Requirement mapping.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7040",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",title:"Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Scientific interest in cannabinoid research is currently experiencing a significant increase because of changing attitudes toward Cannabis and the evolving awareness of its pharmaceutical benefits. Coincidently, numerous jurisdictions are moving toward legalizing Cannabis and Cannabis-derived products, which reflects a larger global movement to understand Cannabis and its bioactive chemicals for their potential biomedical uses, harms, and economic value. Research activities are surging to fill important knowledge gaps in the field of cannabinoids as they continue to be identified. The purpose of this book is to summarize some leading areas of research in the cannabinoid field where knowledge gaps are actively being addressed. The research described herein spans basic biological and clinical research.",isbn:"978-1-83880-152-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-151-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-641-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73801",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",numberOfPages:230,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b85fe0e356faddc5ff53928dd5c3a142",bookSignature:"Willard J Costain and Robert B Laprairie",publishedDate:"May 10th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7040.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14111,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:55,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 1st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 30th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"89884",title:"Dr.",name:"Willard James",middleName:null,surname:"Costain",slug:"willard-james-costain",fullName:"Willard James Costain",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89884/images/6868_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Will Costain is a Research Officer and Team Leader In Vitro Pharmacology at National Research Council of Canada. He holds a B.Sc. in Physiology from University of Saskatchewan; a M.Sc. in Physiology from University of Saskatchewan and a Ph.D. in Physiology and Pharmacology from McMaster University. He also holds a\nPost-Doc in Pharmacology from Dalhousie University.\nHe leads a team of researchers who focus on enabling the development of biologic therapeutics for CNS diseases. They focus on in vitro models of the blood brain barrier and cell-based assays for assessing drug pharmacology. Dr. Costain\\'s primary interest is in characterizing the pharmacology and signaling mechanisms of small and large molecule therapeutics. Over the years, he has studied a variety of GPCR systems using classical pharmacological techniques. He has also used genomic methods to characterize genomic responses to brain injury and mutations.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council Canada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"245659",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert Brad",middleName:null,surname:"Laprairie",slug:"robert-brad-laprairie",fullName:"Robert Brad Laprairie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245659/images/6869_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Robert Brad Laprairie is Assistant Professor at GlaxoSmithKline-CIHR Chair in Drug Discovery and Development, College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan. He is also Adjunct Professor at the Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University.\nDr. Robert Brad Laprairie holds a B.Sc. – University of Saskatchewan (2010), M.Sc. – Dalhousie University (2012), Ph.D. – Dalhousie University (2016), and Postdoctoral fellowship – The Scripps Research Institute, Florida (2017).\nHis research focuses on the endocannabinoid system and the type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R). Dr. Laprairie has published 23 peer-reviewed manuscripts, 3 book chapters, and 45 abstracts including as co-author for 2 crystal structures for CB1R and lead author for several novel CB1R allosteric modulators. He is a member of the Cannabinoid Research Initiative of Saskatchewan, Canadian Consortium for the Investigators of Cannabinoids, and International Cannabinoids Research Society. He was recently named Outstanding Young Investigator (2018) by the British Pharmacological Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1174",title:"Neurochemistry",slug:"neurochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"66581",title:"Introduction to Recent Advances in Cannabinoid Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85814",slug:"introduction-to-recent-advances-in-cannabinoid-research",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"On October 17, 2018, Canada became the first G20 nation to legalize the use of Cannabis sativa for both medicinal and recreational purposes. This change in legislation and end of prohibition are indicative of a larger global movement to understand Cannabis—and the bioactive chemicals present within Cannabis known as the cannabinoids—for its potential biomedical uses, harms, and economic values. Currently, interest in Cannabis and cannabinoid research is surging as the many knowledge gaps in basic biology, pharmacology, epidemiology, and clinical efficacy are identified. The purpose of this book is to summarize some leading areas of research in the cannabinoid field where knowledge gaps have been or are being actively addressed. The research described herein spans between basic biological and clinical research. As the editors of this text, we are grateful to the work of the chapter authors and their important contributions to this rapidly growing field.",signatures:"Robert B Laprairie and Will Costain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66581",authors:[{id:"89884",title:"Dr.",name:"Willard James",surname:"Costain",slug:"willard-james-costain",fullName:"Willard James Costain"},{id:"245659",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert Brad",surname:"Laprairie",slug:"robert-brad-laprairie",fullName:"Robert Brad Laprairie"}],corrections:null},{id:"62750",title:"Zebrafish as a High-Throughput In Vivo Model for Testing the Bioactivity of Cannabinoids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79321",slug:"zebrafish-as-a-high-throughput-in-vivo-model-for-testing-the-bioactivity-of-cannabinoids",totalDownloads:1269,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Zebrafish represent an established vertebrate model system that helps to bridge the research gap between cell line/invertebrate studies and mammalian systems. While the initial testing of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) using Zebrafish occurred in 1975, zebrafish are currently a burgeoning model for testing the bioactivity of cannabinoids. Zebrafish express both CB1 and CB2 receptors along with all of the other major endocannabinoid-related genes. Zebrafish endocannabinoid gene function has been associated with addiction, anxiety, development, energy homeostasis and food intake, immune system function, learning and memory. Both adult and larval zebrafish have been used to test the therapeutic potential of THC and cannabidiol (CBD) against various disease models such as models of nociception, epilepsy, stress/anxiety and addiction. This chapter will review recent studies that have used zebrafish as a model for testing the bioactivity of cannabinoids and provide insight on potential future work in this area.",signatures:"Lee Ellis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62750",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62750",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63474",title:"Structural Insights from Recent CB1 X-Ray Crystal Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80783",slug:"structural-insights-from-recent-cb1-x-ray-crystal-structures",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past 2 years, X-ray crystal structures of the antagonist- and agonist-bound CB1 receptor have been reported. Such structures are expected to accelerate progress in the understanding of CB1 and should provide an exceptional starting point for structure-based drug discovery. This chapter examines the consistency of these X-ray structures with the CB1 experimental literature, including mutation, NMR and covalent labeling studies. These comparisons reveal discrepancies between this literature and the TMH1-2-3 region of each CB1 crystal structure. The chapter also examines crystal packing issues with each X-ray structure and shows that the discrepancies with the experimental literature can be attributed to crystal packing problems that force the N-terminus deep in the binding pocket of the two inactive state structures and force TMH2 to bend at G2.53/S2.54 and invade the binding pocket in the activated state structure. Revision is advisable before these structures are used for structure-based drug discovery.",signatures:"Rufaida Al-Zoubi, Dow P. Hurst and Patricia H. Reggio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63474",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63068",title:"Quality Traits of Medical Cannabis sativa L. Inflorescences and Derived Products Based on Comprehensive Mass-Spectrometry Analytical Investigation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79539",slug:"quality-traits-of-medical-cannabis-sativa-l-inflorescences-and-derived-products-based-on-comprehensi",totalDownloads:1237,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cannabis sativa L. has been cultivated throughout the world for industrial and medical purposes and is the most controversial plant ever exploited, with considerable discrepancies in the praise and disapproval it receives. Medical Cannabis prescriptions are on the increase in several countries where its therapeutic use is authorised due to its positive role in treating several pathologies even if it represents a multifaceted reality in terms of application. There are at least 550 identified compounds in C. sativa L., including more than 100 phytocannabinoids and 120 terpenes. The chemical complexity of its bioactive constituents highlights the need for standardised and well-defined analytical approaches able to characterise plant chemotype and herbal drug quality as well as to monitor the quality of pharmaceutical cannabis extracts and preparations. This research highlights the potential of using different analytical procedures involving the combination of headspace-solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled to GC–MS and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) coupled to high resolution mass-spectrometry (HPLC-Q Orbitrap®) for the in-depth profiling of quality traits in authorised medical varieties of Cannabis sativa L. flos (Bediol®) and corresponding macerated oil preparations. This approach could add new knowledge to the field of “omic” analytical applications which are fundamental nowadays for Cannabis used for therapeutic remedies.",signatures:"Lorenzo Calvi, Radmila Pavlovic, Sara Panseri, Luca Giupponi,\nValeria Leoni and Annamaria Giorgi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63068",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62431",title:"The United Chemicals of Cannabis: Beneficial Effects of Cannabis Phytochemicals on the Brain and Cognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79266",slug:"the-united-chemicals-of-cannabis-beneficial-effects-of-cannabis-phytochemicals-on-the-brain-and-cogn",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"‘Medicinal cannabis’ can be defined as pharmaceutical grade cannabis-based products used for the treatment of illness. Beneficial treatment effects of cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-intoxicating compound isolated from the cannabis plant, have been shown in multiple states of cognitive impairment, including neurodegenerative (Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease), neuroinflammatory (sepsis-induced encephalopathy) and neurological disorders (ischemic brain injury). CBD can also treat some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including cognitive deficits (impairments in learning and memory), which is a major symptom domain of the illness that is largely resistant to existing antipsychotic medications. However, empirical evidence suggests the presence of an ‘entourage effect’ in cannabis; that is, observations that medicinal cannabis seems to work better in some instances when administered as a whole-plant extract. While scientific evidence highlights isolated CBD as a strong candidate for treating cognitive impairment, the entourage effect suggests that the co-operation of other plant molecules could provide further benefits. This chapter explores the scientific evidence surrounding the benefits of CBD and other specific key phytochemicals in cannabis: linalool, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids and anthocyanin, on brain health and cognition.",signatures:"Katrina Weston-Green",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62431",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62622",title:"Modulation of Pain by Endocannabinoids in the Periphery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79673",slug:"modulation-of-pain-by-endocannabinoids-in-the-periphery",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Activation of cannabinoid receptors using systemic treatments produces analgesia in a variety of experimental pain models, but these effects are hindered by sedation and motor impairment mediated by receptors in the central nervous system. Targeting the endocannabinoid system in the periphery can bypass these unwanted side effects while still producing analgesia in both acute and chronic pain states. This chapter discusses the different approaches to increasing peripheral endocannabinoid activity in experimental models of acute and chronic pain, including inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain, and sickle cell disease. We also explore how these treatments alter nociceptive activity in the peripheral nervous system.",signatures:"Megan L. Uhelski, Iryna Khasabova and Donald A. Simone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62622",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62622",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62877",title:"Possible Role of the Endocannabinoid System in Tourette Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79895",slug:"possible-role-of-the-endocannabinoid-system-in-tourette-syndrome",totalDownloads:1244,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neuropsychiatric disorder with childhood onset. The core symptoms are motor and vocal tics. The majority of patients also suffer from psychiatric comorbidities. The pathophysiology of TS is not clear, but changes in different neurotransmitter systems—in particular the dopaminergic system—have been confirmed. Since there is increasing evidence that cannabis-based medicine (CBM) is effective in the treatment of TS, an involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the pathophysiology of TS has been suggested. The purpose of this chapter is to present existing evidence suggesting a pathophysiological role of the endocannabinoid system in TS and to summarize available data on beneficial treatment effects of CBM in patients with TS.",signatures:"Natalia Szejko, Ewgeni Jakubovski and Kirsten Müller-Vahl",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62877",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63561",title:"Cannabis Use Disorder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80344",slug:"cannabis-use-disorder",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extensive changes in cannabis regulation accompany changing public attitudes toward cannabis use and legalization. Cannabis use is more prevalent when the drug is legal; therefore, there is a substantial need for an evidence-based understanding of the risks associated with cannabinoids. The current chapter reviews the definition of CUD, its prevalence and associated conditions, and the contemporary understanding of its causes to inform policy, prevention efforts, and treatment of CUD in a dynamic and evolving legislative landscape. Studies are currently limited by an absence of standardized methods to characterize cannabis consumption levels as well as compound composition. Understanding the harms associated with cannabis use and CUD will be fundamental in informing policy and supporting clinicians.",signatures:"Iris Balodis and James MacKillop",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63561",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64557",title:"Bioligands Acting on the Cannabinoid Receptor CB1 for the Treatment of Withdrawal Syndrome Caused by Cannabis sativa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82184",slug:"bioligands-acting-on-the-cannabinoid-receptor-cb1-for-the-treatment-of-withdrawal-syndrome-caused-by",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Every day, the questions about Cannabis sativa ability to cause chemical dependence are closed with the considerable increase in the demand for treatment of addicts to this plant. Most drug addicts submitted to treatment have difficulty in achieving and maintaining abstinence from Cannabis due to the appearance of symptoms as irritability, anxiety, desire to consume marijuana, decreased quality and quantity of sleep, and change in appetite, weight loss, and physical discomfort, besides emotional and behavioral symptoms. The neurobiological basis for the withdrawal syndrome, that is, withdrawal of Cannabis, was established after the discovery of the endogenous cannabinoid system, identification of CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, and demonstrations of precipitated removal with antagonists of these receptors. The chapter discusses the main studies currently conducted for the treatment of withdrawal syndrome based on bioligands that act directly on the CB1 cannabinoid receptor.",signatures:"Jaderson Vieira Ferreira, Lenir Cabral Correa, Daniel Castro da Costa\nand Lorane Izabel da Silva Hage-Melim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64557",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66358",title:"Pediatric Dosing Considerations for Medical Cannabis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85399",slug:"pediatric-dosing-considerations-for-medical-cannabis",totalDownloads:1052,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For patients who fail conventional therapies, ability to access medical Cannabis may offer a therapeutic alternative that addresses their unmet clinical need. However, a paucity of clinical trial evidence has led to ambiguous pediatric dosing guidelines for medical Cannabis, a situation further complicated by the impact of developmental maturation of the pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) processes governing drug effect and dosing requirements. The pediatric population is very heterogeneous, and dissimilar developmental trajectories result in important differences in the rate and extent of cannabinoid absorption, distribution, elimination, and response both between and within pediatric age group classifications. These developmental changes will require the prescribing caregiver to consider age-specific dosage regimens that may demand continual modification as the child ages. The chapter that follows emphasizes the impact of age-related changes in PK and PD processes as important considerations in pediatric dosing recommendations for medical Cannabis.",signatures:"Jane Alcorn, Stephanie Vuong, Fang Wu, Blair Seifert and Andrew\nLyon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66358",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66608",title:"Cannabis for Pediatric and Adult Epilepsy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85719",slug:"cannabis-for-pediatric-and-adult-epilepsy",totalDownloads:1429,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Epilepsy is a chronic disease of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Up to 30% of patients continue to have seizures despite treatment with appropriate anticonvulsant medications. The presence of abnormal oscillatory events within neural networks is a major feature of epileptogenesis. The endocannabinoid system can modulate these oscillatory events and alter neuronal activity making the phytocannabinoids found in Cannabis a potential therapeutic option for patients with treatment resistant epilepsy. Many in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the anticonvulsant effects of several phytocannabinoids including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and Cannabidiol (CBD). Several small observational studies demonstrated a favorable response to cannabis herbal extracts (CHE) containing high concentrations of CBD in children with treatment resistant epilepsy. Two large double blinded clinical trials assessing the efficacy of pharmaceutical grade CBD have also been performed in children with treatment resistant seizures in Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Both studies demonstrated an improvement in seizure reduction in children taking CBD as compared to the placebo groups. To date there is very limited data regarding the use of cannabis based products to treat adult patients with treatment resistant epilepsy with only one randomized double blinded placebo controlled clinical trial underway.",signatures:"Richard James Huntsman, Richard Tang-Wai and Jose Tellez-\nZenteno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66608",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3846",title:"Neurochemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671f065e6c1035adb042edc442626b8a",slug:"neurochemistry",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5780",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:"A Chemical Messenger Between All Types of Living Cells",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fe2c461c95b4ee2d886e30b89d71723",slug:"serotonin-a-chemical-messenger-between-all-types-of-living-cells",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5780.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7480",title:"Neurochemical Basis of Brain Function and Dysfunction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"262be213941c1aaa0dd80896713f5e1f",slug:"neurochemical-basis-of-brain-function-and-dysfunction",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. 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Continuous Integration propagates a constant integration of changes to code as opposed to Big Bang integration done at the end of a development cycle. It has, in turn, paved the path to Continuous Delivery and Continuous Deployment of software components and entire software platforms. The core idea of Continuous Delivery is to be able to roll out new releases at any time and not only at the end of larger development cycles. In order to reach this goal, Continuous Delivery demands the automation of all steps required to compile, bundle, test, and release the software. Testing ranges from unit tests targeting a single software component, over integration tests, acceptance test to user acceptance tests. While this approach is emergently successful in industry, it is barely used for scientific software, neither is it used in collaborative research environments.
\nIn contrast to industrial projects and even open source software projects, distributed research projects (for instance, large(r) EU-funded ICT projects), the project itself is almost never in the core interest of the partners forming the project consortium. Instead, every partner is interested in the niche aspect that made him join the project and that makes the consortium look complete and gives the consortium a complementary appearance. In reality, though, the agendas of the project partners are often driven by their individual interests and particularly academic partners do have an obvious interest in the actual research aspect of the work and are less focussed on the provisioning of dependable, sustainable software artefacts. Neither are they preliminary interested in the common, integrated, stable software platform. In practise, this may mean that Partner A wants to improve on an algorithm they have, while Partner B would define a domain specific language (DSL) for a specific scope and Partner C will provide an improved kernel module for handling I/O on solid state disks. From a research point of view, this means that the main work for Partner A will be on the definition of the algorithm, its implementation, and evaluation in some limited, publishable scope. For Partner B, the main work will be on the definition of the DSL and on applying and realising it in two or three use case scenarios. Partner C’s work will be on the definition of the new approach and on the realisation and evaluation of the kernel module, probably for one specific version of Linux.
\nWhile the behaviour of all three partners is fully legitimate and understandable, it is the nature of a distributed research project that interdependencies between parts of the software exist. Usually software integration is required at certain project milestones where prototypes should be released and new, emergent features be demonstrated to the public or at least the funders. Here, the lack of common interest in the project in combination with the described “research style” code quality makes the integration a painful, cumbersome, and frustrating task. Our experience shows that in many projects the task of integrating software from different partners is outsourced in an own project work package and then assigned to one or at most two partners that were not or only marginally involved in improving the algorithm from Partner A, developing the DSL from Partner B, and realising the kernel module of Partner C. Furthermore, in many projects the whole integration of all software components is done in a Big Bang style before a review or before an obligatory software release and even worse often performed by a single individual. This poor devil ends up integrating and fixing several dozen software components (s)he has not developed, is not owning, and has never been responsible for.
\nWe argue that instead of putting all integration responsibility and work on the shoulders of a single individual, it is way better to spread out work among project partners and make it everybody’s task. We further believe that the techniques and strategies offered by
The rest of this chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 identifies the requirements in more detail and presents related work. Sections 3–5 introduce background on Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, and Continuous Deployment, respectively. Section 6 presents our framework on both conceptual and tooling level while Section 7 discusses the approach. Section 8 concludes and gives an outlook on future work.
\nInternational ICT research projects involve large, distributed teams (consortia) made up from multiple companies or institutions, so called partners or beneficiaries. These teams create research software artefacts that need to work together in order to demonstrate and ship the project results. In the following, we analyse the challenges of such constellations, and why this requires a special integration strategy. Finally, we carve out the requirements towards such an integration strategy and discuss related work.
\nDevelopment in distributed, that is, non co-located, teams is challenging, as the distribution aspect hinders communication. For instance, meetings and synchronisation actions barely can happen in a timely or even ad hoc manner, causing delays. From a technical point of view this may lead to diverging developments at different locations. From an organisational point of view, it causes overhead.
\nKoetter et al. [10] identify major problems in distributed teams and particularly with respect to research projects. At the core of their analysis, they identify the team distribution and lacking stakeholder commitment as major problems. The former complicates team communication leading to a lack of internal communication. The latter, a consequence of diverging goals and different (research) interests, leads to a lack of incentives for prototype integration.1 The impact of these causes is further increased by different cultural and technical background, etiquette, company policies, and high personal fluctuation in research projects.
\nIn order to cope with the diversity and resulting centrifugal forces, it is common that project management applies rules: these range from a common toolset and document template to regular virtual and physical meetings; both intended to improve communication. Additionally, most projects announce a central technical responsible whose role is to break ties in technical discussions. Finally, technical work is often separated such that local teams at partner sites work independently on certain sub topics producing isolated assets.
\nFrom our experience, these measures usually work fine and minimise the tension in the consortium. The lack of common goals usually gets masked by introducing a storyline every partner can agree on. Yet, we claim that the only aspect that cannot be handled by these measures is the work to be done for prototype integration, because it requires that components developed in isolation, work together smoothly despite the weak communication, and common goals. The often-practised Big Bang integration of artefacts causes a lot of work, troubles the consortium, and results in poor software quality.
\nUnderstanding and accepting that Big Bang integration causes pain and sub-optimal results, leads to the insight that a different prototype integration strategy is needed. Ironically, software development industry was facing similar issues decades ago [16] which led to abandoning of the waterfall model and the introduction of so called agile development methodologies. These were stated in the agile manifesto [17] and are being realised by methodologies such as extreme programming, Scrum, or Kanban.
\nAll of these methodologies assume co-located teams with large common interests and a high intrinsic motivation to deliver high quality, usable software. In consequence, they cannot be applied directly to research projects that do not fulfil the necessary preconditions. Nonetheless, at the core of their prototype integration2 methodology, agile methodologies rely on a highly automated, frequently executed, and constant process to reduce the possibility for human errors and to obtain continuously executable software artefacts.
\nWhile such an approach requires an upfront and constant invest in prototype integration, the overall amount of effort needed per partner and particularly per consortium is likely to be a lot less compared to Big Bang integration. This is due to the fact that changes are small and can be easily reviewed. Moreover, the use of automation allows dealing with the complexity of even larger and more diverse teams.
\nWe claim that automation can reduce the pain for prototype integration in (large) research projects. Yet, as with improving communication within the consortium, introducing an automated process, this improvement will not happen for free. Work from the project management is needed to establish and enforce such a process, which may cause resistance.
\nTherefore, our major aim is to minimise the upfront investment of project partners and the management effort needed to enforce the strategy. The overall goal is to develop an automated prototype integration schema that takes into account the specific needs of research consortia. This is broken down into particular requirements and challenges presented in the following sections.
\nThis section covers requirements towards automating prototype integration. We present them from the perspective of a research project, but they can be applied in different settings.
\nBesides the generic requirements that can be found in many distributed teams, the fact that distributed research projects are often executed by loosely coupled beneficiaries creates further technical challenges.
\nIn industrial contexts solving integration and communication issues is realised by introducing three kinds of orthogonal, but complementary approaches:
In Sections 3–5, we show that an adapted process to Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, and Continuous Deployment can indeed overcome integration issues for distributed research projects. In addition, Section 6 presents a set-up that is able to deal with the requirements from Section 2.3.
\nWhile there is a lot of literature on DevOps [15], agile methods, Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery [13], and Continuous Deployment not much can be found with respect to academia and academia/industry collaboration. Eckstein provides guidelines for distributed teams [11].
\nRother [1] lays part of the foundation of what is today perceived as DevOps by presenting the production pipelines and methodologies of Toyota. Being more on the cultural side of DevOps and CI/CD spectrum, Davis and Daniels [14] and Sharma [12] give some insights on how to bring these ideas to industry.
\nEspecially Continuous Integration was significantly influenced by Duvall et al. [2]. There, the authors describe most of the paradigms important for Continuous Integration. These are still valid today and are considered as de-facto standard. Fowler’s influential articles on Continuous Integration, for example [5], and testing, for example, through micro-service scenarios [4], lay the foundation on what is being perceived as Continuous Integration along with best practices.
\nRegarding academia, there is ongoing effort in bringing Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery to teaching. Eddy et al. [7] describe how they implement a pipeline for supporting their lecture on modern development practices. An academic view on Continuous Experimentation is brought up by Fagerholm et al. [9] by investigating multiple use-cases of industry partners. They analyse the demands and propose solutions to create experimentation-happy environments utilising Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery.
\nOn Academia/Industry collaboration Sandberg and Crnkovic [6] and Guillot et al. [8] investigate challenges between those parties and how to solve them with agile methods. Both analyse the adaption of the rather strict scrum methodology on said collaboration in multiple case studies with positive results. However, also that approach is highly dependent on team agreement.
\nKoetter et al. analyse the characteristics and problems of software development in distributed teams in research projects [10]. They give a literature review of common problems and typical solutions. With the focus on Software Architecture, the authors summarise the issues and sketch solution approaches on a methodological level.
\nThis section gives an introduction into the concepts of Continuous Integration. The next sub-section defines the scope of the methodology and gives a definition. Later sub-sections introduce the general concept and the Continuous Integration loop in more detail and introduce basics to testing and best practises.
\nContinuous Integration describes a methodology to always have the latest successfully built and tested version of a software component available [2]. At its core, it aims at removing diverging developments of different developers by enforcing that all the code changes of every developer are integrated with each other to a shared mainline “all the time” (hence, it focuses on the integration of code of a single build artefact). Integrating small changes at high frequency reduces the chance of diverging code and the pain of code integration.
\nIn Continuous Integration, the process of building and testing the component is usually described by scripts and hence, easy to reproduce by any developer and easy to automate. In consequence, it overcomes the issue of hard-to-reproduce builds that is a reoccurring problem in traditional development environments where developers usually have their code being built and run inside their different IDE in terms of version or even brand.
\nA successful adoption of Continuous Integration in any environment has to rely on automation in order to achieve a permanent feedback loop. This is illustrated in Figure 1. At some point in time, developers working on a local version of the code will be finished with their work, for example, a new feature or a bug fix. Then, they commit (step i) their changes to the version control system shared by all developers of that component. In addition to the code, the repository contains additional data and procedures to build and also test the software.
\nThe Continuous Integration feedback loop realising the integration pipeline.
Accordingly, a new commit triggers (step ii) a new build of the software component. In case the build is successful (step iii), tests of the code get executed. Here, build automation enables that both building and testing can run automatically and do not require any human integration.
\nOn a technical level, both build step and test step are executed on one or multiple build servers which is tightly integrated with the code repository and gets triggered through changes to the codebase. At the end of the build and test process, it will (step iv) report the status back to the users. Such a report includes information about failed builds or failed test cases. On success the build server issues a versioned and downloadable build artefact.
\nFor closing the Continuous Integration loop, other developers react on reports issued by the build server. In case of successful build and test steps, they are supposed to immediately integrate the changes in their own code base. This core concept behind Continuous Integration ensures that the code bases of different developers evolve compatibly.
\nIn order to successfully implement this feedback loop, it is important for every developer to commit very often (commonly interpreted as at least once a day). This ensures that merge conflicts stay minor and are easier to resolve.
\nTesting is necessary, as a successful build process does not give any hints whether the code is actually working. Hence, testing increases confidence on the codebase which creates an experiment-happy environment and reduces the risk introduced by possible ambiguity of requirements. Further, testing may yield information about code quality and runtime behaviour. Consequently, testing is the main vehicle to ensure reliability of and trust in the code. Obviously, this trust is higher, the higher the test coverage. Due to the many builds per day, testing can only be realised in an automated manner. In consequence, high automated test coverage is a core demand for Continuous Integration [2].
\nWhile there is no general agreement on a fixed number for code coverage percentage, there are suggestions and guidelines [3] about that metric. In practise, however, the desired coverage degree is dependent on the project and the criticality of the code.
\nAs with the whole Continuous Integration methodology, it is important that all team members have understood the importance of testing and practise it. Unit and Integration Tests are the minimum amount of tests necessary to achieve that. Consequently, they are our main concern in this chapter. Further details on testing of distributed applications are available elsewhere [1].
\nUnit tests target small portions of code in the codebase and usually operate on a class- or routine-level. They are built alongside the application and are executed on a successful built. Implementing them makes sure that individual parts of the component are working as expected and intended. In contrast, integration tests are run against a fully built and unit-tested component. An integration test executes the software component as a whole and runs tests against APIs and if necessary utilises mocks.
\nWhile the Continuous Integration loop as detailed earlier is simple, a true realisation of the approach requires flanking measures on the management and organisational side.
\nIn order to decrease the change of a broken build and failing tests, developers have to build and test the application locally before committing their changes to the shared code repository. This practise leads to the desire that the automated test environment used on the build server and the test environment provided by the developer’s IDE be compatible. Only then can the same tests be run in both environments and only then is the effort for the developer minimal to follow the principle of Continuous Integration.
\nHaving such a set-up, a developer will commit more often to the shared code repository when experiencing short feedback cycles from the Continuous Integration loop. Ideally, the time from committing code changes to a tested software artefact is as short as running the tests on the development machine or even shorter.
\nHowever, even performing local tests will not avoid that at some point a build or a test will fail leading to a broken build. While the build is broken no developer should commit to the repository. Instead, everyone in the team is encouraged to contribute to fixing whatever caused the build to break. Only then further commits to the code repository are allowed.
\nIn order to enable developers to witness that a build breaks and to trigger the process of handling this broken build, visibility of the current build and test status is a major concern. This can be as simple as a red or green badge being shown in a dashboard, an e-mail, but could also include bots that report on it on a messaging platform.
\nSummarising, Continuous Integration gives reproducible builds, versioned downloadable artefacts, and quick feedback on broken builds. Hence, it addresses many of the requirements brought up in Section 2: breaking down development into small units that are independently built and tested distributes work among partners (
On the downside, Continuous Integration does not address dependencies on service level (
Yet, the use of Continuous Integration also introduces new requirements:
\nThis section details background on Continuous Delivery. It starts with a definition and the usage scope, then presents the delivery pipeline and further testing steps. In contrast to Continuous Integration that has many challenges on social level, but a clearly defined build artefact at the end of a pipeline, the exact result of a run of the delivery pipeline is a design choice; the only demand is that it packages the binaries into something executable. Section 4.3 is concerned with the various possible approaches to packaging. Finally, when executing a component, various parameters may need to be configured, depending on the context the component is used in. We sketch possible design choices in Section 4.4.
\nContinuous Delivery takes an executable binary (e.g. a build artefact) and packages it in a ready-to-run execution environment that resolves all internal and external dependencies, for example, to the operation system kernel, third-party libraries, and remote services. At this end, this automatic process creates packaged runtime environments for binaries and other artefacts. The rational is that pre-configured and tested self-contained packages are easy to roll out in different environments increasing the reliability of the roll-out process. In addition, abandoning manual actions strengthens maintainability and trust in the process.
\nWhen combined with Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery provides a methodology that ensures that at any time a packaged, tested, and reliably deployable artefact is available based on the latest successful run of the integration pipeline.
\nThe delivery pipeline starts where Continuous Integration ends. It introduces the packaging step plus further automated and manual acceptance tests. A visual example of such a pipeline is shown in Figure 2.
\nExample delivery pipeline.
Continuous Delivery starts with
The outcome of a run of the delivery pipeline is at least one deployable artefact packing an application component. While the delivery concept
Virtual machine images package the component together with a suited operating system and all required third-party libraries. Executing the image in a virtual machine on a hypervisor introduces very strong runtime isolation between component instance (inside the virtual machine), the host installation (outside the virtual machine), and the host’s hardware. It also creates barely any external dependencies and no direct interferences with other components on the same host. On the downside, virtual machine images are heavy weight in terms of size and resource usage. Container images are a lightweight alternative that also bundle the component with all third-party libraries. Yet, the container’s operating system strongly depends on the hosting environment in terms of operating system version and kernel configuration. Still isolation between co-located components is available.
\nBoth virtual machine and container images create an isolated and fully self-contained environment for the component. A conceptual different approach is followed by configuration management tools and distribution packages. Both of them install software directly on the host platform and barely create any isolation between different components. Software distribution packages are special archives that wrap the binary and files it ships with, but also contains hints to packages this binary depends on. Obviously, they integrate deeply with the dependency management of the host platform and utilise shared system resources and libraries directly. Configuration management tools provide a layer of abstraction, as they attempt to (re-)configure and change the hosts environment to reach a state which ensures that the application can run. They may do so by using software distribution packages. Both approaches are rather lightweight in terms of storage size.
\nThe major goal of Continuous Delivery is to always have the latest deployable package of a component available. In consequence, this means that when creating the package, it is not known in which environment it will run. For instance, IP addresses, port numbers, paths to files may not have been defined yet, or can change over time. Consequently, when preparing a component for Continuous Deployment, it is important to foresee a configuration interface. Several approaches exist ranging from environment variables as suggested by the 12FactorApp3 over configuration files as commonly used for components provided as Linux packages, to key/value stores or a database.
\nThe choice of a configuration approach has influence on the overall implementation of a component. In addition, there is a mutual influence between configuration and packaging format.
\nSummarising, Continuous Delivery gives tested, versioned, and downloadable artefacts that are shippable, installable, and configurable out-of-the-box. As with Continuous Integration, the high degree of automation reduces manual burden (
On the downside, creating a larger deployable component from smaller parts, may counteract the equal distribution of load over partners (
Continuous Delivery introduces the following additional requirements towards prototype integration and management.
\nThis section gives background on Continuous Deployment. As before, we start with a definition and set the scope for this methodology. Then, we describe the deployment pipeline. Finally, we consider deployment environments and application state.
\nContinuous Deployment describes a methodology to always have the latest version of all artefacts of an application deployed; and that updates to the application are visible in the deployment shortly after changes to the codebase. As with integration and delivery pipelines, the deployment pipeline is supposed to run automatically.
\nAs all artefacts have gone through unit, integration, and acceptance tests, there is trust that individual artefacts work as expected. What is less reliable is the interplay of the components on an application-wide level. For that reason, in practise, multiple isolated environments are used and Continuous Deployment usually tackles the least critical environment, which is not linked with production systems. Yet, some companies like Amazon and Netflix demonstrate Continuous Deployment can go directly to production.
\nThe safety net of having multiple environments caters for incompatible version and interface changes of individual components. Figure 3 shows an example of three traditionally used different environments as well as transitions between them.
\nDeployment pipeline.
The development environment contains the very latest version of the components’ code and is automatically updated on every commit. In contrast, the production environment contains the actual live and fully functional environment facing users and customers. The staging environment is applied to validate updating the production environment to newer version. Therefore, staging uses a snapshot of the production data.
\nIt is important to note that besides their build versions, the packaged components do not differ from environment to environment. What differs is their configuration in the respective environment (cf. Section 4.4) and the process of updating them. The development environment is automatically installed from scratch with each new deployable artefact from Continuous Integration. This environment is then used by developers in order to test and validate the common application. It is also used for reviews by Q/A. If these are successful, the version of the development environment is instantiated in the staging environment by updating the previous installation. This serves as a blueprint for updating the production environment. In case it succeeds, Q/A will enact more tests and finally decide to upgrade the production environment.
\nUsually at least one of the application components makes use of persistent state such as data stored in a database and on the file system. In order to support automatic re-deployment in case of failures and a seamlessly upgrade from one version to another, this state has to be separated from the artefact produced by the delivery pipeline. Otherwise, software and state cannot not be upgraded separately.
\nIn consequence, state needs to remain available, even if the application environment is torn down. In IaaS clouds or containers, this can be achieved through the use of block storage/volumes; in more traditional approaches, a remote file system, a NAS, or a SAN could be used. In consequence, the location of the state has to be configurable.
\nSummarising, Continuous Deployment realises support for a constantly deployed instance of the project outcome. In addition to that, it enables the realisation of use-case specific or demo-specific environment (
In the following, we take the requirements put up in Section 2 and describe how we apply Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, and Continuous Deployment to support prototype integration as well as software releases for large-scale, widely distributed research projects. We also present how we address the additional requirements put up throughout Sections 3-5.
\nSection 6.1 presents the overall concepts and strategy we apply. The subsequent sections deal with the realisation of the individual pipelines. In each of these, we present our approach from a conceptual as well as a technical point of view and discuss the tools used. In addition, we present similar tools available on the market that could be used to provide the same or similar functionality.
\nSections 3–5 detail that the combined use of Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, and Continuous Deployment addresses almost all of the requirements established in Section 2. Table 1 presents the coverage of requirements and methodology taken. Only the need to cater for closed code and binaries (
\n | Continuous Integration | \nContinuous Delivery | \nContinuous Deployment | \n
---|---|---|---|
R.1 | \nX | \n\n | X | \n
R.2 | \nX | \nX | \nX | \n
R.3 | \nX | \n\n | \n |
R.4 | \n\n | X | \nX | \n
R.5 | \n\n | X | \nX | \n
R.6 | \n\n | X | \nX | \n
R.A | \n(X) | \n(X) | \n(X) | \n
R.B | \nX | \nX | \n\n |
R.C | \nX | \nX | \n\n |
R.D | \n\n | \n | X | \n
R.E | \nX | \n\n | \n |
Requirement mapping.
The following paragraphs sketch our approach on a high technical and management level.
\nOur approach centres around a project-wide code hosting platform that supports private repositories for code that shall not go public (
In order to be able to apply Continuous Anything, decisions on the management level are required. These include first and foremost, the decision of the consortium to enact the methodology (
For each of the components an individual software repository is created and a responsible gets assigned. In an ideal case, exclusively members from one local team are responsible for one of these components. For each of the components then test cases are defined that detail how the component is supposed to interact with other components and more importantly that reflect requirements and goals of the project. Finally, an early integration pipeline for each component is realised that runs the tests. Only at this point, it is necessary that the developers of a component agree on a common technology including the programming language. Different components can agree on different languages.
\nIn a next step, components are composed to deployable artefacts and for each of them a delivery pipeline is established. Acceptance tests are created and function as both a validation of the artefact’s functionality as well as a representation of the project’s requirements. Furthermore, a strategy towards packaging (
In a last step, the consortium agrees on the number of environments to be used as well as the transition paths between environments (
As clarified in Section 3, Continuous Integration requires additional infrastructure to be provided by the project. In particular, it demands for the operation of a code repository, a build server, and a test server.
\nDue to the openness towards programming languages, the build server needs to cater for any reasonable programming language (
Access rights to each repository can be specifically set with permissions ranging from private (
Regarding completely closed and private source code, which must not reside on the shared infrastructure (
For our approach, we selected Git enhanced with GitLab (
As a build server we use GitLab Runner. On the one hand side this is due to its deep integration with GitLab, but on the other hand side, this is also due to its openness and flexibility also in supporting exotic demands (e.g.
Technically, each repository defines the build environment of the component stored in that repository. The environment also defines the integration pipeline and contains at least the two mandatory steps compiling and testing. When triggered, builds, and tests get executed in an instance of the defined build environment.
\nDue to the fact that we do not impose any programming languages, we do not rely on any specific build and dependency management frameworks. The same is true for testing frameworks. Here, the only requirement is that it can be included in the pipeline.
\nThe functionality we achieve through our set-up can also be realised through the use of other tools. For instance, Mercurial or SVN could be used as source code repository. Jenkins and Travis are alternatives for build servers.
\nWith respect to build automation Maven is the de-facto standard for Java, while C programmers rely on make and pip could be used for Python. Testing can be implemented by JUnit or one of its derivatives for other languages.
\nFrom Section 4, it is clear that the main challenge with Continuous Delivery are to decide on the packaging format and the configuration strategy.
\nFor being able to easily start and use a component (
In contrast to the integration pipeline, not all repositories will have a delivery pipeline. Instead, multiple build artefacts can be combined to one packages artefact. For each packaged artefact, a root repository is selected that defines the delivery pipeline.
\nSimilar to the integration pipeline, the process of packaging the component is specific to each repository. While the packaging format should usually be consistent for every component, it might be necessary to integrate with other build artefacts and external components, which is the task of the delivery pipeline.
\nWhile Continuous Anything does not demand for a specific packaging format on the concept level, the format should be (i) lightweight, to keep the delivery feedback cycle short, (ii) self-contained, to make acceptance testing easier, and (iii) configurable to cater for usage in different scenarios.
\nIn order to support closed artefacts (
Our approach does not impose any specific packaging format. Yet, for artefacts with standard demands, we encourage the use of Docker images, as they offer a good trade-off between isolation and ease of use. Containers are not as heavy weight as virtual machines, but still the software runs isolated. The resulting Docker images are pushed to an image repository, which is internal to GitLab for private artefacts or the public Docker hub for public ones.
\nFor configuration, we suggest the use of environment variables for Docker containers as encouraged by good practises. For acceptance testing, we use the Selenium framework that enables record and playback of user interaction on interfaces.
\nFor packaging scenarios that demand higher isolation, virtual machines are the best choice. Here, Packer is a tool for the automated generation of virtual machine images. For configuration management, Puppet is an option, whereas for instance the Debian Package Manager can be used for creating distribution packages.
\nFor configuration through key values stores, a myriad of different tools exists, ranging from Consul to classic databases, for example, MySQL, or even NoSQL databases, for example, MongoDB.
\nBuilding on the decision we made in Section 6.3 by choosing Docker as packaging format, we need to align that to the additional requirements we set in Section 5. The following shows how we implement the Continuous Deployment of said containers.
\nWe usually use the three basic environments
All environments are handled by an orchestrator and operated on a project-hosted infrastructure (
The deployment in our system is done by the Rancher orchestration tool. For artefacts realised as containers, Rancher applies rancher-compose and docker-compose.yml files. These describe the actual configuration and a representation of the artefact to be deployed. Here, we can define the container (or virtual machine) image to use, the location of the state, and the desired configuration. Rancher also enables integrating external components.
\nFor orchestration of containers and virtual machines a plethora of different tools exist. These are either cloud-provider specific such as Amazon CloudFormation and OpenStack Heat, or reside outside the platform. In earlier work, we compare the features of these tools [19].
\nKoetter et al. [10] are arguing that due to the tight schedule and different commitment of partners, a prototype integration is hard to achieve as it is too costly. This leads to only partially integrated systems that do not fully support all features. We argue that with our system, we have a clear and easy integration workflow that can be adopted by almost any (distributed) team with modern software development lifecycles and be adapted to existing ones. Therefore, we believe that our approach tackles the reported requirements and issues. Yet, our approach described in Section 6 is just one solution, from an overwhelming number of choices to make regarding the selection of tools and methods to realise Continuous Anything. The best possible technical realisation depends on what is currently used at the sides of the consortium members and familiarity of tools.
\nNevertheless, team agreement as well as a clearly communicated and implemented methodology is more important than tool selection. The latter should always follow actual needs.
\nWhile Continuous Anything comes natural with the application of agile software development strategies, these are less an issue in distributed research projects. In this environment, it is hard to impossible to organise for instance daily stand up meetings or even weekly or bi-weekly sprints. As elaborated in Section 2 this is due to different schedules of the various stakeholders, the fact that barely anyone in the distributed team is dedicated full time to software development, and particularly that people travel a lot in order to promote the actual research work they do.
\nA possible way to work around the lack of a central pillar of the overall approach is to isolate responsibilities as much as possible and to only assign people from individual organisations to particular software components and have them organise the development process internally. This is the task of the project management.
\nA further core task of the project management besides organising the necessary infrastructure is to make sure that the integration strategy is rigorously followed from the beginning. This comprises the absence of shadow code, a common, shared understanding of how to use version control systems and when to apply changes to the master branch and other branches.
\nFrom all methodologies discussed, Continuous Integration can bring the most benefit. It is important to note, though, that everyone in the team has to agree on these practices being used. This might create some new pain points within the development team, but it is crucial that everyone understand the principles and share a common goal. This explicitly means that a non-trivial effort should be spent on test coverage. It is worth mentioning that for research-oriented environments daily commits of code are not necessary, but rather weekly or half-weekly commits are sufficient.
\nContinuous Delivery is especially helpful for research projects, since the described Big Bang Integrations usually happen multiple times during a project lifecycle; each time with a high risk of failing. The risk to failure puts a lot of stress on the whole consortium. In contrast, realising Continuous Delivery does not introduce new challenges except agreeing on a common packaging format.
\nOnce Continuous Delivery has been realised, implementing Continuous Deployment is low effort. It is a crucial step to lower the effort for all consortium members to get access to a running instance of the project outcome.
\nIn this chapter, we have presented our approach of Continuous Anything, a combination of Continuous Integration, Continuous Delivery, and Continuous Deployment in order to support the prototype integration to distributed research projects.
\nOur approach makes prototype integration a core element of the project plan and puts it on the same level as project management and financial administration. It does so by defining a framework that distributes and shares responsibility of integration work while at the same time clearly holding individuals responsible for dedicated software components. Through a high degree of automation, it keeps the overall integration work low, but still provides immediate feedback on the quality of the integration status. It is important to note that the quality of individual software components remains in the hands of their developers. It is them who decide which and if unit tests are necessary. In contrast, our framework requires that integration tests be available that ensure that interfaces between components work as intended. This approach allows an easy isolation of errors and the identification of responsible programmers in case of failures or problems.
\nThis work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreements No. 732667 (RECAP), 732258 (CloudPerfect), and 644690 (CloudSocket).
\nExpeditious expansion and industrial development near the rivers have led to more stress on the river, and with increased stress, the water becomes polluted, and worsening environmental health is observed [1]. The water-soil interface and the water-atmosphere interface are the medium through which the heavy metals travel [2, 3]. Both anthropogenic activities and geochemical processes are responsible for heavy metal contamination in ecosystems [4]. Elements that have high density and are less noxious are known as heavy metals. Examples of heavy metals are lead, iron, mercury, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, copper, and chromium and the actual volume of these heavy metals is more than 6 g/m3 [5]. Heavy metals have the property of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, and these heavy metals enter the aquatic system through various routes. These heavy metals not only impair the quality of the aquatic ecosystem but also human health [6, 7]. These heavy metals can be found on the layer of earth in their regular form. These heavy metals are so dangerous that they cannot be degraded or decomposed and they have the arability to bioaccumulate [8]. These heavy metals once get into the ecosystem through the air, via drinkable water, or multiple chemicals and products that are manmade. The route of administration of these heavy metals is via inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption. These heavy metals get into the biosphere via human activities, which include industrial production, mining, agriculture, and transportation [9]. Some methods are fossil fuel burning, smelting of different, waste from the municipality, fertilizers, pesticides, and sewage these all are considered to be the primary sources of metal pollution [10, 11, 12, 13]. The toxicity of these heavy metals in the human body reduces energy levels; disrupts brain functioning; disturbs the functioning of various other organs such as the brain, lungs, liver, and kidney; and also hinders blood composition. If the contact with heavy metals continues, then it can hinder the physical, neurological, and muscular functioning. And due to these diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and muscular dystrophy, and Alzheimer’s disease. Chronic exposure to some of the heavy metals and their compounds may even cause cancer [14]. Pollution of these heavy metals into the river may cause distressing effects on the ecological balance of the aquatic environment, and with the extent of contamination, the diversity of aquatic organisms becomes limited [15]. The fish in the aquatic ecosystem can be used for examining the well-being of biota. Due to pollutants in the food chain of organisms, harmful effects can be seen and the aquaculture can become dead [16]. These heavy metals are neurotoxins for the fish living in the aquatic environment. When these heavy metals enter the fish body, they interact with them to generate biochemical reaction inside the fish, which makes it difficult for fish to communicate with their surroundings [17]. The presence of these heavy metals leads to diseases like Minamata, which is organic mercury poisoning. When these heavy metals get bioaccumulated, they become a threat to both the human population and animals who uses that water [18]. Modeling of risk assessment is divided into four stages, i.e., exposure assessment, toxicity (dose-response) assessment, hazard identification, and risk characterization. There are three pathways through which humans get exposed to traced metals, which include directly ingesting, inhaling through the mouth or nose, and via skin absorption when it gets exposed. From the water, the heavy metals usually enter through ingestion and dermal absorption. To assess exposure, the average daily dose is measured for pollutants through different identified paths. In a dose-response assessment for no carcinogens, reference doses (RfD) are calculated, and for carcinogens, slope factors (SF) are obtained by the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database. With the help of the facts which are discussed above, there was a study done with an aim to evaluate the water quality of the Subarnarekha River relating to metals, their temporal classification, source of identification, and assessment of human health risk when that water was ingested or the contaminate when absorbed through the skin. Through this, it is possible to know the contamination level and accordingly, the strategies were planned (Table 1) [19, 20].
Heavy metal ions | WHO’s permissible limit (mg L−1) |
---|---|
Se | 0.02 |
Hg | 0.001 |
Mn | 0.02 |
Ag | 0.1 |
Cd | 0.05 |
Cr | 0.003 |
Pb | 0.01 |
Zn | 3.00 |
Fe | 0.30 |
Cu | 0.02 |
As | 0.01 |
Permissible limit of heavy metal ions in water [21].
The presence of these heavy metals on the surface of the water can be due to natural or anthropogenic activities. In natural activities, weathering of rocks that contain metals, an eruption from volcanos, fires in the forest, and naturally occurring processes of weathering can be included. From these activities, metal enters the different sections of the environment. Heavy metals can be found in the forms of sulfates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, phosphates, and silicates [12, 22]. A huge amount of accumulation of heavy metals into the water is mainly due to anthropogenic and natural activities. Some more examples of natural source through which heavy metals contaminates water are, wet and dry deposition of atmospheric salts, water-rock interaction, or water interaction with the soil. While the sudden increase in urbanization and industrialization are an example of anthropogenic sources through which water get contaminated (Table 2; Figure 1) [23].
Heavy metal ion | Common sources |
---|---|
Copper (Cu) | Fertilizers, tanning, and photovoltaic cells |
Zinc (Zn) | Soldering, cosmetics, and pigments |
Silver (Ag) | Refining of copper, gold, nickel, zinc, jewelry, and electroplating industries |
Chromium (Cr) | Leather industry, tanning, and chrome plating industries |
Arsenic (As) | Wooden electricity poles that are treated with arsenic-based preservatives, pesticides, fertilizers, the release of untreated effluents, oxidation of pyrite (FeS) and arsenopyrite (FeAsS) |
Mercury (Hg) | Combustion of coal, municipal solid waste incineration, and volcanic emissions |
Cadmium (Cd) | Paints, pigments, electroplated parts, batteries, plastics, synthetic rubber, photographic and engraving process, photoconductors, and photovoltaic cells |
Lead (Pb) | PVC pipes in sanitation, agriculture, recycled PVC lead paints, jewelry, lead batteries, lunch boxes, etc. |
Major sources of some heavy metal ions in water [24].
Contamination of water through different sources.
Trace metals are found in excess levels in the environment, they are formed by geographical processes such as volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, and leaching into rivers, lakes, and oceans due to the action of water [25]. The presence of heavy metals in water depends on the local geology, hydrogeology, and geochemical characteristics of the aquifer [26]. One of the main sources of pollution is weathering. The weathering of the sedimentary rocks such as limestone or dolomite or shale makes the water contaminated or polluted. When there is an interaction of water with rock element, it also leads addition of these elements into the water; thus, contamination occurs. Examples of such elements are granite, syenite, basalt, gabbro, nepheline, and andesite. Due to the particular ore or the minerals, the element level increases. Elements examples are magnetite, hematite, goethite, siderite, calcite, cuprite, malachite, azurite, chromite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, arsenic trioxide, orpiment, arsenopyrite, calamine, smithsonite, pyrolusite, and rhodochrosite [27, 28, 29, 30]. The sulfide deposition also increases as it is associated with the mineralization of the gold and hydrous iron oxide ores [31].
Anthropogenic events, in which human settlement replaced the natural forest and agricultural activities have increased the environmental impacts. Such activities have contaminated the aquatic ecosystems, which include spring waters from the river like the Amala and Nyangores, tributaries of Mara River, Indonesia in Mau Complex. The maximum of forest land is converted into human settlement and agriculture. People who live near the Mara River Basin use that spring water for the purpose of animal and agricultural purposes [21]. The water carrying capacity has decreased with the rapid increase in industrialization and urbanization. Hg concentration in water has increased with agriculture activities and human activities. Activities like domestic sewage into the water, solid waste burning, coal and oil combustions, and pyrometallurgical processes and mining are the main reason for this. Water, by either snow or rain, brings the contaminated soil with Hg into the adjacent water areas [32, 33]. The source of Ni is the corroded metal pipes and containers [34]. The major source of lead in water majorly comes from additives of paints and petrol and aerosol precipitation, which is formed due to the high temperature used in industrial processes for the purpose of coal combustion, smelting, and cement production [35], and chloralkali, batteries, fluorescent lamps, thermometers, and electronic switches production. Chemical industries are some industrial activities through which Hg pollutes the water system and these activities are the largest contributor to Hg contamination in the environment [36].
Huge amount of untreated sewage from domestic is thrown into the river. This untreated waste from domestic has the presence of toxins. These toxins are due to the presence of solid waste or from the litter of plastic, or the contamination of bacteria due to the presence of these the water can get polluted. Domestic untreated water is thrown directly into the water resource and this majorly causes pollution inside the water and harms the ecosystem [37]. These pollutants majorly depend upon what kind of industry has thrown those pollutants. When these toxic metals get inside the water, they decrease the quality of the water [38]. Around 25% of pollution inside the water is caused only by these industries [39]. When the water gets contaminated, the water gets enriched by the nitrogen and phosphorous elements. With the presence of these nutrients, the growth rate of algae gets multiplied, and then it competed with the surrounding aquatic biota for the dissolved oxygen in water [40]. The presence of nitrite and nitrate anions leads to a major threat to the exposed organisms; examples of such threats are methemoglobinemia. It is more common in small children, and the symptoms caused by this are cyanotic color in the skin due to blood alterations [41]. Water sources that get deposited by this sewage also become anions rich, due to the presence of chlorine in urine, and NaCl is used in the human diet. On the side of the sea, there is the presence of chloride in high concentrations due to the leakage of salt into the sewerage system. It also may be increased by industrial processes [42].
Contamination of heavy metals in the aquatic environment is very harmful since these elements cannot be degraded and they get accumulated inside the living organisms [43]. Residue from the industry is the major source through which these heavy metals get into the aquatic ecosystems, and their accumulation in water varies with the type of wastewater treatment used [44]. Effects known as deleterious can be observed when the metal particles are introduced into the water system [45, 46]. Different metals from the Amazon River (Brazil) and the Yukon River (Alaska) were analyzed in the solid-state only. Plants have the presence of these metals in water. In tissue, the concentration of several metals is slow, and their concentration should be kept in less range only as more concentration can be harmful to the biological development of the pant [47]. Through the food chain, fish contaminants can reach man [48]. Effluent from industries, water tank leakages, dumping beside marines, and due to radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition, are some sources of water contamination. Disposed of heavy metals and waste from industries they get accumulated in rivers and lakes thus causing harmful impacts on animals and humans. For suppression of the immune, reproductive failure and acute poisoning toxins are responsible [49]. Then there is direct damage to plant or animal nutrition at that time human health is affected. The pollutants that are polluting the water are killing marine organisms such as mollusks, marine birds, fishes, and other organisms that live in the sea [50].
With an increase in the population has created many issues and one of the issues is the pollution of water [38]. An increase in the population leads automatically leads to more generations of solid waste [51]. Both solid waste and liquid waste are deposited into the water without any treatment. Human excreta also contaminate the water. Thus, contaminated water leads to a generation of a large number of bacteria, which is a threat to human well-being [39]. Government is unable to supply vital requirements to the People because of the increase in the number of people. Facility for sanitization is more in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Plastic bag and waste are a major contribution to pollution. People throw the waste in plastic bags into water sources [24]. From the research, it was found that around three crore people of the population defecate in the open, while 77% population use flush and around 8% use the pit latrines. Urbanization can cause many infectious diseases. Overpopulation, unhealthy conditions, and dangerous drinkable water are these major health problems in urban areas. One-third of urban people are vulnerable to disease [37].
The population in rural areas is less but the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and eroded soil contaminates the water. When it rains the water from the surface runoff and that rainwater enters the nearby water resource and thus pollutes the existing water [52]. Agricultural runoff cases freshwater bodies’ eutrophication. Half of the lakes in the US are eutrophic. Phosphate has one of the major contributions to eutrophication. And the high concentration of phosphates promotes cyanobacteria and algae growth, which leads to the excessive use of the biologically dissolved oxygen inside the water [53]. Fertilizers that are too enriched with nitrogen decrease the dissolved oxygen in rivers and coastal zones thus bringing hazardous effects to the biota. Since 2006, the nitrogen in fertilizers is being controlled in America and Northwest Europe [54]. Like pesticides, which are used as pest control, these pesticides leach into groundwater, thus polluting groundwater. The pesticides that are water-soluble leach more and the sandy soil favors the process of leaching [55].
Small pollutants particles which are present in the air, get into the water stream through the rain, when it rains these particles come down and then with the flow of water enters into the sea, thus polluting the water there. These pollutants that are present in the air usually get from the burning of fossil fuels e.g. is CO2, which combines with water and produces sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide, which is formed via volcanic eruption and from industries, also gets attached to a water molecule to form the sulfuric acid. When coal is combusted then also sulfuric dioxide is produced and it is also produced from petroleum products. Just like this nitrogen dioxide also combines with the water and forms the nitric acid. And with the help of rainwater, they enter the water resources (Figure 2) [52, 56, 57, 58, 59].
Circulation of contaminants between environmental sources under the effect of atmospheric sources.
Heavy metals are present on the earth and thus they can enter the water system through various pathways and one of them is through mining sources. When it rains or through flowing water, it leaches heavy metals out from their geological formation. These processes get disturbed when manmade economic activities such as mining are done. Through these processes, the area that is already mined out gets exposed to water and air and this leads to the acid mine drainage (AMD). The low pH conditions associated with AMD mobilize heavy metals, including radionuclides where these are present [60].
Soil gets polluted with the presence of heavy metal on surface and underground water and the pollution rises when mined ores are discarded on the ground surface for manual dressing [61]. Due to the dumping over the surface, the metals get exposed to air and rain thereby generating huge AMD. If soil is polluted at that time, it gets into the plant tissue and gets accumulated there. And when those plants are grazed by animals and water is used for the drink from polluted waters, through there these heavy metals enter the body. Also, marine lives, which reproduce in contaminated water, also have the presence of heavy metals inside their body tissues, if they are lactating then inside their milk. As an overview, all organisms within a given ecosystem are contaminated via these pollutants through their food chains [62]. When nutrition from these contaminated vegetables is taken, the presence of heavy metals in those vegetables can lead to different chronic diseases. Toxic effects due to these heavy metals usually depend on the amount of concentration and the oxidative state of the particular heavy metals [63]. Heavy metals have a very dangerous impact as they are non-biodegradable in nature, have long biological half-lives, and have the potential to accumulate inside the body. Also, there are some heavy metals that are extremely toxic only because of their solubility. Fewer concentrations of heavy metals inside the food chain also show severe effects as there is no particular procedure through which these heavy metals pollutants can be extracted from the body of an organism. Nowadays presence of these toxic heavy metals is everywhere because of their extreme use in industries. In case of the wastewater, it contains a huge concentration of heavy metals, which create various health-related problems [64, 65].
Water from estuaries and freshwater is not polluted till now to some extent, but that water is also at threat of being polluted in the long term due to metal deposition because of human past activities [66]. The water in the river and lakes can be highly polluted depending on the volume of flow and proximity to the point sources. Due to the human civilization, the element content in water is raised. Such elements are cadmium, lead, mercury, zinc, and chromium. Unlike organic chemicals, there are some metals that cannot be converted into compounds with lesser toxicity, and one of its characteristics is the loss of biodegradability. Once the heavy metals enter the water system it gets redistributed throughout the column and gets accumulated in the sediments [67]. The sediments constitute a partial contribution to polluting the natural phenomena due to their activity and metal remobilization processes. Metal residues that are present in the contaminated surroundings have the flexibility to get bioaccumulated into the aquatic environment [68]. Growth in fish larvae and juveniles is rapid. But when these heavy metals enter they might inhibit the growth rate. The fish grows in length and bulk when given the right conditions, such as a specific temperature and an acceptable amount of food. Fish growth, on the other hand, may be impeded in water contaminated with toxicants, such as heavy metals. One of the most noticeable signs of metal toxicity in fish larvae is growth inhibition. As a result, the length and bulk of fish are indications of environmental conditions [69]. Heavy metals are introduced in liquid form and surface water constituents (carbonate, sulfate, organic substances humic, fulvic, and amino acids) cause the formation of non-soluble salts or complexes. Aquatic species are not expected to be harmed by these salts and compounds. Some of them sink and collect in the sediments at the bottom. A decrease in pH of water either due to acid rain or any other acidic incidents, due to the heavy metal’s deposition into the water column, causes aquatic biota to become poisonous. Low levels of heavy metals can also make chronic stress, through fish might not get dead but can cause them to lose weight and become smaller, reducing their capacity to compete for food and habitat [70]. Pollution poses a hazard to both freshwater and marine habitats. Heavy metal poisoning of water is a significant environmental hazard that has detrimental consequences for organisms who are exposed to it be that plant-animal or humans. Fish from freshwater are majorly exposed to various heavy metals, which are added into the water bodies through the different-different sources. Contamination of these heavy metals into aquaculture has intensified global issues because it shows a risk to fish and has harmful impacts on fish buyers [71]. There are three different modes through which heavy metals enter the fish. These methods are either through the gills of fish, by the body of the fish, or by the digestive tract of the fish. Heavy metals immediately enter the fish body through the gills, while the body surface takes time for uptaking of these heavy metals through this mode [72]. Mostly the metals get accumulated in the liver, kidney, and gills. In fishes, the muscles have most of the metals present there as compared to the other body parts of the fish. Too much accumulation of these heavy metals inside the fish organ can cause lesions and operative disturbances [73]. These heavy metals also interfered with the embryo’s shape and the metabolic processes of the fishes. Structural and functional defects throughout the development of the embryo resulted in fewer larvae hatching. Several freshly born larvae die shortly after hatching owing to lead and copper absorption [74, 75]. Heavy metals get into the fish through three routes: the first is via the fish gills, the second is through the digestive tract of the fish and the last one is through the body of the fish. The gills of fish are the area that is known for the primary metal intake from the contaminated water. On the fish gills, zinc accumulates. It suggests a depressing influence on tissue respiration, which leads to hypoxia and mortality. Zinc pollution also causes alterations in the structure of the lungs and heart [76]. Humans and fish are both affected by mercury. Brain damage, with postnatal and fetal problems, leads to abortions, congenital deformity, and development differences in young fry due to Monomethyl. Minamata illness and Hg poisoning (via methyl Hg) both showed considerable neurotoxicity [77]. Nickel is necessary for tiny amounts for the formation of RBC, but when its concentration gets increased, at that time, it becomes harmful or poisonous. Cd has been linked to an increase in blood pressure and cardiac illness in fish. Blood vessels damage, hemorrhages, and depletion of blood cell count of a fish are induced by Hg, from previous research. Anemia, eosinophilia, lymphocytosis, bronchial, and renal injuries can affect chromium levels in the blood [18]. Malformations in fish are caused by cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, lead, and arsenic. The accumulation of these heavy metals in excessive amounts causes a variety of physiological effects. Fin loss, gill underdevelopment, liver dysfunction, and fin function in fingerlings were all prevalent findings in the studies [78]. The harmful effects of heavy metals have the greatest impact on the death rate, reproduction, individual development rates, and physiological capacity of fish. There have been effects on physical functioning and chemical parameters in the tissues and blood of fish living in water that is polluted via metals. It has been reported that fish exposed to metals developed immune system defects, making them more susceptible to infectious infections and increasing their chances of dying (Figure 3) [79].
Harmful effects on the aquatic environment.
For the growth of plants, few HMs like As, Cd, Hg, Pb, and Se are not important as they do not perform any known physiological function in them. Others, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn, are key elements that are required for regular plant development and metabolism, but their amounts can quickly exceed the appropriate levels, resulting in poisoning [80, 81]. Heavy metal concentrations in plants vary by plant species, and the efficiency with which various plants absorb metals is measured by plant absorption or metal transfer factors from soil to plant. An increased amount of Pb in agricultural soil decreases the productivity rate of the soil, and a less lead amount may hinder some important processes of plant, dark green leaves, withering of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots are poisonous indicators of photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption [82]. Heavy metals are poisonous and phytotoxic to plants, resulting in diseases such as chlorosis, poor plant development, and yield depression, as well as decreased nutrient absorption, plant metabolic problems, and a reduced capacity to fix molecular nitrogen in leguminous plants. Seed germination was gradually reduced in the presence of increasing levels of lead, it may be due to exposure to lead for a longer duration, some methods, such as leaching, chelation, metal binding, or microbe accumulation, have resulted in the neutralization of lead’s harmful effects [83]. Heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, and Ni even their small concentration in plants can be hazardous to them. Poisoning due to this heavy metal will result in the complex interplay between the primary unpleasant ions and additional necessary or non-essential ions. Metals affect the activity of enzymes by swapping metal ions from metal enzymes, as well as preventing plant growth [84]. Some exceptional metals are vital for plants, as they reveal their roles in the catabolism of plants and biosynthesis, together as cofactors for enzymes and as metabolic yields. For example, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Co are the important nutrients but when their amounts are increased, they become toxic. Comparatively, Pb and Cd have no effect, which is favorable to the plant and is solely lethal [85]. The most abundant hazardous elements in the soil are lead. Pb poisoning in the soil is caused by municipal sewage sludge discharge, mining and smelting operations, Pb-containing paints, paper and pulp, gasoline, and explosives. They do not have any role in the shape of the plant or their growth and photosynthetic process of the plant. Pb poisoning also inhibits enzyme action, creates an imbalance of the water, alters membrane permeability, and disrupts mineral feeding [86].
One of the main sources of contamination of the water is heavy metals, as it overwhelms the important species indirectly through biological chains or directly via chemical modifications in water. Three potential ways are there, through which heavy metals get into the fish body: though fish gills, through the body of the fish, and through the fish digestive tract. Gills are responsible for the immediate absorption of metals from the water, whereas the body surface is thought to have a smaller role in the intake of these elements in fish [87]. By altering the normal activities of numerous enzymes and metabolites, the accumulation of these heavy metals in the tissues causes significant biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in fish and other freshwater fauna. Fish are one of the most widely dispersed creatures in the aquatic ecosystem, and their susceptibility to metal poisoning may indicate the extent of metal pollution’s biological impact [88]. Heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Zn, and tin (Sn), are major contaminants that cause serious toxicity in fish. Due to the heavy metals, the physiological and biochemical functions both in tissues and in blood Carpi can be altered. The compounds of As and inorganic As, Cd, Ni, silica in its crystal form, beryllium, and its compounds are considered to be chemical carcinogens, which results in the development of cancer inside the fishes. The drop in hematological parameters indicated that the exposed fishes had become anemic as a result of Cr exposure. This dangerous heavy metal was released into the aquatic ecosystem via trash, causing severe anemia and changes in hematological parameters in the
Water pollution is a global problem, and the world’s population is suffering the consequences of tainted water. Living organisms are also affected by the polluted water very much and it is very harmful to the environment. Acute and choric illnesses are caused by heavy metal concentrations in drinking water that exceed the permissible limits set by several national and international organizations. These can range from nonfatal, such as muscle and physical weakness, to fatal, such as brain, nervous system, and even cancer. Water quality testing is necessary for the protection of human health and the environment.
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",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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If its use complies with the five specifications including synthesis pathway, crystallographic phase, purity, amount and innocuousness, all other parameters are not defined and were hardly documented. However, in the last 3 years, two studies have deeply characterized food-grade TiO2 and converged to the fact that the size distribution of food-grade TiO2 spans over the nanoparticle range (<100 nm) and the surface is not pure TiO2 but covered by phosphate and eventually silicon species or aluminium species, which modify the surface chemistry of these particles. Until now, this material was considered as safe. However, the toxicological studies later to the last re-evaluation by the European Food Safety Agency reveal some concerns due to the ability of TiO2 particles to alter the intestinal barrier. This reinforces the idea to go on reinforcing the risk assessment about food-grade TiO2.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Marie-Hélène Ropers, Hélène Terrisse, Muriel Mercier-Bonin and\nBernard Humbert",authors:[{id:"203603",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Ropers",slug:"marie-helene-ropers",fullName:"Marie-Hélène Ropers"},{id:"206434",title:"Dr.",name:"Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Terrisse",slug:"helene-terrisse",fullName:"Hélène Terrisse"},{id:"206435",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Mercier-Bonin",slug:"muriel-mercier-bonin",fullName:"Muriel Mercier-Bonin"},{id:"206436",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Humbert",slug:"bernard-humbert",fullName:"Bernard Humbert"}]},{id:"51808",doi:"10.5772/64654",title:"Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition: Where we are and the Outlook for the Future",slug:"plasma-enhanced-chemical-vapor-deposition-where-we-are-and-the-outlook-for-the-future",totalDownloads:7768,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a technique for the fabrication of thin films of polymeric materials, which has successfully overcome some of the issues faced by wet chemical fabrication and other deposition methods. There are many hybrid techniques, which arise from CVD and are constantly evolving in order to modify the properties of the fabricated thin films. Amongst them, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is a technique that can extend the applicability of the method for various precursors, reactive organic and inorganic materials as well as inert materials. Organic/inorganic monomers, which are used as precursors in the PECVD technique, undergo disintegration and radical polymerization while exposed to a high-energy plasma stream, followed by thin film deposition. In this chapter, we have provided a summary of the history, various characteristics as well as the main applications of PECVD. By demonstrating the advantages and disadvantages of PECVD, we have provided a comparison of this technique with other techniques. PECVD, like any other techniques, still suffers from some restrictions, such as selection of appropriate monomers, or suitable inlet instrument. However, the remarkable properties of this technique and variety of possible applications make it an area of interest for researchers, and offers potential for many future developments.",book:{id:"5211",slug:"chemical-vapor-deposition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-optical-solar-cells-and-solid-state-devices",title:"Chemical Vapor Deposition",fullTitle:"Chemical Vapor Deposition - Recent Advances and Applications in Optical, Solar Cells and Solid State Devices"},signatures:"Yasaman Hamedani, Prathyushakrishna Macha, Timothy J. Bunning,\nRajesh R. Naik and Milana C. Vasudev",authors:[{id:"181604",title:"Dr.",name:"Milana",middleName:null,surname:"Vasudev",slug:"milana-vasudev",fullName:"Milana Vasudev"}]},{id:"55301",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68802",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. Thus, in the present review, we provide an overview of the recent research being developed to photodegrade pesticide residues in water using TiO2 as photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Nuria Vela, Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, José Fenoll and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"202989",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fenoll",slug:"jose-fenoll",fullName:"José Fenoll"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"56162",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry: Problems and Solutions",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:5273,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Phosphoric acid (PA) is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the fertilizer industry, for metal surface treatment in the metallurgical industry and as an additive in the food industry. The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}]},{id:"62941",title:"Inorganic Coordination Chemistry: Where We Stand in Cancer Treatment?",slug:"inorganic-coordination-chemistry-where-we-stand-in-cancer-treatment-",totalDownloads:2160,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Metals have unique characteristics such as variable coordination modes, redox activity, and reactivity being indispensable for several biochemical processes in cells. Due to their reactivity, their concentration is tightly regulated inside the cells, and abnormal concentrations are associated with many disorders, such as cancer. As such metal complexes turned out to be very attractive as potential anticancer agents. The discovery of cisplatin was a crucial moment, which prompted the interest in Pt(II) and other metal complexes as potential anticancer agents. This chapter highlights the state of the art on metal complexes in cancer therapy, highlighting their uptake mechanisms, biological targets, toxicity, and drug resistance. Finally, based on the importance of selective target of cancer cells, drug delivery systems will also be discussed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Pedro Pedrosa, Andreia Carvalho, Pedro V. Baptista and Alexandra R. Fernandes",authors:[{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes"}]},{id:"57464",title:"General Aspects of the Cobalt Chemistry",slug:"general-aspects-of-the-cobalt-chemistry",totalDownloads:2305,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter aims to collect and summarize the chemical properties of cobalt and some new cobalt compounds. It deals with the progress of cobalt chemistry. Cobalt has been substantial in both chemical reactions and within many compounds. Some of them are heterocyclic reactions, cobalt-based catalyst and cobalamin. Also, it discusses variety of applications of cobalt in a wide range of areas and toxicity of cobalt. The studies carried out in this area so far have enabled and will be continued to be responsible for producing unknown and difficult reactions. This survey of the recent literature illustrates the fact that many different approaches on cobalt and new cobalt compounds are being used in many different areas.",book:{id:"6133",slug:"cobalt",title:"Cobalt",fullTitle:"Cobalt"},signatures:"Yasemin Yildiz",authors:[{id:"208129",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"yasemin-yildiz",fullName:"Yasemin Yıldız"}]},{id:"55301",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1994,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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