\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8939",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Horticulture - Necessity of the Future",title:"Urban Horticulture",subtitle:"Necessity of the Future",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Urban horticulture is a means of utilizing every little space available in cities amidst buildings and other constructions for growing plants. It utilizes this space to raise gardens that can be economically productive while contributing to environmental greening. It can boost food and ornamental plants production, provide job opportunities, promote green space development, waste recycling, and urban landscaping, and result in improved environment. This book covers a wide array of topics on this subject and constitutes a valuable reference guide for students, professors, researchers, builders, and horticulturists concerned with urban horticulture, city planning, biodiversity, and the sustainable development of horticultural resources.",isbn:"978-1-83880-513-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-512-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-631-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82900",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"urban-horticulture-necessity-of-the-future",numberOfPages:180,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5db1ff90f7e404baf4e42cdfbe0b9755",bookSignature:"Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Shirin Akhtar, Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodriguez-Fuentes, Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras and Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8939.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12306,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"210702",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashank Shekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Solankey",slug:"shashank-shekhar-solankey",fullName:"Shashank Shekhar Solankey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210702/images/system/210702.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Shashank Shekhar Solankey is presently working as Assistant Professor–cum–Jr. Scientist (Horticulture: Vegetable Science) at Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour (Bhagalpur), India. He received a doctorate in Horticulture from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. He has more than seven years of experience in teaching and research. His research focus is improvement of vegetable crops, especially tomato and okra. Dr. Solankey was awarded the Best Teacher Award and Best Researcher Award in 2016 by BAU, and has twelve other prestigious awards. He has published fifty-five research/review papers, one souvenir paper, six books, one abstract book, and thirty-three book chapters. He is young, dynamic, and wishes to flourish in the field of academia and publications.",institutionString:"Bihar Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bihar Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"295101",title:"Dr.",name:"Shirin",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"shirin-akhtar",fullName:"Shirin Akhtar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/295101/images/system/295101.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Shirin Akhtar is an enthusiastic and young faculty member at Bihar Agricultural University (BAU), Sabour, Bhagalpur, India. Her field of specialization is vegetable breeding. She received a PhD from Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal. Her areas of research are biotic and abiotic stress resistance as well as quality improvement in vegetables, particularly solanaceous crops and okra. She is engaged in teaching undergraduate, postgraduate, and PhD courses and mentoring postgraduate and doctoral students towards new research ideas. She has authored two books, ten book chapters, more than forty research articles in journals of national and international repute, and several popular articles and folders.",institutionString:"Bihar Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bihar Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105774/images/system/105774.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado received a PhD in Agricultural Sciences from Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan, in 2009. He began his career as a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering at the Autonomous University of Nuevo León in 1992 and was trained in the design and automation of agro-industrial machinery at the Japan International Cooperation Agency. Professor Luna Maldonado became an assistant professor in 1996 and a professor in 2018. He has published thirty-three articles, five book chapters, and four books. He has advised six doctoral theses, five master\\'s theses, and three undergraduate theses. He has served as the head of the educational program of Food Industry Engineering, which has been internationally accredited by Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), since 2009. He has been a member of the Mexican Council of Science and Technology since 2012, and the Program for the Development Teaching Professional (PRODEP) since 2003. He has also been a member of the American Society of Agricultural Engineering since 2012, and the Japanese Society of Agricultural Machinery since 2007.",institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"130491",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Fuentes",slug:"humberto-rodriguez-fuentes",fullName:"Humberto Rodriguez-Fuentes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/130491/images/system/130491.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Humberto Rodriguez-Fuentes is Professor of Environment and Sustainability at the Autonomous University of Nuevo León, Mexico. He graduated with a doctorate in Agricultural Sciences with a specialty in Water-Soil from the same university. He has forty years of experience in teaching and research. His research is mainly focused in the area of plant factories for the production of highly nutritious vegetables. Since 1990 he has been a national researcher distinguished by the government of Mexico in Biotechnology and Agricultural Sciences. He has published six textbooks, twelve book chapters, and more than fifty articles in journals with strict national/international arbitration. He is also the editor of three books with international distribution.",institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"215230",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Vidales Contreras",slug:"juan-antonio-vidales-contreras",fullName:"Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215230/images/system/215230.jpeg",biography:"Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras, MSc, PhD is an agricultural engineer. Since 1985, he has been a full-time professor at the School of Agronomy at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon (UANL), Mexico. He received an Agronomy Engineer degree at the same university on 1984. His PhD was awarded by the University of Arizona in 2001. Dr. Vidales Contreras has published more than fifty original research papers in indexed journals, five book chapters, and has participated and contributed in more than twenty scientific meetings.",institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorFive:{id:"299825",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Márquez Reyes",slug:"julia-mariana-marquez-reyes",fullName:"Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/299825/images/system/299825.png",biography:"Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes obtained a PhD in Biotechnology from Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon (UANL), Mexico, in 2013. She specializes in bioreactors with anaerobic activity for the removal of contaminants, phytoremediation for the control of heavy metals in water and soil, enzymatic activity and antioxidant capacity of plant organisms used in environmental biotechnology, and development of sustainable technologies. She began her career as a lecturer of Balance of Matter and Energy, Unit Operations, Environmental Microbiology at UANL. Dr. Márquez Reyes became an assistant professor in 2018. She has been a member of the Mexican Council for Science and Technology since 2009. She has published six scientific papers and one book chapter.",institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},topics:[{id:"304",title:"Urban Agriculture",slug:"urban-agriculture"}],chapters:[{id:"70957",title:"Nutrients for Hydroponic Systems in Fruit Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90991",slug:"nutrients-for-hydroponic-systems-in-fruit-crops",totalDownloads:1520,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hydroponic systems for crop production are nowadays essential to maximize yields. Sometimes, the benefits of hydroponics have been questioned by the researchers as compared to growing of crops in other soilless culture. The growers raised the crops through hydroponics system get yields more compared to conventional practices as hydroponically grown plants dip their roots directly into nutrient-rich solutions. Therefore, the aim of the current chapter is to provide accurate and updated information about their different nutrients and their composition used hydroponically compared to conventional production mode. This chapter will be divided as the following sections: (1) rationale, (2) nutrient solution technique, and (3) work done on fruit crops. With this chapter, we hope to present an updated information, comparing hydroponic versus conventional technique.",signatures:"Pramod Kumar and Simran Saini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70957",authors:[{id:"253238",title:"Dr.",name:"Pramod",surname:"Kumar",slug:"pramod-kumar",fullName:"Pramod Kumar"},{id:"316834",title:"Ms.",name:"Simran",surname:"Saini",slug:"simran-saini",fullName:"Simran Saini"}],corrections:null},{id:"69007",title:"Hydroponic Systems for Arabidopsis Extended to Crop Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89110",slug:"hydroponic-systems-for-arabidopsis-extended-to-crop-plants",totalDownloads:916,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When using Arabidopsis grown hydroponically for gene and drug discovery, a method for translating this approach to crop (and weed) species needs articulation and investigation. In this review, we describe existing inexpensive, frequently aseptic, hydroponic systems for Arabidopsis and compare them to other hydroponic methods for gene and drug discovery in crop plants. Besides gene and drug discovery, an important use of hydroponic analysis is for understanding growth in controlled, enclosed systems, such as during spaceflight and in simulated extra-terrestrial environments. When done initially with Arabidopsis, will these results apply to the growth of other species? We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of existing translational hydroponic approaches whereby results with Arabidopsis extend to other plant species. We find that the existing or slightly modified hydroponic approaches used in Arabidopsis research extend well to crop plants that grow upright about 40 cm in height, e.g., monocots, such as rice, and dicots, such as soybean. However, other, taller species such as maize, or vining species such as tomato, require extensive modification to provide larger enclosures and root stabilization.",signatures:"Lawrence Griffing and Krishna Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69007",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69007",authors:[{id:"302680",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Lawrence",surname:"Griffing",slug:"lawrence-griffing",fullName:"Lawrence Griffing"},{id:"310017",title:"MSc.",name:"Krishna",surname:"Kumar",slug:"krishna-kumar",fullName:"Krishna Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70662",title:"Automation and Robotics Used in Hydroponic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90438",slug:"automation-and-robotics-used-in-hydroponic-system",totalDownloads:2848,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hydroponic system requires periodic labor, a systematic approach, repetitive motion and a structured environment. Automation, robotics and IoT have allowed farmers to monitoring all the variables in plant, root zone and environment under hydroponics. This research introduces findings in design with real time operating systems based on microcontrollers; pH fuzzy logic control system for nutrient solution in embed and flow hydroponic culture; hydroponic system in combination with automated drip irrigation; expert system-based automation system; automated hydroponics nutrition plants systems; hydroponic management and monitoring system for an intelligent hydroponic system using internet of things and web technology; neural network-based fault detection in hydroponics; additional technologies implemented in hydroponic systems and robotics in hydroponic systems. The above advances will improve the efficiency of hydroponics to increase the quality and quantity of the produce and pose an opportunity for the growth of the hydroponics market in near future.",signatures:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes, Héctor Flores Breceda, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes, Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras and Urbano Luna Maldonado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70662",authors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"},{id:"215230",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Antonio",surname:"Vidales Contreras",slug:"juan-antonio-vidales-contreras",fullName:"Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras"},{id:"299825",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia Mariana",surname:"Márquez Reyes",slug:"julia-mariana-marquez-reyes",fullName:"Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes"},{id:"220744",title:"MSc.",name:"Héctor",surname:"Flores Breceda",slug:"hector-flores-breceda",fullName:"Héctor Flores Breceda"},{id:"252026",title:"Dr.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Rodríguez-Fuentes",slug:"humberto-rodriguez-fuentes",fullName:"Humberto Rodríguez-Fuentes"},{id:"303920",title:"Prof.",name:"Urbano",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"urbano-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Urbano Luna Maldonado"}],corrections:null},{id:"71186",title:"Application of Nanotechnology Solutions in Plants Fertilization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91240",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-solutions-in-plants-fertilization",totalDownloads:1461,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Post-modern society is viewed nowadays as a technologized society, where the great solutions to human problems can be solved by the progress of technology in economics from classical industry to communications. In the last years, nanotechnology is called to play an important part in the global food production, food security and food safety in the sense that the use of nanoscale micronutrients conduced to suppressing crop disease and the relationship between nutritional status and plant diseases is investigated. Nanomaterials are capable to penetrate into cells of herbs; they can carry DNA and other chemical compounds in the cells extending the possibility in plant biotechnology to target special gene manipulation. It is important to note that the concentration, plant organ or tissue, exposure rate, elemental form, plant species, and exposure dosage (chronic/acute) affect the plant response and in particular the distinct stress response. The complex process of utilization nanoparticles in agriculture has to be monitored to a level that avoids further environmental contamination. The present and future use of nanoparticles as micronutrients is affected by different risks related to nanotoxicity of micronutrients, a problem to be solved by an appropriate and safe circuit of nanoparticles in soil, water, plants and at last in human organism.",signatures:"Daniela Predoi, Rodica V. Ghita, Simona Liliana Iconaru, Carmen Laura Cimpeanu and Stefania Mariana Raita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71186",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. Ghita"},{id:"183930",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Predoi",slug:"daniela-predoi",fullName:"Daniela Predoi"},{id:"313256",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Liliana",surname:"Iconaru",slug:"simona-liliana-iconaru",fullName:"Simona Liliana Iconaru"},{id:"313258",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen Laura",surname:"Cimpeanu",slug:"carmen-laura-cimpeanu",fullName:"Carmen Laura Cimpeanu"},{id:"313260",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania Mariana",surname:"Raita",slug:"stefania-mariana-raita",fullName:"Stefania Mariana Raita"}],corrections:null},{id:"72163",title:"Nutritive Solutions Formulated from Organic Fertilizers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89955",slug:"nutritive-solutions-formulated-from-organic-fertilizers",totalDownloads:958,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter shows how organic fertilizers can provide essential nutrients soluble to plants, so as to be used in hydroponic systems in its various forms. Such materials are an important source of macro- and micronutrients. This form of plant nutrition can contribute to the sustainable production of food, both in developed and developing countries. Nutrient solutions can be formulated when soluble nutrients are extracted from the solid phase of organic manure. In some vegetables, equal yields, or sometimes higher, have been obtained in nutritive solutions formulated with synthetic chemical fertilizers. It has also been documented that the resulting edible products can be of a better nutraceutical quality. Ions can be obtained by means of preparations based on teas, extracts, leachates, digestate, urine, aquaculture, etc. Subsequently they must be diluted in water until reaching a level of electrical conductivity according to the tolerance levels of the crop to be established. The heterogeneity of the chemical composition of the solutions obtained is the main point that must be attended with the greatest possible precision to formulate the nutritive solutions and obtain satisfactory results. Therefore, it is necessary to measure the concentration of macro- and micronutrients (NO3−, NH4+, SO4=, H2PO4−, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Fe+++, Cu++, Mn++, Zn++, Cl−) as well as the Na+ ion (which is usually at high levels); it will also be necessary to adjust the pH. In addition, the chapter presents a broad overview and a series of research results in recent years: composition of solutions, nutrient supplements, substrates, and floating root trials in tomato, lettuce, cantaloupe melon, and green fodder. The environmental implications of inappropriate formulations are also analyzed. The nutritious solution, formulated from organic fertilizers, is not only an alternative for the nutrition of agricultural crops, but it also represents a more efficient way to use these resources.",signatures:"Juan Carlos Rodríguez Ortiz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72163",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72163",authors:[{id:"304656",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Rodríguez Ortiz",slug:"juan-carlos-rodriguez-ortiz",fullName:"Juan Carlos Rodríguez Ortiz"}],corrections:null},{id:"70921",title:"Installation of Vegetable Based Roof Gardens in Schools From Recyclable Materials: A Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90721",slug:"installation-of-vegetable-based-roof-gardens-in-schools-from-recyclable-materials-a-study",totalDownloads:605,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study aimed to reflect on the socio-environmental issues and the action of the gardens in urban/school spaces, considering garden as a methodological instrument for the interdisciplinary activities related to family farming, using the descriptive methodology and study of literary review with proposals of gardens using recyclable materials depicted through images created using the software AutoCAD. Through the study, it was possible to plan gardens using recyclable materials in environments of small spaces. The crops employed will be vegetables for school meals. The activities carried out in the garden contribute to the change in the habits and attitudes of students regarding the perception they possess of nature, the formation of awareness of respect and care, the need to conserve the environment and stimulate the pursuit of improvement of quality of life in other ways of seeing the activities performed by their own parents in the field.",signatures:"Adriana Maria dos Santos, Mariana Paiva Baracuhy, Dermeval Araújo Furtado, Romulo Wilker Neri de Andrade, Jackson Rômulo de Sousa Leite and Fabiana Terezinha Leal de Morais",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70921",authors:[{id:"306826",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Dos Santos",slug:"adriana-dos-santos",fullName:"Adriana Dos Santos"},{id:"310926",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Paiva Baracuhy",slug:"marina-paiva-baracuhy",fullName:"Marina Paiva Baracuhy"},{id:"310927",title:"Dr.",name:"Dermeval",surname:"Araújo Furtado",slug:"dermeval-araujo-furtado",fullName:"Dermeval Araújo Furtado"},{id:"310928",title:"Dr.",name:"Jackson",surname:"Rômulo De Sousa Leite",slug:"jackson-romulo-de-sousa-leite",fullName:"Jackson Rômulo De Sousa Leite"},{id:"310929",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Terezinha Leal De Morais",slug:"fabiana-terezinha-leal-de-morais",fullName:"Fabiana Terezinha Leal De Morais"},{id:"310930",title:"Mr.",name:"Romulo",surname:"Wilker Neri De Andrade",slug:"romulo-wilker-neri-de-andrade",fullName:"Romulo Wilker Neri De Andrade"}],corrections:null},{id:"70563",title:"Urban Horticulture in Sub-Saharan Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90722",slug:"urban-horticulture-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Horticultural crops refer to fruits, vegetables, spices, and ornamental and medicinal plants which are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. Rapid urbanization and migration of rural populace to the more industrialized city center has led to poverty, malnutrition, low and insecure incomes, ill-health and other livelihood problems. These problems are mostly seen among the people residing in urban areas who have migrated from rural areas. Urban horticulture ensures food and nutrition security, healthy environment and sustainable livelihoods, employment generation, among others. As such, this chapter carried out an empirical review of the state of urban horticulture in cities across sub-Sahara Africa. This is to enumerate ways whereby the benefits of urban horticulture can be specified in the region. It concluded that governments in the different countries need the political will to actualize identified benefits of urban horticulture. The chapter then recommends sensitization of the pertinent stakeholders in countries across sub-Saharan Africa on the benefits of urban horticulture. Such stakeholders include politicians, policy makers and urban households. This is in order to integrate the concept into urban land use planning while carefully considering sustainability of the environment.",signatures:"Ifeoluwapo Amao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70563",authors:[{id:"223341",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoluwapo",surname:"Amao",slug:"ifeoluwapo-amao",fullName:"Ifeoluwapo Amao"}],corrections:null},{id:"70892",title:"Soil Quality Problems Associated with Horticulture in the Southern Urban and Peri-Urban Area of Buenos Aires, Argentina",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90351",slug:"soil-quality-problems-associated-with-horticulture-in-the-southern-urban-and-peri-urban-area-of-buen",totalDownloads:652,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Horticulture is the main productive activity of south Buenos Aires city peri-urban sector. This activity is carried out with intensive land use, based on the high use of inputs, which has generated important pollution and soil degradation problems. Soil degradation processes have their origin in the poor quality irrigation water (sodium bicarbonate) and in the indiscriminate use of fertilizers and organic fertilizers, without considering the requirements of the crop and soil analysis. The results of a large number of surveys in the area, specified in the following chapter, showed salinization, pH increase, structure quality loss, organic matter decrease and phosphorus hyperfertilization. On the other hand, urban gardens are increasingly common, that is, the production of vegetables for own consumption within the urban framework. In this case, the problems are related to the type of soils where it occurs, and they are in general highly modified lands that almost completely lost their natural characteristics and are usually not favorable for plant growth. The results from the cases studied in La Plata city showed that urban soils have low organic carbon content, high bulk density and high pH. In these soils, the horticultural production with agroecological base managed an increase in the organic carbon content and a decrease in the apparent density.",signatures:"Paladino Ileana, Sokolowski Ana Clara, Prack Mc Cormick Barbara, José Enrique Wolski and Rodríguez Hernán y Mauro Navas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70892",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70892",authors:[{id:"310271",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ileana",surname:"Paladino",slug:"ileana-paladino",fullName:"Ileana Paladino"},{id:"310288",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ana Clara",surname:"Sokolowski",slug:"ana-clara-sokolowski",fullName:"Ana Clara Sokolowski"}],corrections:null},{id:"70915",title:"Historical Gardens as an Inspiration for the Future of Urban Horticultural Gardens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90350",slug:"historical-gardens-as-an-inspiration-for-the-future-of-urban-horticultural-gardens",totalDownloads:812,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Through\ufeffout the history people \ufeffincorporated designed gardens in their closest living environment. They shaped their environment in \ufeffsuch a way \ufeffas to make it more useful, pleasing, and nicer. The old ancient civilization already created gardens that amazed \ufeffanyone visiting the city—\ufeffa good example are the great cities of Mesopotamia with hanging gardens and city entrance gardens dedicated to flowers, shrubs, and trees, creating \ufeffa feeling of being in paradise. \ufeffRenaissance gardens brought a great diversity of new garden motifs and innovations, while \ufeffBaroque gardens presented the whole city in themselves, creating \ufeffgreen walls and green architecture. The nineteenth century \ufeffwith its industrial revolution offered \ufeffnew technologies, new way\ufeffs of designing and adjusting the nature to man’s need. 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Through different motifs of historical gardens, we can find possibilities for \ufefftoday\ufeff’s and future urban horticultural gardens.",signatures:"Ines Babnik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70915",authors:[{id:"310886",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ines",surname:"Babnik",slug:"ines-babnik",fullName:"Ines Babnik"}],corrections:null},{id:"71024",title:"Implication of Urban Agriculture and Vertical Farming for Future Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91133",slug:"implication-of-urban-agriculture-and-vertical-farming-for-future-sustainability",totalDownloads:1889,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Urban agriculture (UA) is defined as the production of agricultural goods (crop) and livestock goods within urban areas like cities and towns. In the modern days, the urbanization process has raised a question on the sustainable development and growing of urban population. 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These factors are responsible for the “checks and balances” of a population of living organisms. The event where living organisms live and die a natural death unaided by man is termed “natural control”. Weather (abiotic or non‐living factors) is an important factor in natural control; temperature and humidity are determinants of the survival of living organisms. Availability of competition (biotic factors) is also an important determinant for the survival of living organisms [1]. Many organisms are killed by pathogens (disease‐causing agents) such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites (parasitoids) and predators [1].
\nLiving organisms, which are considered undesirable, are generally referred to as pests. Environmental factors (such as weather, geography and soil conditions) which affect pest populations generally vary from one location to another and changes through time. A combination of these factors may substantially reduce the pest population in one geographical area and make it more abundant in another. Pests sometimes outwit their natural enemies and grow to very high population density. To keep their population in check will necessitate the manipulation of the population of their natural enemies by man. This is termed biological control or simply biocontrol. Biocontrol is therefore defined as “any activity of one species that reduces the adverse effect of another” [1]. Biocontrol can also be defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities” [2]. Biological control differs from natural control in that the latter does not involve human manipulation. The organism that suppresses the pest population is generally referred to as a biological control agent (BCA).
\nA parasite is an organism that lives and feeds in or on a host [3]. Parasites that invade and live within the host are referred to as endoparasites; meanwhile, those that live on the surface without invading the host are referred to as ectoparasites. Endoparasites include helminths and protozoa, and ectoparasites are fleas, ticks, mites, insects and so on. Parasites are a major cause of disease in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and economic loss. The biocontrol of parasites therefore entails the use of BCAs to suppress the population of the parasites.
\nThis chapter focuses on the biological control of parasites, providing a brief history of biocontrol; their advantages and disadvantages; types of BCAs including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); their effect on the native biodiversity; a few case studies of successful implementation of biocontrol; challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol strategies and finally their future perspectives.
\nThe concept of biological control is not entirely new. The ancient Egyptians were probably the first to employ biocontrol dating some 4000 years ago, when they observed that cats fed on rodents, which damaged their crops. This most likely led to the domestication of the house cat [4]. However, the first record of biocontrol is from China. As early as the third century, a nest of the ants
Images of some common parasites/pests (centre cycle) and biological control agents (external cycles) used in the biocontrol of parasites.
Between 1850 and 1887, the concept of biological control switched to the United States. In 1870, Charles V. Riley was the first person to conduct the successful movement of parasitoids for biological control when parasitoids were moved from Kirkwood, Missouri, to other parts of the United States for the control of the weevil (
Between 1930 and 1940, there was a peak in biological control activity in the world with 57 different biological control agents established at various places. During World War II, there was a sharp drop in biological control activity and after the war, biological control did not regain popularity due to the production of relatively inexpensive synthetic pesticides. It was not until the late 1960s that the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) was implemented, and biological control was seen as a core component of IPM by some [5]. The other components of IPM are habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices and the use of resistant varieties.
\nControl of parasites nowadays is mainly by the use of chemicals (pesticides), but the commonly used chemicals are fast losing their effectiveness as a result of resistance arising from indiscriminate use. Moreover, pesticides present a danger to people, the environment, their residual build‐up and their effect on non‐target organisms such as beneficial insects, birds, domestic animals and sometimes the crop itself. A suitable alternative to the growing problem is biological (natural) control. Under ideal conditions, biocontrol has sustainability, which is lacking in the other methods of parasite control. There are several methods through which biological control of parasites could be achieved, including the use of predators (such as arthropods, mites, flies, beetles, amphibians, fish, birds, rodents, etc.), parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes).
\nBiocontrol offers some advantages over other pest‐control strategies, particularly chemical pesticides. These advantages include as follows:
\nIt is environmentally friendly and safe to the applicator.
There are no residues.
Biocontrol could be very economical in some cases.
Biocontrol is easy to apply; in many cases, we are merely manipulating something to favour naturally occurring controls.
Biological control is sometimes lasting, thereby eliminating the needs for continuous reapplication as is necessary with pesticides.
Biocontrol is easily established
BCAs are frequently very host specific.
Unlike chemical methods, pests do not become resistant against BCAs.
The disadvantages of biocontrol include as follows:
\nBiocontrol is often slow. In biocontrol of pests, there is often a lag time between build‐up of the pest population and build‐up of the biocontrol agent. If a pest population is already at or above economically damaging levels, pesticides are the only alternative.
BCAs do not completely eliminate their host [6]. If they do, they would also die. However, biological control may be integrated with other pest control strategies to achieve complete eradication.
With biocontrol, there is the possibility that the BCA may tend to feed on the desired plants or insect, that is, crossovers [7–9]. Careful selection of the BCA will minimize this problem.
BCAs are frequently ineffective in multiple weed complexes when used in biocontrol of weeds. This may be because the weed and the crop are so closely related that the control agent affects both the pest and the crop.
The shipping, storage and application techniques of BCA can be relatively complex. Production of the BCA is also costly in some cases.
Biocontrol sometimes may be costly compared to conventional methods. The high cost is usually attributed to the research that has to be done prior to implementation of the biocontrol strategy.
Biocontrol if not well conceived may lead to dramatic changes in native biodiversity.
Biocontrol of insects may include predators (e.g. spiders), parasites (parasitoids) or pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and nematodes (see Figure 1).
\nPredators can be vertebrates or invertebrates, some of which are arachnids, but deployment of insects is most common. The efficiency of predators in controlling populations of some ticks in different habitats varies and may reach up to 100% [10, 11]. For example, predation has been observed to be lower in tall grass areas than in short grass areas [12]. Likewise, predation has been observed to be two to eight times higher in open areas than in thick pasture areas and non‐intensive pasture or agricultural areas [13]. The different types of predators can be classified as invertebrates and vertebrates.
\nSpiders prey on many insects. Spiders have a defined habitat; a change in the habitat such as mulching may increase their population by as much as 60% [14, 15]. River prawns have been observed to prey on snails [16]. Insect herbivores including the cell‐content feeder
Some mites are nematode predators. For example, some mites (
Use of the predatory fly,
Around 27 species of ants from 16 genera mainly
Dung beetles of the family Scarabaeidae (Scarabaeinae, Geotropinae and Aphodiinae) are useful in the control of pasture livestock flies since they breed primarily in cow pats. In addition, dung beetles such as
Dragonflies (see Figure 1) may look like scary biters, but they are only dangerous to mosquitoes. Dragonfly larvae, “nymphs”, feed on mosquito larvae, and adult dragonflies feed on adult mosquitoes [28]. On the other hand, water bugs,
The water tortoise
Some lizards can eat arthropods. The lizard stomach may contain as many as 2.5–15 ticks/stomach. However, because there are few lizards near the bird nest, their effect on the tick population may be limited [21]. The Australian gecko
Birds are generally thought to be the main predators of insects. Some bird species are known to pick off ticks from the host during flight or collect them from the ground. Birds also eat the larvae of dung flies. One approach for biocontrol of trematodes is the control of the snail intermediate host. Domestic fowls and birds are predators of snails. Scrub jays have been observed to spend 89% of their time searching deer for ectoparasites [36]. In Africa, chickens are natural predators of ticks and actually pick ticks from the bodies of cattle as they lie down as well as from the vegetation [37].
\nSome mammals are insectivorous. As an example,
Parasites that attack other parasites are generally referred to as parasitoids. Parasitoids are very diverse in appearance, biology and the hosts they attack. Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as food for the developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies and may have a very narrow host range. The most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly; chalcid wasps, which parasitize eggs and larvae of greenfly, whitefly [40], cabbage caterpillars and scale insects and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval beetles and true bugs [37, 41–44].
\nPathogenic fungi can be classified into two: entomopathogenic fungi and nematopathogenic fungi.
\nFungi that infect and kill arthropod (insects, ticks or mites) pests are referred to as “entomopathogenic fungi”. Over 750 species of entomopathogenic fungi have been identified, a majority of them belong to the phylum Ascomycota and a few to the phylum Zygomycota and Ascomycotina [45]. Unlike the other BCAs, some fungi do not need to be ingested by the host [33]; entomopathogenic fungi produce spores as the insect comes in contact with these spores either on the body of dead insects or surfaces or in the air as airborne particles; the spores germinate in the presence of high humidity and produce germ tubes that allow them to penetrate the cuticle of the insect, usually at joints or creases where the insect’s protective covering is thinner [46]. Death usually follows between 4 and 10 days, depending on the type of fungus and the number of infecting spores. Other fungi cause death by the production of toxins (mycotoxin). After death, the fungus produces thousands of new spores on the dead body, which disperse and continue their life cycle on new hosts. Some species go into a resting stage, which survive periods of adverse conditions before forming or releasing spores. The ascomycetes together with the mitosporic fungi are most widely used for biocontrol of pests.
\nThe most commonly investigated entomopathogenic fungi belong to the genera
Hyphomycetes of the genera
Other fungi species that are increasingly being used as BCAs include the Oomycetes,
The entomophthorales are another group of fungi that are able to cause natural outbreaks in insect populations and are also promising as good BCAs [56]. Several different
The ascomycetes,
Fungi that infect and kill nematodes (worms) are referred to as nematopathogenic fungi. Over 150 species of fungi are known to invade nematodes. Nematode‐destroying fungi can be grouped into three: nematode‐trapping fungi, the endoparasitic fungi and the fungal parasites of cyst and root‐knot nematodes. Most nematopathogenic fungi fall in the group of nematode trapping; they use constricting (active) or non‐constricting (inactive) rings, sticky hyphae, sticky knobs, sticky branches or sticky networks at intervals along the length of a widely distributed vegetative hyphal system to trap and kill nematodes by penetration and growth of hyphal elements within the host, for example,
The most important entomopathogenic bacteria belong to the genera of
Mosquito larvae are also susceptible to
The bacterial pathogen,
Another bacterium,
Bacteria belonging to the following genera have been tested for the control of plant parasitic nematodes including
Nota bene: The Rickettsiae are a diverse group of bacteria, which cause diseases to humans and warm‐blooded animals, and are transmitted by a number of arthropods such as ticks, fleas and so on. Some of these bacteria tend to parasitize these arthropods [83]. For example, ticks have become adapted as vectors, reservoirs and/or propagation sites of Rickettsiae [84] and often harbour generalized asymptomatic infections. Rickettsial infection may lead to alterations in tick behaviour, interfere with their development and cause pathological changes in salivary glands and ovarian tissues. In severe cases, infection may lead to death [85]. However, the use of Rickettsiae in biocontrol is not a reliable method.
\nThousands of entomopathogenic viruses have been described but only a few, belonging to the families Entomopoxviridae (Entomopoxviruses, EPVs), Reoviridae (Cypoviruses, CPVs) and Baculoviridae (Baculoviruses, BVs), have been used successfully in controlling pest population [86]. The mode of pathogenesis and replication of entomopathogenic viruses varies according to the family, but infection nearly always occurs by ingestion [46]. The baculovirus (see Figure 1) is the most widely exploited virus group for biocontrol [87, 88]; they are very different from viruses that infect vertebrates and are considered very safe to use. The family Baculoviridae contains four genera: Alphabaculovirus (lepidopteran‐specific NPVs), Betabaculovirus (lepidopteran‐specific GVs), Gammabaculovirus (hymenopteran‐specific NPVs) and Deltabaculovirus (dipteran‐specific NPVs) [89]. At present, there are approximately 16 biopesticides based on baculoviruses available for use or are under development. The majority of these products are targeted against Lepidoptera. For example, codling moth granulovirus, CpGV (Cydia pomonella Granulovirus), is an effective biopesticide of codling moth caterpillar pests of apples, Gemstar LC (NPV of
The leafhopper‐infecting virus, Homalodisca coagulate virus‐1 (HoCV‐1, Dicistroviridae), has been shown to increase leafhopper mortality [90, 91]. The virus occurs in nature and spreads most readily at high population densities through contact among infected individuals, contact with virus‐contaminated surfaces and/or as an aerosol in leafhopper excreta.
\nVery little attention has been given to entomopathogenic protozoans. Some protozoa such as
Numerous nematodes belonging to the genera
The nematode
Earthworm population consume a large volume of soil and organic matter such as animal faeces. During feeding, they consume nematodes present in the soil and faeces. In different parts of the world, earthworms are responsible for natural biological control of trichostrongyle nematodes. For example, in northern Europe, earthworms play an important and often dominating role in removal of cattle dung from pastures and can be responsible for significant reduction of infective larvae of trichostrongyle nematodes on the pasture [103].
\nFor more information about the life cycle, safety, production and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) of biological control agents, see Khater [46].
\nBiocontrol may have potential positive or negative effects on the diversity of native species. One of the major problems with biocontrol is the effect of the BCA on non‐target species; the purpose of introduction of a BCA is to reduce the competitive advantage of exotic species that has previously invaded or been introduced there over the native species. However, the introduced BCA does not always target only the intended species; it can also target native species. Therefore, when introducing a BCA to a new area, a primary concern is its host specificity. BCA not targeting one species or a narrow range of species often makes for poor BCA and may become invasive species themselves. For this reason, potential BCA should be subject to extensive testing and quarantine before release to any environment. If an introduced species attacks the native species, this can lead to widespread changes in the biodiversity in that area. A classic example of biocontrol gone wrong is the cane toad that was introduced in Australia to control the introduced French’s cane beetle and the Greyback cane beetle [104]. The toad instead was feeding on the native insect and soon took over native amphibian habitat and brought foreign disease to native toads and frogs, dramatically reducing their population.
\nAnother notable example where biocontrol has gone wrong is in the introduction of the small Asian mongoose (
Furthermore, the sturdy and prolific eastern mosquitofish (
On the other hand, the replacement of the target species with another species which constitute more of a nuisance and for which the BCA does not normally attack is another challenge of biocontrol. This has happened in the past, for example in Douglas county, Oregon, USA, where Klamath weed populations were sharply reduced by biocontrol agents only to be replaced by tansy ragwort
There are three broad approaches to biocontrol.
\nImportation involves the importation, screening and release of natural enemies to permanently establish effective natural enemies in a new area. Importation (also referred to as “classical biological control”) usually targets introduced (non‐native) pests in an area where their natural enemies normally do not exist. Native pests that are not adequately controlled by existing natural enemies may also be the target of classical biocontrol. The introduction of natural enemies to control the population of a pest is usually tightly regulated and is conducted solely by the federal or state agencies compared to the following two approaches that can be done by anyone [115]. This is necessary so that we do not import “solutions” that become more serious than the “problems” themselves.
\nAugmentative biological control typically involves the purchase and release of natural enemies that are already present in an area but not in quantity, enough to adequately keep in check the pest population in a particular location. The goal of this approach is simply to increase the number of natural enemies temporarily and therefore decrease the pest population in the area [115].
\nRelease of natural enemies may take one of these forms: inundation or inoculation. With inundation, the target area is flooded with a large number of the natural enemies. Ideally, such a release will bring the pest(s) under control quickly, and it is hoped that the natural enemies will become permanently established in the area. Meanwhile, inoculation of an area usually involves much lower numbers. It is designed to allow establishment of a biological control agent in an area. Or such a release may be used merely to improve the natural enemy/pest ratio [116].
\nThis involves practices to conserve the population of natural enemies, thereby improving their effectiveness in the control of pests. Such practices include farming and gardening that provide the necessary resources for their survival and protect them from toxins and other adverse conditions. These conservative practices will benefit all natural enemies, whether native or imported or released through augmentation. This approach is frequently overlooked, yet it is just as important as the other two approaches [115].
\nOne of the most foretold stories of the success of biocontrol on a large scale is the eradication of the cottony cushion scale (origin: Australia) which was a serious threat to the citrus industry. The cottony cushion scale (
Water hyacinth is a free‐floating aquatic weed of South American origin and ranks among the top 10 weeds worldwide. It is one of the most noxious weeds known to man and has spread to at least 50 countries around the globe. The weed grows and occupies water surfaces of ponds, tanks, lakes, reservoirs, streams, rivers and irrigation channels. It was also a menace in flooded rice fields, considerably reducing yield. It interferes with the production of hydroelectricity, blocks water flow in irrigation channels, prevents the free movement of navigation vessels, interferes with fishing and fish culture and facilitates breeding of mosquitoes as well as fostering waterborne diseases [117]. Furthermore, water loss due to evapo‐transpiration was a major concern especially in areas where freshwater shortage was common. Under ideal conditions, water hyacinth plants can propagate vegetatively and double their number in 10 days; the seeds can remain dormant for as long as 20 years before germinating [117]. The weed was indeed a major problem in India [117]. With this high growth rate, the weed defied most control methods.
\nThree exotic natural enemies were introduced in India, that is hydrophilic weevils—
The glassy‐winged sharpshooter (
The glassy‐winged sharpshooter has a number of natural enemies, in particular egg parasitoids. Female parasitoids lay their eggs inside glassy‐winged sharpshooter eggs and the developing parasitoid larvae kill glassy‐winged sharpshooter eggs by feeding inside the egg. The parasitoid larvae pupate inside the glassy‐winged sharpshooter egg and then chew a circular exit hole through which they emerge. The winged parasitoids can fly and after mating, they look out for more glassy‐winged sharpshooter eggs to parasitize. In this manner, the egg parasitoids help keep the glassy‐winged sharpshooter population in check [121]. In the southeastern USA and northeastern Mexico, glassy‐winged sharpshooter eggs are parasitized by several species of mymarid and trichogrammatid parasitoids, including
The glassy‐winged sharpshooter has also successfully invaded French Polynesia (the Society Islands, Marquesas and Austral Island groups) where it became established in 1999 [125], Hawaii where it became established in 2004 [126], Easter Island and the Cook Islands. Glassy‐winged sharpshooter became established in Tahiti French Polynesia in 1999 and was likely introduced accidentally on ornamental plants imported from California [121]. In contrast to California, no natural enemies for the glassy‐winged sharpshooter existed there, and no obvious competitors existed in urban or natural settings. The glassy‐winged sharpshooter populations underwent an exponential growth and were a complete nuisance to the population; watery excreta known as sharpshooter rain literally rained from infested trees because there were so many glassy‐winged sharpshooters feeding on trees, their noisy wings, their dead bodies littered in houses and their high populations retarded plant growth and reduced local fruit production [121]. Due to intense population movement, the glassy‐winged sharpshooter spread to other areas in the region such as Raiatea (Leeward Islands) Moorea, Leeward Islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, Tahaa and Maupiti. At the end of 2004 and the beginning of 2005, the glassy‐winged sharpshooter populations were discovered outside of the Society Islands in two other archipelagos of French Polynesia substantially distant from Tahiti: the Australs, where two islands were infested (Rurutu and Tubuai) and the Marquesas, where one island, Nuku Hiva, was found infested [121].
\nTo combat the glassy‐winged sharpshooter infestation in French Polynesia, the mymarid egg parasitoid
One of the most successful uses of baculoviruses in biological control has been in Brazil. The baculovirus AgMNPV has been successfully used in the control of the velvet bean caterpillar (
In other examples, the granulovirus of the codling moth
Some challenges in the implementation of biocontrol strategies are listed below.
\nThe introduction of exotic natural enemies raises concern regarding the effect it may have on non‐target native species as mentioned above. Conservation biologists are typically concerned with the health and growth of a wide variety of organisms. If a BCA does in fact attack any native non‐target species, its persistence and ability to spread to areas far from the site of release become a serious liability [130–132].
\nThere are also concerns among conservation biologists about the release of BCA precisely because the agents themselves which are non‐native may carry non‐native parasites and commensal species [114].
\nBCAs are easily influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and oxygen extremes, which determine the success of the biological control strategy. BCA if applied when conditions are not favourable is bound to fail.
\nThere are also challenges in the distribution of BCAs product, especially those containing living organisms. Most industries producing BCA products are often situated a considerable distance away from where the BCA is to be used. Before the BCA reaches its destination, most of the organisms are dead. There is therefore the need to develop a sizeable distribution network comprising a group of producers that will safeguard the quality of the products and provide advice for the users [133].
\nAnother challenge, which may be faced with the implementation of a biocontrol strategy in pest control, is the lukewarm attitude among agriculturalists, who find it difficult to forego their fast‐acting chemical pesticides over the sluggish BCA [134, 135].
\nWith the advances in biotechnology, there is the potential of identifying and manipulating “biocontrol genes” particularly in microbial agents to produce more effective BCAs. Furthermore, genes in BCAs responsible for their antagonistic effects will also be used to screen for more effective BCAs. Biotechnologists in many countries are experimenting with fungi, viruses, bacteria, nematodes and insects genetically modified to express toxins (scorpion toxin, mite toxin and trypsin inhibitor), hormones (eclosion hormone and diuretic hormone) or metabolic enzymes (juvenile hormone esterase) to increase the speed of killing, enhance virulent and extend host specificity of these organisms. The so‐called third‐generation genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been engineered to control pests in agriculture, pathogens in human health and invasive species in the environment [136].
\nIn one approach, to improve the efficacy of
In another approach, biotechnologists are trying to develop new biopesticides based on fungi. Fungi tend to be host specific, can be mass produced on inexpensive media and are thought to be harmless to animals, humans and the environment. Unfortunately, naturally occurring fungi tend to kill insects slowly. Genetic technology holds the promise of producing biopesticides based on hypervirulent insect‐specific fungi that kill quickly; for example, laboratory experiments have been performed where scorpion toxin gene has been spliced into the fungus that infect mosquitoes to enhance the killing efficiency of the fungus [138].
\nIn yet another approach, biotechnologists are studying baculoviruses, a large variety of viruses that act specifically on hundreds of arthropods, including many agricultural pests, but appear to be safe to plants and vertebrates. But because baculoviruses typically kill much more slowly than chemical pesticides, their use is limited. Biotechnologists are experimenting to increase the killing efficiency of baculoviruses by splicing into them toxin‐expressing genes isolated from mites, scorpions and spiders [139]. Baculovirus recombinants that produce occlusion bodies incorporating Bt toxin have also been constructed by making a fusion protein consisting of a polyhedron and Bt toxin [140]. Other constructs have been tested with varying success [141]. This new biopesticide is highly pathogenic than the wild‐type baculovirus as it combines the advantages of the virus and the bacteria toxin.
\nHowever, the use of biotechnology raises some questions regarding the potential impact of those GMOs or plants to human, animal and the environment and other non‐target species. This has presented a major hurdle to research and field testing and the introduction of these recombinant BCAs to users. Fortunately, the use of genetically engineered microbial pathogen products for control is increasingly being accepted by the society, and commercial production is gradually gaining grounds. In the near future, genetically engineered microbial BCAs will soon be the most common biocontrol products available in the market to circumvent the problem of growing resistance to chemical pesticides and the threats posed to public health and the environment by the chemical pesticides.
\nNanotechnology is another field that holds wide applicability in biological control in the near future. Nanotechnology for control has been applied mostly in the control of agricultural pests. Its application in the control of agriculture pest offers some advantages over traditional methods by providing green and highly efficient alternatives for the management of insect pests without harming nature [142]. Nanoparticles are known to be effective against plant pathogens, insects and pests. Hence, nanoparticles can be used in the preparation of new formulations like pesticides, insecticides and insect repellents [143–146]. Nanomaterials come in many forms—porous hollow silica nanoparticles (PHSNs) loaded with validamycin (pesticide) [147], nano‐silica prepared from silica, polyethylene glycol‐coated nanoparticles loaded with garlic essential oil, silver nanoparticles synthesized from various plant extracts and so on.
\nOne of the most studied nanomaterials for the control of agricultural pests is nano‐silica. Nano‐silica formulated as nano‐pesticide can effectively be used in the control of insect pests. The mechanism of control of insect pests using nano‐silica is based on the fact that insect pests use a variety of cuticular lipids to protect their water barrier and thereby prevent death from desiccation. But nano‐silica gets absorbed into the cuticular lipids by physiosorption and thereby causes death of insects purely by physical means when applied on leaves and stem surfaces [142]. It has also been shown that in addition to agricultural insect pests, surface‐charged modified hydrophobic nano‐silica (∼3–5 nm) could be successfully used to control animal ectoparasites of veterinary importance [148].
\nSilver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been synthesized using various plant extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. These AgNPs have been tested and shown to be of higher toxicity against the mosquito vectors of parasites of medical and veterinary importance. For example, an AgNP synthesized using extracts of
Yang et al. [153] have demonstrated that the efficacy of the insecticidal activity of polytherlene glycol‐coated nanoparticles loaded with garlic essential oil against adult red flour beetle (
Nanotechnology has also been applied on BCAs. Nanoparticles as various formulations of essential oils, silica gels, powders and so on applied on BCAs have been shown to increase the effectiveness of BCAs in neutralizing some agricultural pests. For example, Sabbour [155] showed that in the laboratory, the nano‐entomopathogenic fungi, nano‐
Nanotechnology also has promising applications in nanoparticle‐mediated gene (DNA) transfer. It can be used to deliver DNA and other desired chemicals into plant tissue for protection of host plants against insect pests [158]. There is evidence that nanotechnology will revolutionize agriculture including pest management in the near future [159].
\nMicroencapsulation is another new field that holds promise in biological control. Microencapsulation is a process in which active substances are coated by extremely small capsules [160]. Microencapsulation has numerous applications in areas such as the pharmaceutical, agricultural, medical and food industries, being widely used in the encapsulation of essential oils, colourings, flavourings, sweeteners and microorganisms, among others [161]. Microencapsulation in biological control can be used for the enhancement of the activity of BCAs in biocontrol, especially pathogens. The coating may impact stability, protection from UV radiation and/or other environmental conditions, enhance the attractiveness of the pesticide to the pest and/or serve to separate two different biologically incompatible pesticides within a mixture. For example,
To date, many strategies have been used in the control of parasites including the use of chemicals. The chemical methods are limited in their application, partly as a result of the rising resistance, environmental and health risks and the potential effect to non‐target organisms. In addition to the previously mentioned biological control agents, parasites could also be controlled naturally through botanicals [163–167], photosensitizers [168, 169], symbiotic [170], organic [171] and short‐chain fatty acids [172]. Biological control approaches hold promise as the most suitable alternative to the chemical pesticides and are now a core component of IPM. A good number of promising BCAs including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes) have been identified and proven to be efficacious against many parasites of medical, veterinary and agricultural importance, as highlighted in the chapter [25, 49, 85]. In the past, biological control has been applied successfully to control parasites especially in the agricultural sector [120]. However, there are still many challenges in the implementation of biological control strategies including their potential effects on native biodiversity [133–135], the unwillingness to ditch the chemical methods for BCAs by farmers [129] and challenges in the production and distribution of the BCAs [136]. With the recent advances in biotechnology and the application of most recent technologies such as nanotechnology [145] and microencapsulation [162], there are many opportunities for the continued use and expanded role of natural enemies in biological control; newer BCAs are being identified and older ones are being genetically engineered to make them more efficacious in their antagonism of parasites. There is, therefore, optimism that in the future, biological control will develop to overcome many of the challenges, and BCAs will become the mainstay for the control of parasites.
\nIPM | Integrated pest management |
BCA | Biological control agent |
USDA | The US Department of Agriculture |
Bt | \nBacillus thuringiensis\n |
BV | Baculovirus |
GMO | Genetically modified organism |
PHSNs | Porous hollow silica nanoparticles |
DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid |
AgNPs | Silver nanoparticles |
BW | Birth weight |
Actions for a noticeable increase in crop yields and food production over the last century have involved the use of pesticides and agrochemicals [1]. These chemical pesticides are used to provide protection to crops against weeds, fungi, insects, and other pests. Consequently, these chemical pesticides are potentially lethal to human and can exert both acute and chronic health effects, depending on the amount and the route of exposure.
World Health Organization reported that there are more than 1000 pesticides used around the world to ensure food is not damaged or destroyed by pests and each of these pesticides has different properties and toxicological effects. The cheaper and older and most likely the off-patent chemical pesticides, such as lindane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) tend to remain for years in soil and water. Due to this, some of these chemicals have been banned by countries that signed the Stockholm Convention of 2001—an international treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants.
The Stockholm Convention on the production and use of persistent organic pollutants mandates that each Party shall Prohibit, restrict and/or take the (i) legal and administrative measures necessary to eliminate the production and use of + chemicals as listed in the treaty; and (ii) it imports and export of the persistent chemicals as listed in the treaty and (b) it is the production and use of the chemicals as listed in the treaty. It also emphasized that each Party shall take measures to ensure that any chemical listed in the treaty is imported only for
the purpose of environmentally sound disposal
a use or purpose which is permitted for that Party under Annex A or Annex B of the treaty
Notwithstanding, the high increasing human population and the need for farmers to guarantee good value for farming has further expressed the need for enhanced agricultural yield towards achieving increased food production. This need is provoked by the intensive damage to agro-products caused by pest attacks and diseases triggered by viruses, fungi, and bacteria. These pest attacks and diseases are also seriously affecting crop yield. It is based on this provocation that the increasing use of chemical pesticides has to be the case. However, [2] report identified that agrochemical residues did spread in the environment and food causing significant contamination of terrestrial ecosystems and poisoning human foods.
Alternatives to the intensive use of crop protection chemicals achieved through a science-based process that promotes efficient food production, enhances food safety, and guarantees environmental protection, are thus the necessary direction in reducing or eliminating the increasing use of chemical pesticides in agriculture, thus ensuring food safety.
Chemical pesticides in agriculture usually referred to as agricultural chemicals cover a wide range of compounds including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, nematicides, and others [3]. After the banning of some of these chemicals for use in agriculture by most technologically advanced countries in the 1960s, organophosphates insecticides, carbamates, pyrethroids, herbicides, and fungicides were introduced between 1970 and 1980 [3]. These chemicals are said to have contributed immensely to agricultural pest control and agricultural output.
The benefits of these chemical pesticides cannot be overemphasized as the consequences of their effects lead to the advantages anticipated from their use. In re-emphasizing the benefits of these chemical pesticides in food production, it is important to note that without crop protection, including pesticides, more than half of the world’s crops would be lost to insects, diseases, and weeds.
It is of importance to highlight that in the absence of pesticides, food production would be on the decrease, and increased cultivated farm areas would be necessary to produce the same amount of food, consequently impacting the wildlife habitat. The recurrent cultivation of the farm would be increase soil loss due to erosion, too. The other effects will include the decrease in agricultural production, rise in food prices, competitiveness for farmers in global markets would be less, and decrease in exports would drop, leading to many job losses.
Regardless of the benefits of pesticides, they can be harmful or hazardous to both humans and the environment. Innumerable chemicals are environmentally stable, toxic, and disposed to bioaccumulation. In some cases, pesticides can persevere in the environment and remain there for years. Contamination of the environment or increased occupational use can expose the general population to pesticides residues, including physical and biological degradation products present in the air, water, and food.
There is an ever-increasing global population and there has to be food to match the statistics. The United Nations Population Division estimates that there will be a tremendous increase on Earth emanating from developing countries by the year 2050 (9.7 billion people on Earth—around 30% more people than in 2017).
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that, in countries of dwindling economy, Population growth keeps pace with the required increases in food production. This availability of food is seen to be increasing by 80%, and these increases are anticipated to emanate from rise in produces and the frequency crops are grown on the same land per year. This new production of food projected at 20% is likely to come from an extension of farming land [4]. Pesticide usage is almost inevitable in agriculture to maintain high yields and profits.
Pesticides can prevent large crop losses and will therefore continue to play a role in agriculture. However, the effects on humans and the environment of exposure to pesticides are a continuing concern.
Between the years 1970s and 1990s, most governments encouraged the usage of pesticides. This is evident in the amendment of several policies resulting in lessening in input subsidies as well as less monitoring by the government. This further led to more inflow occurring from the informal channels causing enhanced usage of pesticides and, leading to an increased import value by 261% from 2000 to 2010 [5].
In continents like Africa, nearly 59% of the population makes their living from farming, this is because the economy is highly dependent on agriculture [6]. Despite that, the African continent influences 2–4% of the international market for chemical pesticides which also accounts for the lowermost rate of their usage in the world [6]. Owing to the growing population, the food demand was projected in 2005 to enhance at a rapid rate in the next three decades [7]. This projection after the last decade remains valid considering the increased demand for pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides.
In Africa, the regulatory mechanism for pesticides is inadequate resulting in the import of pesticides that are banned. The farmers also lack awareness which causes poor pesticide practices and the usage of those pesticides which fall under the WHO risk classification system. Also, the registration of pesticides in West Africa is a multi-national process called Comité Sahélien des Pesticides (CSP) [8]. The African market is unregulated and does not comply with the code of conduct laid out by the Food and Agriculture Organization due to which most of the pesticides used are untested leading to the enhanced risks.
According to reports showing a limited capacity of CSP in Niger, 44% of pesticide dealers are unlicensed. Also, the registered chemicals account for only 8%, while 38% of pesticides have incomplete labels and 6% are unlabeled [9]. In the same report, 27% of the tested pesticides did not stipulate the active ingredients and 30% was tagged to be of poor quality. There are myriads of issues associated with pesticides usage in Africa.
In Southeast Asia, the use of pesticides in agriculture is increasing rapidly. An annual increase in the import of pesticides is reported as 61% for Cambodia, 55% for Laos, and 10% for Vietnam [10]. In the past 50 years, China has become the major pesticide manufacturing country, and these pesticides are chiefly used for rice production [11]. The use of pesticides in China has increased from 0.76 million tonnes in 1991 to 1.8 million tonnes in 2011 [11]. In terms of use, Japan is also one of the largest pesticide users in the world and has the biggest pesticide market in Asia [12].
In a survey involving seven European countries including Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, Denmark, Finland, and Latvia on the usage of pesticides in the urban or non-agricultural amenities, it was observed that the infiltrate on of arable lands in Europe has occurred swiftly due to improved application of insecticides. This ultimately has resulted in the loss of biodiversity and heterogeneity of the arable lands and other landscapes [13, 14].
The European Union has developed definite imperative regulation regarding pesticides usage. These include:
Directive 2009/128/EC approved by European Parliament and Council in the year 2009: This directive is employed to manage methods and procedures to sustainably apply chemical pesticides;
A regulation for sustainability and maintenance of Products of Plant Protection on the Market. This in the year 2009 was proposed in the European Parliament and Council and termed Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009, and
A regulation for monitoring the MRLs of chemical pesticides in food and its products, including plant-derived feeds and animals. This regulation was proposed by European Parliament and Council in the year 2005, and was termed Regulation (EC) No. 396/2005
As population size increases in the world, the industrialization of agriculture and the escalation of animal production to meet the growing demand for food creates both opportunities and challenges for food safety. These challenges put more responsibilities on food producers and handlers to guarantee food safety. Food safety is the prevention of food contamination before its being released to the consumer. Access to sufficient amounts of safe food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health. Unsafe food containing harmful contaminants including chemical substances causes diseases ranging from diarrhea to cancers. Chemical contaminations can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as cancer. An estimated 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people) in the world fall ill after eating contaminated food inclusive of chemical contaminants and 420,000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life years [15].
Of most health concern are industrial chemicals and environmental pollutants which can accumulate in the environment without the exception of food and further accumulates in the human body when ingested. Some of these chemicals are very toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage to the immune system, interfere with hormones. They are also made up of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury which can cause neurological and kidney damage [15]. The harmful effects on human health linked with pesticide usage are considered by numerous factors, such as the chemical class in which those compounds belong, dosage, time, and exposure route. Insecticides accumulated in food can be lethal to humans at high and/or even lower doses [16]. Several health effects can result from a prolonged exposure including the development of diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, reproductive and developmental changes, and respiratory effects.
According to a study, an estimated 35% of all cases of cancer in the U.S. population originate from the diet, and the chemical pesticides present in foods are responsible [17]. Estrogenicity assays made by [18] show that pesticides of organochlorine origin usually act as endocrine disruption via more than one mode of mechanism, including agonist or antagonist effects of different receptors. Pre-emergent pesticides such as chloro-s-triazize which is popularly used in the world, have been generally considered as pesticides of low toxic potential for humans; nevertheless, there are many controversies on this issue. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), atrazine, for instance, was categorized as a chemical agent undoubtedly oncogenic to humans, even though the basis for this inference was only demonstrated in other animals [19]. This was also reported by the Development for Environmental Assessment Center of the United States, and Monographs of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Since atrazine induces mammary tumors in female Sprague-Dawley rats, the EPA Office of Pesticide Program (OPP) through its Peer Review Committee resolved after its deliberations that atrazine be categorized in the Group of “Possibly Carcinogenic to Humans”. Nevertheless, EPA has considered this chemical compound as most-likely non-carcinogenic to humans [2].
In certain studies, human exposure to high doses of atrazine can cause loss of body weight. Nevertheless, several epidemiological studies done with workers usually exposed to triazine indicate that these compounds show no potentials of been carcinogenic to the workers [20]. Furthermore, via analyses of different studies, it was observed that, though the chloro-s-triazine interferes in the endocrine responses of different species of mammals, their impending impact on humans seems to be primarily related to reproduction and development and not with human carcinogenesis [21]. An extensive list of epidemiological studies with the atrazine has described that the carcinogenic potential of this compound to humans is not conclusive [22], although there is a relationship between the high risk of prostate cancer and exposure to the insecticide [23].
The study by [24] evaluated the genotoxic and mutagenic effects of low concentrations of terbuthylazine, considered to be safe and, consequently accorded to possibly occur in occupational and residential exposures (ADI—Acceptable Daily Intake, REL—Residential Exposure Level, OEL—Occupational Exposure Level, and 1/100 and 1/16 LD50—Lethal Dose 50%—oral, rat), in human lymphocytes, with and without the use of metabolic activation (S9 fraction), using the FSH cytome assay and pan-centromeric DNA probes to evaluate the content of micronuclei and other chromatinic instabilities. The study showed that, treating terbuthylazine in the absence of metabolic activation indicated a dose-response escalation in the frequency of micronuclei of the lymphocytes exposed. The concentration of 0.0008 μg/mL (REL) tested was the basis of the significant data obtained. The hybridization of the micronuclei with the centromeric probe (C+) significantly occurred due to the concentrations ADI (0.00058 μg/mL), REL (0.0008 μg/mL) and OEL (0.008 μg/mL) of terbuthylazine. This was regardless of the presence or absence of S9, and nuclear buds containing centromeric signals, only in the presence of S9. Considering these outcomes, it was proposed that terbuthylazine presents a predominant aneugenic potential for the genetic material of human lymphocytes.
The chloro-s-triazine insecticide, which constrains the photosynthesis of weeds, by reaching photosystem II and impedes the effect of certain pests on crops has also being a serious food safety concern. It is a chemical used for a variety of crops, such as maize, sugarcane, olive, and pineapple. Since the banishment of atrazine in European countries in 2006, chloro-s-triazines like terbuthylazine were recommended as its substitute since it is suspect of causing diseases in humans, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma and lung cancer. A study showing the effects of persistent exposure (14 days) to low concentrations of terbuthylazine (0.58 ng/ml and 8 ng/ml) in human lymphocytes, using the comet assay and the comet-FISH assay (with the c-Myc and TP 53 genes) was carried out [24]. Treatment with the compound induced the migration of fragments of DNA in a significant manner, only for the highest concentration treated. The results indicated an impairment in the structural integrity of c-Myc and TP 53, as a result of the prolonged exposure of human lymphocytes to terbuthylazine. For the fact many copies of TP53 were affected by the compound, it indicates the ability of terbuthylazine to interfere in the control of the cell cycle negatively. Nevertheless, it was concluded that a more comprehensive evaluation of the risk of cancer associated with the exposure to terbuthylazine, be evaluated for the impact of these insecticides on other housekeeping genes and markers.
Concerning insecticides, a study by [25] assessed the genotoxic potentials using the FISH and comet assay, and the oxidative damages, by the TBARS lipid peroxidation, of different concentrations of glyphosate in human lymphocytes. These concentrations of glyphosate are similar to those observed in residential and occupational exposures and related to LC50. At concentration of 580 μg/mL, results from the comet assay indicated a stimulation with significant increase in the tail length, while at concentration of 92.8 μg/mL an increase in the tail intensity was noticed, both concerning the control test. However, the addition of the S9 fraction increased the tail length significantly, for all the concentrations tested. In furthering the experiment, an increase in the frequency of micronuclei, nuclear buds, and nucleoplasmic bridges were identified when the lymphocytes were exposed to the three highest concentrations without S9. It was the consequence of the addition of a metabolic activation system that only promoted a significant increase of the nuclear instabilities for the highest concentration tested. It was clearly shown that the values of TBARS significantly increased with the increase of the concentrations tested, regardless of the presence or absence of the S9 fraction. Because dose-dependent effects for all the assays used were not observed, the authors concluded that these concentrations of glyphosate are not relevant for human exposure, since they did not present a significant risk for human health.
According to a study by [26], paraquat, the second most widely used insecticide in the world, selectively accrued in human lungs by causing oxidative injury and fibrosis, causing several individuals to mortality. Chronic exposure to this insecticide is also linked with kidney failure, Parkinson’s disease and hepatic lesions [27]. In the study by [26], they assessed the paraquat toxicity on BEAS-2B normal cells (human bronchial epithelial cells), which showed its dose-dependency resulting to death of lung cells exposed, damage of the mitochondria, oxidative stress, as well as production of pro-fibrogenic growth factors, cytokines, and transformation of myofibroblasts. In the study, the authors also demonstrated that polyphenolic phytoalexin naturally produced by several plants, resveratrol, to control bacteria and fungi, inhibited the production of reactive oxygen species, fibrotic reactions, and inflammations when induced by paraquat. This is as a result of the activation of the Nrf2 signaling (Nuclear Factor Erythroid-2), revealing a novel molecular mechanism for the intervention against oxidative damages as well as pulmonary fibrosis which resulted from the action of toxic chemical compound.
The study on the influence of a complex mixture of pesticides in workers exposed to them occupationally was carried out using the comet assay technique and standardly established cytogenetic methods (chromosome aberrations and micronucleus assay). This study indicated that DNA migration significantly increased (P < 0.001). This suggests that over exposure to or ingestion of the pesticide may affect damages in the genome of somatic cells and, therefore, would pose a potential risk to human health [26].
Pesticide use has been closely associated with human poisonings and their related illnesses and has been long seen as a severe public health problem. The potential toxicity in pesticides has caused both acute and chronic health effects, depending on the quantity and ways in which the person is exposed (Figure 1).
Sources of chemical pesticide contamination in human foods [
The tenacious and pervasive nature of several pesticides used in agriculture and other carbon-based pollutants has posed chaos to mankind as a result of their high toxicity and potentials to bio-accumulate [28]. These chemical pesticides are identified to impede the usual effectiveness of reproductive and endocrine systems in living organisms [29]. Several pesticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, mirex, heptachlor, and hexachlorobenzene influence lethal effects on the health of human and the environment [28]. In the year 1990, a task force of the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about one million unintentional pesticide poisonings occur naturally, leading to approximately 20,000 deaths. There are also an estimated 385 million cases of unintentional acute pesticide poisoning UAPP occur manually worldwide including 11,000 fatalities. This estimation depends on the quality and validity of data as well as the estimation procedure [30].
In most regions of the world, the condition is even worse. Approximately 80% of the pesticides produced per annum in the world are used in developed countries [12], but less than half of all pesticide-induced deaths occur in these countries [31]. Increased proportion of pesticide poisonings and mortality occur in developing countries where there are insufficient occupational safety standards and regulations in its use on foods; insufficient enforcement; poor labelling of pesticides; illiteracy; and deficient knowledge of pesticide [31]. Moreover, usual pesticide residue levels in food are often higher in developing countries than in the developed countries. For example, a study in Egypt reported that most of assayed milk samples, when tested for fifteen different pesticides, contained residue levels between 60% and 80% [32]. By way of contrast, 50% of the milk samples analyzed in a US milk study had pesticide residues, all in trace quantities well below EPA and FDA regulatory limits [33].
Detectable levels of chemical pesticide residues are seen in about 35% of the foods purchased by consumers possess [34, 35]. Between 1 and 3% of these foods possess chemical pesticide residue levels that are beyond the permissible tolerance level [34]. Considering the analytical methods used in the developing countries, the residue levels may even be higher due to the reasons that they may detect just about one-third of the chemical pesticides in use. The rate of contamination is undoubtedly higher for fruits and vegetables because these foods receive the highest dosage of pesticides. One USDA study has shown that some pesticide residue remains in fruits and vegetables even after they have been washed, peeled, or cored [36]. Consequently, there are many justifiable reasons why 97% of the public is concerned about pesticide residues in its food [31].
All over the world, apart from exposure via contaminated food, pesticide exposure at the highest levels are found in farm workers, pesticide applicators, and people who live adjacent or very close to heavily treated agricultural land. Due to the fact that farmers and farm workers directly handle 70–80% of the pesticides they use, they are at the greatest risk of exposure [31, 37]. The epidemiological evidence suggests a significantly higher rate of cancer incidence among farmers and farmworkers in the US and Europe than among non-farm workers in some areas [34, 38]. In these high-risk populations, there is strong evidence for associations between lymphomas and soft-tissue sarcomas as well as between lung cancer and exposure to organochlorine insecticides [27].
Consequently, both the acute and chronic health effects of pesticides warrant attention and concern especially as it was used in farm food production and its storage. While the acute toxicity of most pesticides is well documented [39], there is no sound information on chronic human illnesses such as cancer. Though based on animal studies, the International Agency for Research on Cancer found “sufficient” evidence of carcinogenicity in eighteen pesticides and “limited” evidence in an additional sixteen pesticides [28]. However, some studies found no significant difference in non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma mortality between farmers and non-farmers. In addition, [31] estimates that fewer than 1% of the human cancer cases in the US are attributable to pesticide exposure via food or otherwise. With the increasing number of cancer cases annually, [31, 40] assessment indicates that chemical pesticides causes less than 12,000 cases of cancer per year.
Studies with proven confirmation have also suggested that many severe and chronic conditions are linked with the use chemical pesticide [41]. For example, in an animal studies, dibromochloropropane (DBCP), the proscribed pesticide used for plant pathogen control, was found to cause testicular dysfunction [42] and was linked to infertility in human workers who had been exposed to the chemical [43]. Also, a large body of evidence obtained from animal studies suggests that pesticides can produce immune dysfunction [44]. In a study of women who had chronically ingested groundwater contaminated with low levels (mean of 16.6 ppb) of aldicarb, [44] reported evidence of significantly reduced immune response, although these women did not exhibit any overt health problems.
There is also growing evidence of sterility in humans and various other animals, particularly in males, due to various chemicals and pesticides they ingest through contaminated food and in the environment [45]. Sperm counts in Europe have reduced by about 50% and continue to decrease an additional 2% per year. In the study of [46], young male river otters in the lower Columbia River and male alligators in Florida’s Lake Apopka have smaller reproductive organs than males in unpolluted regions of their respective habitats.
Even though it is habitually challenging to evaluate the influence of individual chemical pesticides, the serious health issues associated with organophosphorus related pesticides which have basically substituted the proscribed organochlorines are of specific interest [39]. The malady Organophosphate Induced Delayed Polyneuropathy (OPIDP) is well studied, reported, documented and is manifested by irreversible neurological defects. The deterioration of memory, moods, and the capacity for abstract thought has been observed in some cases [47], while other cases indicate that persistent neurotoxic effects may result even after the termination of an acute organophosphorus poisoning incident [39].
Chronic conditions such as OPIDP constitute an important public health issue because of their potential cost to society. For example, the effect of pesticides on children has become a growing concern [48]. Children can be exposed to pesticides daily through the foods they eat [31]. Considering the increased understanding of the distinctive biological differences between children and adults, it has shown noticeably that the current chemical pesticide acceptability level and the system of regulation, as it concerns children, is sternly lacking. Majority of the regulations are based on adult acceptability level and tolerances. Biologically, it is known that children’s metabolic rates are higher than adults, and their capability to stimulate, detoxify, and excrete compounds that are xenobiotic in nature is dissimilar from that of adults. Also, considering of their slighter bodily size, children are exposed to increased levels of chemical pesticides per unit of body weight. Indication of this is seen in a study of [49] which reported that 50% of England and Wales pesticide poisonings involved children of or under the age of ten [49]. In general, the realization that children’s sensitivities to toxins are much different than those of adults has provided the impetus for the movement towards setting specific pesticide regulations especially the level of residues in food with children in mind [36].
Chemical pesticides are often applied to control and manage weeds, and insect pests in the agricultural practices. Water, soil and air serve as dynamic medium for the movement of chemical pesticides from a point to another. Among several types of chemical pesticides, organochlorine and its related pesticides are the utmost risky ones as a result to their slow rate of decomposition, long half-life and greater stability. In the upper trophic levels of the food chain, these pesticides can move and accumulate. In any ecosystem, contamination by chemical pesticide is stern problem due to the harm it causes to all associated organisms. Hence, to control pesticide usage, novel methodologies and techniques are needed in curtailing the effect of widespread use of pesticides on the ecosystem including food production (farm to storage) and efforts should be made to provide awareness among the public to minimize the application of harmful pesticides. The better alternative remains in the use of microbial and plant-based bio-pesticides in control of field and storage pests as part of the integrated pest management (IPM). Also, the adoption of plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) as seen in plants genetically modified to resist pests should be encouraged over chemical pesticides.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14238,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7483,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3399,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9203,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:8875,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54048,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7474,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"991",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. 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Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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