to reduce the proportion of patients who are likely to develop CPSP. Different modalities of treatments or interventions are used to prevent the CPSP. These modalities include pre-emptive use of gabapentin, pregabalin or SNRIs, perioperative administration of ketamine, NSAIDs and steroids. In addition, the following interventions have been studied: surgical technique selection, regional and local anaesthesia, intrathecal administration of morphine and multimodal analgesia. Since the present evidence of these interventions is inconclusive because of methodological issues, further studies are still needed to develop more effective and evidence-based strategies to prevent CPSP.",signatures:"Abdulaziz Al-Mahrezi and Asma Al-Shidhani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62711",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62711",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62009",title:"Acute Pain Management in Intensive Care Patients: Facts and Figures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78708",slug:"acute-pain-management-in-intensive-care-patients-facts-and-figures",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pain is an unpleasant experience for all patients including intensive care patients; if it is not treated properly, it has deleterious effects on patients’ acute and chronic well-beings. In ICU patients, it causes sympathetic stimulation leading to adverse hemodynamic effects and after discharge, these patients are at the higher risk for developing chronic pain and post-traumatic stress disorders. Apart from racial and regional factors, sleep deprivation, anxiety, and delirium increase the pain perceptions. Pain assessment is a prerequisite for adequate pain management. The ICU patients are sedated and ventilated, and assessment scales differ depending on whether the patient is able to communicate. There are different pain assessment scales for both groups of patients. The preferred mode of delivery of analgesic medication is intravenous route as intramuscular and subcutaneous route are not reliable for drug delivery in these patients. Patient and nurse controlled analgesia gives better sense of pain control. In the treatment of pain, opioids are the commonly used medications, but paracetamol, dexmedetomidine, and gabapentin are increasingly used. Newer trends are multimodal analgesia, where the combinations of analgesic medications with different mechanism of action are used. Another trend is increasing use of analgosedation; they not only control the pain but also relieve anxiety.",signatures:"Nissar Shaikh, Saher Tahseen, Qazi Zeesan Ul Haq, Gamal Al-Ameri,\nAdel Ganaw, Arshed Chanda, Muhammed Zubair Labathkhan and\nTariq Kazi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62009",authors:[{id:"107703",title:"Dr.",name:"Nissar",surname:"Shaikh",slug:"nissar-shaikh",fullName:"Nissar Shaikh"}],corrections:null},{id:"62377",title:"Pain Management for Pregnant Women in the Opioid Crisis Era",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79333",slug:"pain-management-for-pregnant-women-in-the-opioid-crisis-era",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Acute and chronic pain management during pregnancy, after delivery and even during lactation are challenging even for experienced physicians. This chapter intends to cover pregnancy-induced physiological changes in relation to pain conditions. It also covers the most common pain disorders in pregnancy and provides a comprehensive summary of the pharmacological and non-pharmacological options for pain management in pregnancy. Additionally, pain management in context of opioid abuse will also be covered, as high prevalence of opioid prescription is linked to the very poor maternal and fetal outcomes. The possibility of maternal opioid abuse and fetal opioid withdrawal should be known to all physicians, given its rising trends. Multimodal protocols and opioid sparing strategies are highly essential for safe pain management during pregnancy and have been discussed. This chapter is intended to be a fast and detailed review for residents, pain fellows, and physicians who seek pain control in pregnant women.",signatures:"Ahmed Zaghw, Mohamed Koronfel, Edward Podgorski, Sara\nSiddiqui, Arif Valliani, Arunabha Karmakar and Jaffar Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62377",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64145",title:"Pain Management in Patients with Impaired Kidney Function",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81695",slug:"pain-management-in-patients-with-impaired-kidney-function",totalDownloads:1116,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Huge numbers of patients referred to pain service have kidney function impairment to some extent. Pain physicians face puzzling cases and may find themselves struggling and divided between the decisions of providing adequate pain reliever, at the same time avoiding further damage to kidneys, and excessive accumulation of medications and their metabolites, also negative interactions with patient’s other medications. In this chapter, we will reason about the prevalence of pain in patients with renal impairment, pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of pain medications in this group, optimization of pain control, preferred choice of drugs according to the level of kidney damage, and feasibility of alternative pain management techniques.",signatures:"Shakhsanam Mirishova and Yasser Mahmoud Hammad Ali\nHammad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64145",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63061",title:"Management of Acute Pain in Obese Patients with Sleep Apnea",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80350",slug:"management-of-acute-pain-in-obese-patients-with-sleep-apnea",totalDownloads:986,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Perioperative pain management for obese patients is daily challenges for anesthesiologists especially if complex comorbidities such as Obstructive Sleep Apnea and cardiovascular disease coexist. Limitations to effective pain management in this group are multifactorial, that includes technical difficulty with regional techniques, limited expertise, unavailability of standardized guidelines and lack of familiarity with recent multimodal analgesic regimens. Opioid-related complications such as narcotic-induced ventilatory depression in these group of patients poses another critical concern for both trainees and the experienced anesthesiologists. This chapter is intended for residents, fellows, as well as senior perioperative physicians, and will explore various regional and pharmacological options for acute pain management in this special population based on recent advances and available evidence.",signatures:"Sayed Rahman, Ahmed Zaghw, Osama Elazzouny, Dhari Almenshid,\nMustafa Rezk, Mohammed Azizuddin Imran and Malek Alali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63061",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63061",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10296",title:"Special Considerations in Human Airway Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c11e3ca09bf246ec270063a7198fd33c",slug:"special-considerations-in-human-airway-management",bookSignature:"Nabil A. 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At face value, this statement spells doom for the internal combustion engine. Though we desire to have zero-emission vehicles as soon as possible, however, practical realities will not make this possible as quickly as we want! MOTORTREND succinctly captured this essence in its feature article, HOW GASOLINE ENGINES CAN SURVIVE IN AN ELECTRIC CAR FUTURE "Advancing technology can keep conventional engines humming for decades. Combustion engines won't completely disappear any time soon, if ever. Certain transportation tasks or operating environments simply don't lend themselves to the battery- or hydrogen-powered electric propulsion. A century and a half of research and development have greatly increased the efficiency of combustion engines, and engineers have loads of additional tricks up their sleeves that promise to extract even more work from a molecule of fuel while producing even fewer harmful emissions". Therefore, the internal combustion engine will continue to be around for decades to come. Thus, the purpose of this book will be to bring together all current research and development work on the internal combustion engine targeted at further reducing its harmful emissions, to have an environmentally sustainable world even with its use.
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Powell and Halil Berberoglu",authors:[{id:"67676",title:"Prof.",name:"Halil",middleName:null,surname:"Berberoglu",fullName:"Halil Berberoglu",slug:"halil-berberoglu"}]},{id:"28492",title:"Effect of Solar Concentrator System on Disinfection of Soil-Borne Pathogens and Tomato Seedling Growth",slug:"effect-of-solar-concentrator-system-on-disinfection-of-soil-borne-pathogen-and-tomato-seedling-growt",signatures:"Sirichai Thepa, Jirasak Kongkiattikajorn\r\nand Roongrojana Songprakorp",authors:[{id:"72551",title:"Prof.",name:"Sirichai",middleName:null,surname:"Thepa",fullName:"Sirichai Thepa",slug:"sirichai-thepa"}]},{id:"28493",title:"Employing Cyanobacteria for Biofuel Synthesis and CCS",slug:"employing-cyanobacteria-for-biofuel-synthesis-and-ccs",signatures:"Christer Jansson",authors:[{id:"75620",title:"Prof.",name:"Christer",middleName:null,surname:"Jansson",fullName:"Christer Jansson",slug:"christer-jansson"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1290",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"New Aspects and Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52415367e48e5b68d47325bdfc81cdce",slug:"solar-cells-new-aspects-and-solutions",bookSignature:"Leonid A. 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It has a very broad application prospect in thermal management field such as modern microelectronic packaging-integration and 5 G wireless communication technologies. In the early 1960s, scientists had used high-temperature pyrolysis deposition technology to prepare highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), however, the material needs to be prepared at high temperature (up to 3400-3600°C) and high pressure (10 MPa), the production cycle is long and the production cost is high. Thus, the wide application of such material is subject to certain restrictions [1]. Subsequently, Japanese scientists had initially discovered that polyimide (PI) film with a golden appearance as shown in Figure 1a did not melt during the carbonization process and maintained the original film shape, after high-temperature (2800-3200°C) graphitization treatment, a highly oriented graphite film with a structure close to single crystal graphite can be obtained [3, 4]. Nowadays, PI developed as a thermoresistant polymer has been widely used in different fields, for instance, aromatic PI is often employed as an excellent carbonaceous precursor to prepare various carbon materials with different morphologies (e.g., fiber, film, foam and block) [2]. This is because aromatic PI has many advantages such as wide range of well-defined molecular structure as shown in Figure 1b, relatively high crystallinity and carbon yield.
(a) Optical appearance and (b) a molecular repeating unit of Kapton PI film [
Recently, PI-derived graphite films with high thermal conductivity in the planar direction ranging in 500–1900 W/m K have been successfully produced and practically applied in heat dissipation of many microelectronic devices as shown in Figure 2a. This is attributed to the extensive research on the composition, structure and properties of PI polymer film and related high-temperature heat treatment process have been conducted to improve the thermal conductivity of resultant graphite films and reduce the production cost [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. It is well-known that the thermal conductivity of graphite films is greatly affected by many factors (the quality of PI film precursor, film thickness and heat treatment temperature, etc.). In addition, the microstructural evolution and transformation mechanism [4, 6, 12] of PI polymer during high-temperature heat treatment, the capability of forming an ordered graphite structure and the relevant control strategy need to be further understood. This will make the application of graphite films for thermal management move forward [2, 4, 11].
(a) Wide heat-dissipation application of PI-derived graphite films in advanced microelectronics and (b) a variety of graphite films classified by different precursors.
Generally, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films can be divided into two main types (natural graphite-derived and artificial synthetic films) and several subdivided categories as shown in Figure 2b according to different raw materials: oriented pyrolytic graphite sheet, flexible graphite sheet, graphene-based graphite film, PI-derived graphite film and other carbonaceous precursor derivative.
HOPG sheet refers to polycrystalline graphite film with a high bulk density of ~2.20 g/cm3 and highly oriented graphene layers stacking along the c-axis direction, similar to single crystal graphite as shown in Figure 3 [14]. Its room-temperature thermal conductivity along the a-axis direction of the graphite sheet reaches up to 1600–2000 W/m K [15]. Recently, through a facile and feasible chemical vapor deposition on transition metal substrates, the prepared graphite films possess a high thermal conductivity of 600–1570 W/m K [16, 17].
(a) Electron channeling pattern and (b) SEM image of HOPG [
Flexible graphite sheet is prepared by using natural flake graphite as raw material through several procedures as follows. Firstly, strong acidification treatment for chemical intercalation, then washing, drying and high-temperature expansion to obtain high-expanded graphite worms, and finally calendering and pressing treatment processes. The thermal conductivity of flexible graphite sheet can be adjusted in the range of 200–600 W/m K according to the bulk density and sheet thickness [18, 19]. Because this material does not require high-temperature graphitization and the preparation process is simple, the production cost is relatively low, and it can be used not only as a high-temperature sealing material, but also as a heat dissipation pad for the interface between electronic devices and heat sinks. In addition, the thin graphite sheet has a certain degree of flexibility and can be bent and rolled for storage as shown in Figure 4, which accelerates its low-cost industrial production. However, the mechanical properties of flexible graphite sheet decrease with the increase of thickness. So it is suitable for fields where material strength, toughness and flexural properties are not very high.
Optical photographs of (a) flexible graphite sheet rolled for store in Nihon carbon and (b) GrafTech graphite sheet production line.
PI graphite film with high crystallinity and preferred orientation is similar to HOPG as shown in Figure 5 and has a high thermal conductivity up to 1900 W/m K in the planar direction [2]. The thermal conductivity of the pyrolytic graphite sheets developed by Panasonic Industry is reported to be 700-1950 W/m K according to their bulk densities (0.85–2.13 g/cm3) and sheet thicknesses (0.10–0.01 mm) [20]. Obviously, the thermal conductivity of graphite sheets is greatly affected by its bulk density, thickness and pyrolysis process. As a rule, the greater the thickness is, the lower the thermal conductivity is.
(a) Optical photograph and (b) microscopic image of PI-derived thermal pyrolytic graphite sheet (PGS) produced by Panasonic Industry [
Recently, there has been numerous studies on making graphene or its precursor (e.g., graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) into graphite films as shown in Figure 6a [21, 22, 23]. This extensive research greatly improves the thermal conductivity of graphene-based films up to 2000 W/m K and promotes their various applications [23]. Although the production cost of large-area high-quality graphene films with high thermal conductivity is still high at this stage, the large-scale fabrication in science and industry is rising [21, 22].
(a) Optical photograph of large-scale preparation of graphene laminated films [
At present, a batch-scale preparation method, i.e., multi-sheet carbonization by laminated molding in a small-sized vacuum induction furnace as shown in Figure 7a, is generally adopted to prepare sheet-like PI-derived graphite films with different sizes. However, this method shows obvious disadvantages such as relatively high production cost, low preparation efficiency, and particularly large energy consumption. Moreover, the size of the films is limited by the graphite mold (which needs to repeatedly endure severe condition under high temperature and high pressure) and the size of the heat treatment furnace.
Optical photographs of (a) a lab-scale vacuum induction furnace and (b) roll-shaped graphite film prepared from PI film.
In general, the industrial production of PI-derived graphite films is carried out in multiple sets of large-sized vacuum induction furnace. The emerging advanced rolling-carbonization technology, i.e., directly performing carbonization-graphitization treatment on the roll-shaped organic PI films, could obtain a roll-shaped graphite films with a large size as shown in Figure 7b by controlling the heat treatment process of tightly rolled films. This technology can significantly improve the production efficiency of graphite films, reduce the production cost and improve their mechanical properties.
With the rapid development of graphene and graphene-based materials throughout the world, some new methods, new processes and new technologies [21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27], such as molecular welding, molecular assembling, flow coating and centrifugal casting, as shown in Figures 6b and 8, have been increasingly developed to fabricate graphene-based graphite films with high thermal conductivity for thermal management application. This will surely provide some reference for the preparation strategy of PI-derived graphite films. It is possible to take advantage of continuous high-temperature carbonization technology as shown in Figure 8b to fabricate large-scale PI-derived graphite films at a low cost in the future.
Schematics of producing graphene-derived films by different methods (a) the continuous centrifugal casting [
The uniform PI raw film (DuPont Kapton) with a golden color shrinks significantly after 1000°C carbonization and 3000°C graphitization under proper pressure in a vacuum furnace, and the shrinkage rate in the planar direction is about 15% × 15%. The color of the film changes from yellow to black and gray as shown in Figure 9a–c, the carbonized and graphitized samples are brittle and flexible (can be bent at a certain angle >90o at many times), respectively. The molding-press and its pressing strength on the PI films have an important role on the final quality of resultant graphite films as shown in Figure 9d–f.
Optical photographs of (a) PI raw film, its (b, d and e) 1000°C-carbonized and (c and f) 3000°C-graphitizatized samples made by various molding-press treatments ((b and c) suitable pressure; (d) no pressure; (e) insufficient pressure; and (f) excessive pressure).
As shown in Figure 10, the surface of 1000°C-carbonized carbon films (with a thickness of 50 μm for the raw film) is smooth and the thickness is still uniform, the internals of carbon films exhibit an amorphous carbon structure. After 2000°C graphitization, a local chaotic layered structure can be observed in the cross-section of the films [28]. When the graphitization temperature reaches 2400°C, the cross-section of the films presents a more uniformly oriented layered structure, and as the graphitization temperature further increases up to 3000°C, the layered structure becomes more flatted and ordered, and the graphite-like crystal structure is nearly perfect.
(a–c) PLM and (d–i) SEM images of the transversal section of PI films heat-treated at different temperatures ((a, d and g) 1000; (b, e and h) 2400; and (c, f and i) 3000°C), (g–i) are high magnification images of (d–f), respectively, and the top right inset in i is the corresponding enlargement.
The thickness and the nature of the PI films have a significant impact on the capability of forming a graphite-like crystal structure. As shown in Figure 11a–c, the PI film with a thickness of 50 μm completely forms a graphite-like layered structure with high crystallinity, and the degree of preferred orientation of the graphene layers is high. The PI films with thicknesses of 75 and 100 μm display a partial graphite-like layered structure and nearly amorphous structure with low crystallinity and poor crystalline orientation, respectively. Some small holes appear on the cross-section of graphite film, which may be related to the removal of non-carbon elements during the high-temperature graphitization process. Moreover, the nature of PI films (e.g., the variety of polymer constituent and molecular structure in various PI films produced by different manufacturers) is very critical to prepare highly oriented graphite films, which has been demonstrated in Figure 11d–f.
SEM images of the transversal section of 3000°C-graphitized films derived from Kapton PI films with different thicknesses of ((a) 50, (b) 75, (c) 100 μm) and other brand PI film with a thickness of 50 μm at different enlargements (d–f).
The PI laminated sample with a good graphite-like crystal structure as shown in Figure 12 could be prepared by a hot-press method at 2400°C under a certain pressure. It has a uniformly layered structure in the cross-section, and the stacking of PI films is regular and orderly. The PI monolayer film inside the laminated sample still maintains its complete sheet-like structure, which is conducive to the high efficient conduction of heat in the two-dimensional direction of the plane. The PI-derived laminates can be used as a bulk thermally conductive material to further expand the application field of graphite films, but the controllable preparation of such large-size and ultra-thick bulk materials (e.g., blocks) is still difficult [4].
(a) PLM and (b and c) SEM images of the transversal section of PI film-stacked block made by a suitable molding-press treatment at 2400°C.
It can be seen from the XRD patterns as shown in Figure 13a–c that the PI raw film has a certain degree of orientation owing to the arrangement of aromatic molecules. With the rise of heat treatment temperature, the intensity of diffraction peak of the (002) crystal plane of the PI sample continues to increase. Meanwhile, the microcrystallite accumulation height (Lc) and graphitization degree (g) listed in Table 1 increase step by step. After 3000°C graphitization, the interlayer spacing d002 (0.336 nm) is close to the theoretical value of single crystal graphite (0.3354 nm). The ratio of the two peaks (D and G) as shown in Figure 13d gradually decreases, especially the D peak of 2400°C-graphitized sample completely disappears, which indicates that a three-dimensional ordered graphite structure forms in the graphite film, the content of amorphous carbon and structural defects is very low, and the graphite crystalline size is large [29]. It is worth noting that the microcrystalline size and g of graphite films are affected significantly by the nature (e.g., the extent of biaxial stretching on the original film) and thickness of PI films. The microcrystals in the thick graphite films grow and crystallize slowly, and their preferred orientation is relatively low. As a comparison, the graphite films made from other brand PI show an amorphous structure after graphitization at 3000°C, their microcrystals are small and disordered. The higher the heat-treatment temperature is, the easier the structural transformation completes. Graphitization treatment results in the better growth and crystallization of graphite microcrystals and the preferable orientation of graphene layers in the graphite films.
(a–c) XRD patterns and (d) Raman spectra of various PI films ((a, b and d) Kapton; (c) other brand) heat-treated at different temperatures.
Sample | 2θ002/o | d002/nm | Lc/nm | g/% |
---|---|---|---|---|
PI raw film | 25.94 | 0.343 | 2.03 | 10 |
PI-1000°C-50 μm | 24.37 | 0.365 | 3.06 | — |
PI-2000°C-50 μm | 26.12 | 0.341 | 5.63 | 34 |
PI-2400°C-50 μm | 26.44 | 0.338 | 39.83 | 70 |
PI-2800°C-50 μm | 26.50 | 0.337 | 50.95 | 82 |
PI-3000°C-50 μm | 26.56 | 0.336 | 65.94 | 93 |
PI-3000°C-100 μm | 26.33 | 0.338 | 49.71 | 70 |
PI-3000°C-50 μma | 26.22 | 0.340 | 12.42 | 47 |
PI-3000°C-225μma | 26.01 | 0.342 | 5.63 | 23 |
Single crystal graphite | 26.58 | 0.3354 | >100 | 100 |
Microcrystalline parameters of various PI films heat-treated at different temperatures.
Other brand PI film.
Figure 14a shows the room-temperature electrical resistivities of the Kapton PI films after heat treatment at different temperatures. It can be seen that the electrical resistivities of the PI films decrease significantly with the increase of the heat treatment temperature, indicating that the electrical conductivities increase rapidly. The PI film is a polymer insulating material and its volume electrical resistivity is as high as 1016 Ω cm. After 1000°C carbonization treatment, the electrical resistivity reduces by 18 orders of magnitude, to about 54.6 μΩ m, because the PI film has undergone structural changes at this time, most of the heteroatoms are eliminated, and the carbon content increases significantly. At this stage, a local hexagonal-like carbon layer structure forms in the interior of carbon film. The electrical resistivities of the graphitized samples at 2000 and 2800°C are 5.5 and 0.82 μΩ m, respectively. The decline is not very large due to the fact that the conductive path in PI film has been formed around 2000°C. Further graphitization is only to improve its three-dimensional ordered structure with highly preferred orientation as shown in Figure 10. The electrical resistivity of the 3000°C-graphitized PI film is as low as 0.48 μΩ m, which is very close to the theoretical electrical resistivity of single crystal graphite (0.4 μΩ m) in the planar direction [30]. With the rise of heat treatment temperature, the g of PI films continues to increase as listed in Table 1, and its internal graphene layered structure with highly preferred orientation is conducive to the transmission of electrons [2, 4].
(a) Room-temperature electrical resistivities of PI films heat-treated at different temperatures in the planar direction and (b) micro-structural evolution and transformation mechanism model from PI polymer to ordered graphite film during high-temperature treatment reproduced from [
From the above discussion on the morphology and microstructure of the PI films heat-treated at different temperatures, a microstructural change model from PI polymer to ordered graphite at each stage is shown in Figure 14b [6]. The heat-treatment process can be roughly divided into four stages: the first stage (500-1000°C), the second stage (1000-2000°C), the third stage (2000-2400°C) and the fourth stage (2400-3000°C). The whole process reflects that the internal structure of the PI film gradually changes from a disorderly amorphous structure to a highly crystalline graphite structure as the heat treatment temperature progresses [4].
According to the relevant empirical formulas [31], the thermal conductivity of 3000°C-graphitized graphite films (with a thickness of ca. 25 μm) is calculated to be 1143 W/m K. Measured by a laser thermal conductivity meter (NETZSCH LFA 457), its room-temperature thermal diffusion coefficient is ~700 mm2/s, and the corresponding thermal conductivity is measured to be 994 W/m K (the bulk density and specific heat are about 2.0 g/cm3 and 0.71 J/g K, respectively). This excellent conduction performance is attributed to the highly ordered three-dimensional graphite structure of this film material.
It is well-known to all that the high-thermal-conductivity of carbon materials comes from the strong C—C covalent bonding between carbon atoms and the highly ordered graphite structure stacked by graphene layers and mainly results from the anharmonic vibration of the elastic lattice (i.e., the mutual interaction of phonons) to transfer heat [32]. Single crystal graphite has a hexagonal network layered structure and an anisotropic thermal conductivity, as shown in Figure 15a, its thermal conductivity along the a-axis direction (as high as 2000 W/m K) is much greater than that along the c-axis direction [33]. However, for carbon materials with a disordered graphite structure, the graphene layers with different sizes are stacked randomly, a lower thermal conductivity will yield unexpectedly. There are many critical factors governing the heat-dissipation performance of graphene-assembling carbon materials, such as microcrystalline size, crystalline orientation, structural defects (e.g., vacancies and substitution) and wrinkle deformation in graphene layers as shown in Figure 15b [34].
(a) Crystal structure of perfect graphite with anisotropic thermal conductivity reproduced from [
Usually, organic carbonaceous compounds are used as raw materials to prepare carbon materials. Under low temperature at about 300-1000°C, the component containing H, O, N and other non-C elements in organic compounds is gradually decomposed, and C-containing aromatic molecules continue to cyclize and aromatize, which forms C-rich material (i.e., carbon material), and finally through the graphitization process up to 3000°C, pure C material, i.e., graphite material can be obtained. Most of the chemical reactions during the carbonization of precursors are accompanied by the evolution of various gases—different hydrocarbons, carbon oxides, and H2 [35]. It is important to timely remove the pyrolytic gases from the stress-stacked PI films in the highly sealed furnace. The conversion from PI polymer film to graphite film is a typical process of solid phase carbonization. Its prominent characteristic is the similarity in morphology (and shape) of raw material and final product without experiencing a fusion process, which is different from that of liquid phase carbonization [36]. Therefore, selecting proper carbonaceous precursors (e.g. Kapton PI film) and appropriate heat treatment process (e.g., high temperature graphitization under a suitable pressure and duly degassing treatment) to control the growth, accumulation and orientation of graphite microcrystals inside the carbon materials as shown in Figure 16a [37], are essential for obtaining graphite films with high thermal conductivity.
(a) Marsh-Griffiths model of carbonization-graphitization process on a carbonaceous precursor [
As a result, the thermal conductivity of graphite films mainly depends on the nature of the polymer films and their capability of forming an ordered graphite structure through high-temperature heat treatment as diagramed in Figure 16b. There are three mainly important conditions for obtaining graphite films with high thermal conductivity as follows [2, 4, 7, 28]. Firstly, high carbon content in the large molecules and high carbon yield after carbonization treatment. Secondly, the quality of polymer films (e.g., the constituents and structure of aromatic molecules, high molecular planarity and suitable stiffness as well as molecular orientation degree through the role of biaxial stretching treatment, appropriate film thickness). Thirdly, heat treatment process control (e.g., heating treatment procedure, molding-press condition, non-carbon elements escape, and final graphitization temperature).
There is no denying that the PI-derived graphite films with high thermal conductivity after graphitization treatment have a certain degree of brittleness as shown in Figure 17a due to their high stiffness (modulus) and high crystallinity and crystalline orientation, which undoubtedly limits their wide applications. It is difficult to achieve high thermal conductivity and ideal mechanical properties for the graphite films (e.g., internally contradictory indices like high modulus (associating with thermal conductivity) and high flexibility are hardly satisfied simultaneously) except a few reports such as Refs [2, 11, 39, 40]. Nowadays, the modification by doping of PI precursor with graphene (and graphene oxide) and other precursors (e.g., polyacrylonitrile) is a good strategy to improve the flexibility of graphite films with high thermal conductivity [38, 41, 42, 43] as shown in Figure 17b. It is interesting to note that various striking cranes with good flexibility as shown in Figure 18 made with different raw materials by different methods and processes have been successfully prepared [2, 19, 38, 43].
Optical photographs of (a) highly-oriented PI-derived graphite thin sheet with improved manual handling [
Optical photographs of evolutional crane made of a PI film (a) and after carbonization (b) and graphitization (c) treatments showing good shape-retention and flexibility [
Recently, many new forms of PI-derived carbons (including carbon fibers, carbon foams, carbon aerogels and carbon blocks as shown in Figure 19, which are beyond graphite films) with a feature of high thermal conductivity have been fabricated [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. This extensive and intensive research on PI polymer will expand its application areas. Especially, ultrathick graphene film with a high thickness up to 200 μm while retaining a high thermal conductivity of 1200 W/m K has been achieved [52], which will stimulate the preparation of ultrathick (e.g., millimeter-scale) PI-derived graphite films or large graphite blocks.
(a–e) SEM images of various PI-derived carbons with high thermal conductivity ((a) carbon nanofibers [
It is well accepted that graphene-based carbon films as thermal management materials can boost the heat-dissipation performance of film materials in the planar direction [21, 22, 23, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41, 53, 54]. Through new functional composite technologies (e.g., chemical interaction as shown in Figure 20a [53], and modification treatment through doping or hybridizing with other carbonaceous precursors (graphene, carbon nanotube, etc.) and non-carbon fillers such as BN) [53, 54, 55, 56], the thermal conductivity and mechanical flexibility of resultant graphite films can be both enhanced. Furthermore, in the through-plane direction, a superhigh thermal conductivity up to 150 W/m K can be obtained by novel structure design as shown in Figure 20b [54]. This affords carbon materials with a feature of three-dimensional high thermal conductivity (it is beyond the traditional graphite materials with high thermal conductivity only in the planar direction [32]), which will further promote the wide practical applications of carbon materials in thermal management [22, 23, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59].
(a) A diagram of preparing composite films through the covalent bonding between graphene oxide and PI [
In a lab-scale study, the Kapton PI-derived graphite films (with a thickness of 50 μm for raw film) show a three-dimensional ordered structure consisting of graphene layers with highly preferred orientation and prefect graphite crystals after graphitization at 3000°C. Their electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity at room temperature in the planar direction are 0.48 μΩ m and ~ 1000 W/m K, respectively. The nature of PI precursor (the molecular structure, planar molecular orientation and film thickness, etc.) and preparation technics (e.g., heat-treatment temperature and molding pressure) have a critical influence on the final conduction performance of graphite films.
In the early time, limited by preparation technology, the thickness of PI-derived graphite films were mainly 20–50 μm, and their thermal conductivity in the planar direction was mostly 300–1000 W/m K. With the continuous improvement of production technology, high-thermal-conductivity graphite film products become more abundant, and some are even industrialized. The 10 μm-thin graphite films can approach a high thermal conductivity of 1900 W/m K. Currently, the thickest product (derived from graphene) is about 200 μm, and its thermal conductivity could reach about 1200 W/m K. However, there is still no breakthrough in the preparation of millimeter-thick graphite films and PI-derived graphite blocks with large sizes. In the future, as the application range widens, the market demand for high-thermal-conductivity graphite films will be more diversified, and the diverse products will also be developed in the direction of wider thickness and higher thermal conductivity.
The emerging modification treatment and composite technology provide a promising strategy not only to improve the comprehensive performance (e.g., high thermal conductivity and good mechanical flexibility) of PI-derived graphite films but also to prepare a variety of new forms of PI-derived carbon materials with high thermal conductivity. Furthermore, polymer-derived carbon materials with a significant feature of three-dimensional high thermal conductivity can be achieved by novel structure design.
At present, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films have been widely used in smart phones, successfully solving the heat dissipation problem of various electronic products. In the near future, with the development of miniaturization and thinning of electronics, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films and other carbon composites with good flexibility will be promisingly used in the field of thermal management as next-generation heat-dissipation components for highly integrated microelectronics, 5 G wireless communication, and high-power smart devices.
We acknowledge support of the publication fee by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52072275).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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It is present in different machines we use every day; in fact, technical systems in our homes and all the industries are hard to imagine today without these concepts. Moreover, the same theories can be used for modelling life processes as a collection of inputs, outputs, plants and control loops. Feedback is one of the main concepts behind control; in particular, several examples of physiological control mechanisms for regulating life aspects can be found in the human anatomy, for example, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body movements, the equilibrium, etc. Those processes can be damaged by the aging effects, diseases, accidents or when the mechanism has been broken and cannot be recovered naturally; consequently, it will be required external assistance. A relative new field in control theory is related with developing technology for helping with physiological and medicals problems. However, in comparison with machines, those physiological processes are highly nonlinear, with delays and slow responses. Another problem is when human becomes the operators using their capacities of decision making to close the control loop, as they are prone to errors and mistakes. For those reasons, the biomedical system needs to be carefully designed and several aspects have to be considered. This chapter gives a small review of some internal and external control processes within the human body and discusses how to interact with them for designing biomedical devices. Under this design scheme, a practical application of a smart electric wheelchair for assisting persons with strong disabilities is presented. These assistive robotic systems are in close contact with the user, and thus, it is determinant to have a user-friendly relation between the human and the interface. Therefore, intuitive interfaces were included in the design and an intelligent navigation assistant to guarantee a collision-free path.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"David Balderas and Mario Rojas",authors:[{id:"183076",title:"M.Sc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas Silva",slug:"david-balderas-silva",fullName:"David Balderas Silva"},{id:"184877",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",slug:"mario-rojas",fullName:"Mario Rojas"}]},{id:"51070",title:"Fuzzy PD Controller in NAO System's Platform",slug:"fuzzy-pd-controller-in-nao-system-s-platform",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humanoid robotic platforms rarely achieve the desire trajectory because of the deviation generated during the robot walking. This problem is due to different circumstances such as robot manufacturing, wear and tear of mechanic parts, or variations of floor flatness. Currently, one of the humanoid robots on the market is the robotic platform developed by Aldebaran Robotics called NAO robot, and it is used for different purposes where the robot needs to navigate into controlled spaces. NAO presents the issue of deviation during walking; therefore, a Fuzzy PD Controller is developed and implemented for this platform to reduce the orientation error and to ensure reliability during navigation. Inertial sensors are used to get the orientation reference and for feedback of the closed-loop control. Consequently, a robust control was implemented and tested in different conditions of floor and velocity during the robot’s navigation such as robot races and maze resolution. Experimental results show that fuzzy controller achieves significant improvements in the trajectories of NAO.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Edgar Omar López‐Caudana and César Daniel González Gutiérrez",authors:[{id:"26464",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Lopez-Caudana",slug:"edgar-lopez-caudana",fullName:"Edgar Lopez-Caudana"},{id:"185936",title:"Mr.",name:"César Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"González Gutiérrez",slug:"cesar-daniel-gonzalez-gutierrez",fullName:"César Daniel González Gutiérrez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"257",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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