Summary of selected research on rubberized concrete.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8697",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Virtual reality is a set of technologies that enables two-way communication, from computer to user and vice versa. In one direction, technologies are used to synthesize visual, auditory, tactile, and sometimes other sensory experiences in order to provide the illusion that practically non-existent things can be seen, heard, touched, or otherwise felt. In the other direction, technologies are used to adequately record human movements, sounds, or other potential input data that computers can process and use. 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To date, he has published sixty-five books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published many scientific papers as well. Dr. Cvetković became a full professor of Informatics and Computing at Singidunum University, Belgrade, in 2014. 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Through AR/VR one negotiates virtual worlds, often with a feeling of endless possibility and sublimity. This experience can lead to the danger of being swallowed up by the sublime. However, instead of being confronted by nature and the immensity of the skies, the virtual sublime references technology, infinitely zooming into microscopic and atomic structures, yet still shaking our sense of our world. The concepts of virtuality, digital materiality, the analogue/digital divide, an AR/VR spectrum, essentialism, sensorial sensuality and avatar instantiation will be explored, concluding with an analysis of the senses and the natural extension of sensorial engagement—affect. This article proposes that the heightened sensations of an AR/VR encounter lend themselves to the sublime. However, the deficit of AR/VR sensuality due to truncated sensorial input leads to feelings of disaffection and disconnection. The residual effect translates into a longing for a heightened engagement and becomes a yearning for the sensual input of physicality. Yearning therefore becomes a defining attribute of the virtual sublime. These ideas are considered in light of the philosopher Henri Bergson’s concepts of the absolute and the relative.",signatures:"Lynne Heller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73089",authors:[{id:"311634",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynne",surname:"Heller",slug:"lynne-heller",fullName:"Lynne Heller"}],corrections:null},{id:"70421",title:"Presenting in Front of a Virtual Audience: A Synthesis of Research in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90483",slug:"presenting-in-front-of-a-virtual-audience-a-synthesis-of-research-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:698,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"While previous studies in educational sciences emphasized the essence of feedback on developing students’ oral presentation competence, it remains questionable how innovative technologies can successfully deliver high-quality feedback on such a competence. Recent experimental studies in this field revealed the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) for increasing oral presentation competence and diminishing presentation anxiety. Due to both technological and educational developments, VR systems facilitate the translation of quantitative data into qualitative feedback messages, relating to presentation delivery aspects. This challenges current presentation curricula if the learner is able to individually interpret automatized and personalized feedback messages after rehearsing in front of virtual audiences. As a consequence, it questions to what extent teachers’ roles might change over time. This chapter synthesizes recent studies into a set of educational design principles for effective use of VR, discusses practical implications, and provides a future research agenda on this topic for the higher education context.",signatures:"Stan Van Ginkel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70421",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70421",authors:[{id:"311611",title:"Dr.",name:"Stan",surname:"Van Ginkel",slug:"stan-van-ginkel",fullName:"Stan Van Ginkel"}],corrections:null},{id:"70902",title:"Virtual Reality: A Tool for Improving the Teaching and Learning of Technology Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90809",slug:"virtual-reality-a-tool-for-improving-the-teaching-and-learning-of-technology-education",totalDownloads:835,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work dealt with technology education, its expectations and present state, especially in developing countries. It looked at virtual reality: its development, types, uses and how it can be applied to improve teaching and learning. It also looked at different works that compared virtual reality, and other educational technology tools were reviewed. Advantages of virtual reality were highlighted; these will include both social and academic issues. Immersive and non-immersive virtual reality for education were briefly discussed, looking at the applicability of each to teaching and learning, ease of use, cost-effectiveness and health implications.",signatures:"Onele Nicholas Ogbonna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70902",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70902",authors:[{id:"311949",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas Ogbonna",surname:"Onele",slug:"nicholas-ogbonna-onele",fullName:"Nicholas Ogbonna Onele"}],corrections:null},{id:"70616",title:"Industrial Heritage Education and User Tracking in Virtual Reality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90679",slug:"industrial-heritage-education-and-user-tracking-in-virtual-reality",totalDownloads:568,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrial heritage provides one of the most important records of social and technological progress and has international potential for education and development. This chapter presents the potential to use the virtual reality devices for informal education in technical and natural sciences. The hypothetical virtual appearance of an industrial power plant from the nineteenth century in Slovak city of Piešťany was intricately reconstructed by a combination of identified conserved valuable parts of the building and preserved original equipment and archival plans. This practical result—interactive virtual tool—educates about the lost heritage by allowing viewers to look closer and experience the former atmosphere of industrial work. During the virtual visits, users are motion tracked and invited to take photographs to mark the most interesting motives. Gathered data from this users’ observation were analyzed to find behavioral patterns and to give feedback information about the exhibition’s attractivity, used in further presentations.",signatures:"Vladimír Hain and Roman Hajtmanek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70616",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70616",authors:[{id:"312940",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vladimír",surname:"Hain",slug:"vladimir-hain",fullName:"Vladimír Hain"},{id:"312942",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Hajtmanek",slug:"roman-hajtmanek",fullName:"Roman Hajtmanek"}],corrections:null},{id:"70664",title:"Designing Interactive and Immersive Multimodal Installations for People with Disability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90678",slug:"designing-interactive-and-immersive-multimodal-installations-for-people-with-disability",totalDownloads:744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We developed an end-to-end co-creative methodology for designing interactive and immersive multisensory virtual reality experiences with a particular focus on people with disability. Our method draws on what is called “design thinking” to provide a backbone to our approach. This embraces three stages, an empathic first stage, followed by an ideation phase, during which the thematic context is elaborated, and then an iterative exploration phase during which the initial concept is refined and the implementation is achieved. Furthermore, the “cognitive design” methodology developed by one of us led us to an approach incorporating all sensory modalities, not just the audio and visual modalities (that is, it includes odor, tactile, taste and proprioceptive stimuli), in order to deliver an experience that fully enhances the user’s sense of embodiment, and also led us to place the user’s experience at the heart of the installation. Users participate in the design process through co-design protocols. We showcase the application of this methodology in a detailed way for the construction of an interactive and immersive VR installation for people with disabilities.",signatures:"Afnen Arfaoui, Geoffrey Edwards, Ernesto Morales and Patrick Fougeyrollas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70664",authors:[{id:"66694",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffreyjen",surname:"Edwards",slug:"geoffreyjen-edwards",fullName:"Geoffreyjen Edwards"},{id:"274422",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Morales",slug:"ernesto-morales",fullName:"Ernesto Morales"},{id:"312591",title:"Ms.",name:"Afnen",surname:"Arfaoui",slug:"afnen-arfaoui",fullName:"Afnen Arfaoui"},{id:"312592",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Fougeyrollas",slug:"patrick-fougeyrollas",fullName:"Patrick Fougeyrollas"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269578",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Leen",fullName:"Gabriel Leen",slug:"gabriel-leen",email:"Gabriel.Leen@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fintan",middleName:null,surname:"McGuinness",fullName:"Fintan McGuinness",slug:"fintan-mcguinness",email:"Fintan.McGuinness@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}]},book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11908",leadTitle:null,title:"Self-Assembly of Materials and Supramolecular Structures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe bottom-up approach for the self-assembly of molecules, macromolecules, and particles into well-defined superstructures provides superior structural control of materials compared to top-down methods. Nature largely utilizes macromolecules to construct supramolecular materials, which ultimately contribute to the great array of forms and functions of life. Thus, the self-assembly of materials and the formation of superstructures have been of great interest in the fields of materials science, nanoscience, and nanoengineering.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will describe the self-assembly of materials and supramolecular chemistry design principles for a broad spectrum of materials, including bio-inspired amphiphiles, metal oxides, metal nanoparticles, and organic-inorganic hybrid materials. It will provide fundamental concepts of self-assembly design approaches and supramolecular chemistry principles for research ideas in nanotechnology applications. The book will focus on three main themes, which include: the self-assembly and supramolecular chemistry of amphiplies by coordination programming, the supramolecular structures and devices of inorganic materials, and the assembly-disassembly of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. The contributing chapters will be written by leading scientists in their field, with the hope that this book will provide a foundation on supramolecular chemistry principles to students and active researchers who are interested in nanoscience and nanoengineering fields.
Investigation of rubberized concrete has received considerable attention since late twentieth century, when exploration of the idea of adding rubber particles to the concrete matrix began. The intriguing idea for many has been the combination of an ultra-flexible material to an ultra-rigid material to enhance ductile performance of the composite material. In addition, the idea of incorporating a waste material that may otherwise end up in a landfill is attractive for sustainable development. The main constituent of rubberized concrete is tire-derived aggregate (TDA), incorporated in a cementitious matrix through replacement of fine or coarse aggregate as a percentage of volume or weight. This application redirects a significant amount of waste rubber from landfills to infrastructure industries.
The idea of repurposing a waste material for use in concrete has roots in concerns regarding the amount of waste tires in landfills. The United States alone generates 289 million scrap tires on an annual basis as of 2006 [1]. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies stockpiled tires as an “ideal incubator for mosquito larvae” and connects this to the spread of the West Nile Virus from 1999 to 2005 [1]. As of 2012, tires were being recycled at a rate of 44.6% with rubber and leather contributing 6.18 million tons of waste after accounting for recycling and recovery [2]. The idea of reducing the number of waste tires that accumulate in landfills through recycling rubber for use in concrete has continued to attract the attention of researchers.
The general focus of research on rubberized concrete is the evaluation of mechanical properties of the concrete. The basic properties include compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths. The performance of TDA concrete subject to dynamic loading is another essential property of TDA concrete. In addition, application of supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures, such as silica fume and fly ash, has potentials to enhance various characteristics of TDA concrete. Research seems to be in support of the fact that the lower strength and enhanced dynamic properties of the TDA concrete mixtures are valuable in certain practical applications such as traffic barriers and other impact-resistant systems.
Other than the inclusion of the rubber particles, the rubberized concrete mix is virtually the same as most other concrete including cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and water. Some researchers have incorporated super plasticizers, in order to achieve better workability. Others have experimented with the use of silica fume and fly ash in order to achieve enhanced strengths. Further, researchers have experimented with pretreating the rubber particles using chemical washes in attempts to develop better bonds between the rubber particles and the cementitious matrix. Following sections discuss individual components making up the rubberized concrete matrix.
TDA refers to the rubber particles, processed from multiple types of tires differing in composition and fiber type, used for replacing the mineral or rotary kiln expanded lightweight aggregates in many mixtures (Figure 1). Descriptive classification of rubber particles relies on the size and manufacturing processes of materials [3]. The first and largest classification of TDA is shredded tire chips, which are typically results of mechanical shredding. Resulting tire chips may be as large as 460 mm long by 230 mm wide to as small as 150 mm long. A combination of both primary and secondary shredding processes is also common to produce smaller shredded chips. The next classification is ground rubber; with a typical range of 19–0.1 mm in size. Ground rubber is subject to two stages of magnetic separation and screening to remove the steel fibers from the rubber particles. The smallest classification of TDA is crumb rubber, obtained through micro-milling, cracker-milling, and granular processes. Crumb rubber particle sizes range from 4.75 to 0.075 mm. Another method is a cryogenic method, in which the rubber is frozen using nitrogen and then shattered [3].
Crumb rubber manufactured through mechanical shredding of recycled tires.
The common fine aggregate used in most research studies on rubberized concrete is natural sand with a gravel coarse aggregate. The cement used is either Type 1 or Type 2 cement, with no significant evidence suggesting one type of cement performing better. Other admixtures incorporated into rubberized concrete include the addition of silica fume and fly ash by replacement of cement. This enhances the strength of rubberized concrete and bond between the rubber and cement. Further, rubber particles may also replace lightweight aggregates (LWA), such as rotary kiln expanded shale, clay, and slate, in various lightweight concrete materials, where, the similarity between the volume weights of TDA and LWA enhances the ease of mixing and placing operations [4].
Table 1 lists selected research projects and their characteristics. Existing literature indicates that an increase in rubber content results in a systematic decrease in the compression strength of the concrete material (Figure 2). The substitution of mineral aggregates with TDA is generally between 0 and 100% of the total aggregate volume in increments of 20%. The relationship between the compressive strength and rubber content in the mix is not linear [22]. Further, the size of the particles has an impact on this relationship. While, inclusion of 100% crumb rubber may reduce the compressive strength by more than 90% [8], substitution of fine aggregates by less than 25% appears to have no significant impact on this strength [13]. In particular, research has shown that application of fine crump rubbers has less negative impact on the compressive strength of the mix [5, 6, 15, 20]. A comparison between applications of coarse rubber particles versus fine rubber particles indicate that coarse and fine rubber particles are more effective at substitution ratios of less and more than 25%, respectively [14]. Using larger sizes of TDA, also known as tire chips, provides an opportunity to keep the steel belt wires after shredding in order to lower the costs, even though, they may not provide any specific advantage for the mix [25]. On the same line, application of fiber reinforcement by adding polypropylene fibers has shown to be effective in reducing crack propagation due to shrinkage [12].
Reference | Rubber aggregate | Replaced conventional aggregate | Specimen type/size | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aiello and Leuzzi [5] | Tire shreds 20 mm w/ Steel Fibers Included | Coarse aggregate 12.5–20 mm | Cube 150 mm Beams 250 × 250 × 900 mm | |
Al-Tayeb et al. [6] | Crumb rubber 1 mm | Sand fine aggregate | Cylinder 100 Beams 100 × 50 × 400 mm | |
Atahan and Sevim [7] | Shredded tire chips 11–22 mm | Crushed limestone coarse aggregate 4–16 mm | Cylinder 150 Full Scale Barriers 1000 × 450 × 250 mm | |
Atahan and Yucel [8] | Large rubber 13 mm and crumb rubber #10-20 | Crushed Stone 19 mm and Sand | Cylinder 100 | |
Bignozzi and Sandrolini [9] | Scrap and crumb tires 0.05–2 mm | Fine aggregate sand 0–4 mm | Cube 150 mm | |
Ganjian et al. [10] | Chipped rubber 25 mm | Crushed siliceous coarse aggregate | Cube 150 mm Beams 100 × 100 × 500 mm | |
Guneyisi et al. [11] | Crumb rubber similarly graded to sand and tire chips 10–40 mm | Natural sand 4 mm and crushed limestone 20 mm replaced equally | Cube 150 mm Cylinder 150 (90-day strength) | |
Hernandez-Olivares et al. [12] | Rubber strip fibers 8.5–21.5 mm | No material removed | Cylinder 150 Beams 150 × 150 × 600 mm | |
Issa and Salem [13] | Crumb rubber (similar to sand used) | Crushed sand | Cylinder 150 | |
Khaloo et al. [14] | Coarse tire chips | Crushed stone gravel 20 mm | Cylinder (50-day strength) | |
Khatib and Bayomy [15] | Tire chips from mechanical shredding 10–50 mm | Coarse aggregate gravel | Cylinder 150 Beams 152 × 152 × 50 mm | |
Li et al. [16] | Truck & car tire chips and fibers with and w/o steel belt 25–51 mm | Coarse aggregate gravel | Cylinder 150 | |
Liu et al. [17] | Crumb tire rubber 0.178 mm | River sand fine aggregate 5 mm | Cubes 150 mm Cylinders 35 (SHPB Impact) | |
Miller and Tehrani [4] | Crumb rubber | Coarse lightweight expanded shale aggregate | Cylinder 150 Beams 152 × 152 × 50 mm | |
Mohammed et al. [18] | Crumb rubber 600 μm | River sand fine aggregate | Cube 100 mm | |
Son et al. [19] | Crumb rubber particles 1 mm | Total aggregate weight (coarse & fine) | Cylinder 100 | |
Topcu [20] | Rubber particles from mechanical grinding 6 mm | Crushed limestone coarse aggregate 4–16 mm | Cylinder 150 | |
Topcu and Avcular [21] | Large rubber particles 2.2 mm | Limestone coarse aggregate | Cylinder 150 | |
Toutanji [22] | Tire chips 12.7 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 19 mm | Cylinder 100 Beams 100 × 100 × 350 mm | |
Xue and Shinozuka [23] | Crumb Rubber 6 mm | Gravel coarse aggregate 12 mm | Cylinder 100 Lumped Mass Columns | |
Zheng et al. [24] | Crushed rubber with steel belt wires 4–15 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 31.5 mm | Cube 150 mm 60-day Beams 100 × 160 × 1000 mm | |
Zheng et al. [25] | Ground rubber 2.6 mm and crushed rubber with steel belt wires 4–15 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 31.5 mm | Cylinder 150 |
Summary of selected research on rubberized concrete.
Selected reported relative changes in the compressive strength of rubberized concrete.
Similar to conventional concrete, application of supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fumes has shown to be effective on increasing the compressive strength of TDA concrete containing high water-to-cement ratios [11]. Replacing 7% of cement with silica fume has shown to increase the compressive strength between 3 and 7 MPa [23]. Tire-derived aggregates are also applicable to self-compacting concrete, which utilizes fine filler materials, admixtures such as superplasticizers, and viscosity modifying agents. Combination of shredded tire and crumb rubber has the potential to replace nearly 20–30% of the sand with a similar grain size [9]. Further, it is also possible to replace cement with ground rubber. Substitution of 5% of cement has shown to reduce the compressive strength by 5% [10]. Tire-derived aggregate concrete with enhanced characteristics due to admixtures and supplementary cementitious materials has applications in hollow concrete blocks. The recommended rubber contents for loadbearing and non-loadbearing systems are 6.5 and 40.7%, respectively [18].
Research shows that increasing the rubber content in concrete decreases the static modulus of elasticity [6, 7, 8, 19]. However, there is not much agreement on the amount of reduction at high rubber contents (Figure 3). Generally, Tire-derived aggregates influence the stress-strain relationship and enhance the ductility of the concrete [14]. Some comparative studies on the size of rubber aggregates suggest that using tire chips have more impact on the reduction of elastic modulus than using waste tire fibers do [16]. However, there are also evidences that the reduction of modulus of elasticity is only a function of the rubber content [10].
Selected reported relative changes in the static modulus of elasticity of rubberized concrete.
Further, using tire chips containing steel belts increases the stiffness of TDA concrete [16, 24, 25]. In addition, application of fly ash and silica fume can also enhance the modulus of elasticity [11, 23].
Figure 4 indicates how increasing the rubber content reduces the splitting tensile strength. However, existing research agrees that capacity of rubber in absorbing energy enhances the toughness of the TDA concrete [6, 16, 20]. Application of fiber reinforcement using polypropylene fibers has shown to improve the toughness further [12]. Comparison of results for compressive and tensile strengths suggests that the rate of reduction for split-tensile strength is less than the same rate for compressive strength [11]. Further, there are reports indicating that specimens with ground tires perform better in tension than specimens containing large tire chips [10].
Selected reported relative changes in the split-tensile strength of rubberized concrete.
The relationship between flexural strength and TDA content is similar to other mechanical properties (Figure 5). However, there are variations in this relationship. Studies generally indicate that reduction of flexural strength parallels an increase in the ductility of specimens [22]. Some research indicates that the rate of reduction for the flexural strength is much steeper than other mechanical properties, particularly at lower rubber contents [15]. Application of smaller rubber particles improves the observed flexural strength [5, 10]. Adding polypropylene fibers has also shown to be effective in crack control, but not necessarily in enhancement of the strength [12].
Selected reported relative changes in the flexural strength of rubberized concrete.
Rubberized concrete has also applications in composite floors. Research shows that floors with 10% rubber content have smaller failure load due to flexure in large spans, but nearly the same failure load caused by shear in short spans. The capability of TDA composite floors in withstanding larger deformations has a significant impact on the ductility of the system [26].
Figure 6 contains selected reported data on the relationship between toughness and rubber content in TDA concrete. Toughness is generally a measure based on the area covered by the load-deflection diagrams, thus, it relates to both ductility and strength. As a result, reported data points on toughness are scattered, as rubber contents increases the ductility, but reduces the strength. This explains how some studies have shown a reduction of toughness because of increasing the rubber content, even though subjected specimens have shown significant increase in ductility [20]. Nevertheless, most reported data show a general increase in toughness with the increase in rubber content [5, 22]. Some research studies have also suggested that a maximum toughness value exist for the optimum rubber content and proper TDA gradation [14]. Measuring toughness from the brittleness index using the stress-strain hysteresis loops also confirms the positive effect of rubber on the toughness [25]. In addition, the toughness of TDA concrete subject to impact load also increases with the increase in strain rate [17]. Furthermore, application of fibers, particularly in tensile specimens, significantly enhances the toughness [16].
Selected reported relative changes in the toughness of rubberized concrete.
Some of the most beneficial properties of rubberized concrete include its behavior under dynamic loading, making the enhancement of these properties desirable in comparison with the brittle and rigid behavior of plain concrete. Research suggests that rubberized concrete may have practical applications as traffic barriers, vibration mitigation, and seismic force mitigation among others. There are various techniques for investigation of these behaviors. Figures 7 and 8 show two significant parameters, energy absorption and damping, respectively, measured for TDA concrete at different rubber contents. As shown in these figures, there are limited studies as the basis for each of these relationships.
Selected reported relative changes in the damping ratio of rubberized concrete.
Selected reported relative changes in the absorbed energy of rubberized concrete.
The full-scale New Jersey-shaped safety barriers subject to non-severe impact loads indicate a gradual increase in the energy absorption when rubber content changes from 0 to 100% by volume [7]. These results are qualitatively comparable with similar collision testing studies [21]. However, impact testing on hybrid beams, containing a layer of TDA concrete on top of plain concrete has resulted in significant increase in energy absorption for only 20% rubber content [6]. Similar tests using falling weights confirms the effectiveness of TDA concrete in reducing the severity of the impact at only 20–40% rubber contents, even though, the pest performance is achieved at rubber contents larger than 60–80% [8].
Similarly, the damping ratio of TDA concrete measured by elastic wave method showed a moderate increase because of the increase in the rubber content in concrete [24]. However, the shake-table studies on TDA concrete columns indicated much higher damping ratios [23]. These comparisons indicate how TDA becomes more effective in post-peak performance of concrete specimens. Further, same shake table studies have shown that increasing rubber content in the TDA concrete reduces the natural frequencies and the response acceleration by 28 and 27%, respectively [23].
Non-destructive tests using ultrasonic pulses confirm that rubber reduces the velocity of waves, which is in correlation with lower dynamic modulus of elasticity [14]. Dynamic compression tests confirm the capability of TDA concrete in dissipating energy and show that increasing the load frequency or strain rate increases the dynamic modulus of elasticity [12, 17]. However, the age of the specimens has an adverse impact on the energy dissipation [12].
Nonstructural mechanical properties of TDA concrete have been subject to studies for specific applications. Non-loadbearing wall elements often require proper thermal and electrical insulation as well as sound absorption. Studies indicate that TDA improves the sound absorption of concrete, reduces the thermal conductivity coefficient, and increases the electrical resistivity [13, 18, 27].
A typical model for the behavior of TDA concrete is a modification of Holmquist-Johnson-Cook (H-J-C) constitutive model. The original H-J-C model contains 21 modifiable parameters to present characteristics of TDA concrete, which was simplified to ten parameters in the modified form [17].
Numerical simulations using finite element analysis are also available to model mechanical properties of TDA concrete. The basis for these simulations is generally an elastoplastic model for the behavior of materials. Successful modeling of beam specimens has been reported using hexahedron elements with standard shape functions [6]. Using a two-phase composite material helps to define the dispersion of TDA in the cementitious matrix. This model utilized three-node triangular elements to simulate split-tensile tests [16].
Figure 9 shows a comparative view of the relationships between mechanical properties of TDA concrete and the TDA content volume. This figure suggests that developing a simple model for practical design of TDA concrete elements may be possible, as various strengths follow similar trends in respect to TDA content.
Selected reported relative changes in the dynamic properties of rubberized concrete (marked data) and their general trends (trend-lines).
Eq. (1) presents a proposed model to find the strength reduction factor [15]:
In this model,
Another important aspect of concrete design is the handling procedures used when placing the concrete while in the workable state. Care needs to be taken to ensure that segregation of materials does not occur and the mix remains as homogenous as possible while being placed and cured. An uneven distribution of rubber particles has been observed in concrete mixes, particularly when specimens are vibrated during placement causing light TDA to surface [10, 23].
The state of the research on TDA concrete warrants further studies on analytical, experimental, and practical areas. On material properties, the environmental impacts on durability of rubber and long-term properties of TDA concrete is an area of interest for future research. Further, investigating the micromechanical characteristics of the bond between rubber particles and the cement paste is essential to understand the mechanical properties of TDA concrete, including toughness and tensile strength, better. Constitutive modeling and numerical simulation of the behavior of rubberized concrete are other areas of interest that can benefit from recent advancements in computational engineering and mechanics.
Application of TDA concrete requires development of design guidelines and specifications. Defining strength reduction factors is an area that requires further development. Current research studies are scattered in respect to parametric modeling and can benefit from additional experimental results. Further, these parametric analyses are essential for optimization of TDA concrete mix design to obtain proper rubber content for specific objectives. In addition, practical issues in mixing and placing concrete require development of proper specifications for handling TDA materials in concrete.
Mechanical properties of TDA concrete have shown to be desirable for many applications, such as traffic and sound barriers. Toughness and ductility of TDA concrete can be also effective in concrete elements subject to dynamic loads caused by earthquake and wind. Large-scale experimental studies are required for investigating these applications.
There has been limited studies on alternative TDA concrete products with application of fiber reinforcement, lightweight aggregate, fiber-reinforced polymers, admixtures, and supplementary cementitious materials. Enhancing the properties of TDA concrete using these methods require further research.
The California State University, Fresno Foundation has partially supported this work.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this work.
The invention of holography has revolutionized the field of imaging in numerous ways [1, 2, 3]. The capability to record complete three-dimensional (3D) amplitude and phase information of an object from a few camera recordings is a remarkable advantage for many applications. In coherent holography, the light diffracted from an object is interfered with a reference wave derived from the same source to form the hologram of the object. With a coherent source such as a laser, the above task can be achieved in any of the standard interferometry architectures [4]. In the recent years, there has been a shift in focus from using coherent light sources to incoherent ones due to many advantages such as low cost, high SNR and high resolution. In incoherent holography, due to lack of coherence, the hologram cannot be formed by interfering object wave with reference wave but between two differently modulated object waves [1]. The above interference is called self-interference. Achieving such a configuration was a challenging task in the past and many sophisticated architectures such as rotating shear interferometer [5], triangle interferometer [6], and conoscopic holography [7] were developed. With the advent of active devices, such as spatial light modulators, realization of incoherent holography systems became relatively easier. Some notable incoherent holography techniques with active devices include Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) [8], Fourier incoherent single-channel holography (FISCH) [9], and self-interference digital holography (SIDH) [10]. Of all the above three methods, FINCH and FISCH can exhibit super resolution while SIDH in off-axis configuration cannot. FINCH requires the simplest and compact optical configuration of the above three methods with a high field of view. Due to the above reasons, FINCH became an attractive imaging system [11, 12, 13, 14, 15] and moved successfully to industry as powerful 3D fluorescence microscopy products: FINCHTM and CINCHTM [16].
Another research direction called coded aperture imaging (CAI) using incoherent illumination evolved alongside of FINCH [17, 18]. In CAI, the light from an object is modulated by a coded aperture and the intensity distribution is recorded. The recorded intensity distribution is reconstructed into object’s image either by using the transmission function of the coded aperture or by using the recorded point spread function. The first reports of CAI came in 1968 using random array of pinholes to perform lensless imaging of X-rays and Gamma rays [19, 20]. However, the image reconstruction was noisy due to the computational reconstruction mechanism. So, CAI evolved in search of the coded aperture–computational reconstruction (CA-CR) compatible pair that can create object’s images with a high quality. During this search, uniformly redundant array (URA)-based coded aperture was found to exhibit a high signal-to-noise ratio in comparison to random array of pinholes [21]. Later, modified URA (MURA) with two shots was found to perform better in signal-to-noise ratio [22]. In this direction, by designing an appropriate CA-CR pair, spatio-spectral imaging methods, such as coded aperture snapshot spectral imager (CASSI), were developed [23, 24]. The CASSI approach was later expanded by applying compressive sensing methods [25]. In 2011, optical imaging using a phase coded aperture was reported [26]. There are multiple patents awarded on CAI methods for developing compact imaging products and in some cases, CAI has been used as an assistive technology in a larger framework.
The FINCH technique has a relatively low axial resolution in comparison to lens-based imaging and so coded aperture correlation holography (COACH) was developed in 2016 from FINCH by modifying the beam modulations [27]. In FINCH, the light from an object was modulated by two quadratic phase masks with different focal distances and the resulting two different object waves were interfered to form the hologram. In COACH, the light from a point is modulated by a quasi-random phase mask and a constant phase mask and interfered to form the hologram. In FINCH, at least three camera shots were recorded with different phase-shifts between the two interfering beams and combined into a complex hologram in order to cancel the twin image and bias terms. This complex hologram was numerically propagated to one of the focal planes of the quadratic phase mask to reconstruct the object information. In COACH, the phase mask is random and therefore, there is no focal plane where the hologram can be propagated. So, in COACH, the complex hologram was reconstructed by cross-correlating it with the complex point spread hologram recorded for different depths. In COACH, the lateral and axial resolutions are therefore given by the lateral and axial correlation lengths governed by the numerical aperture as in the case of lens-based imaging. During the development of COACH, it was identified that two-beam interference was not needed to record 3D information of the object, which led to the development of non-interferometric or interferenceless COACH (I-COACH) [28]. The development of I-COACH linked the capabilities of incoherent holography with the simplicity of CAI. The connection became evident after the demonstration of a super-resolution I-COACH method using specially coded apertures that generate random array of sub-diffraction and a lateral resolution approaching that of FINCH [29].
As a matter of fact, the current state-of-the-art FINCH as well as I-COACH technology are not optimal. The FINCHTM and CINCHTM still require numerous optical components and active devices, which makes the implementation challenging and as a product, less attractive and expensive. In I-COACH, or in general CAI, the requirements are less but the challenges lie in the lower efficiency of coded aperture and limited applications. During the past years, at Nanolab of Swinburne University of Technology (SUT), we have been working on expanding FINCH and I-COACH beyond the current state-of-the-art technologies using static diffractive optical elements manufactured using advanced fabrication technologies [30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. In this book chapter, we present the design, fabrication, and implementation of static diffractive optical elements in FINCH and I-COACH. Furthermore, we also present a conceptual configuration using static diffractive optical elements for optical trapping and imaging.
FINCH was developed by Rosen and Brooker in the year 2007 [8]. The optical configuration of FINCH is shown in Figure 1a. Light from an object point is split into two waves using an SLM in which a phase mask formed by a random multiplexing of two quadratic phase functions with different focal lengths was displayed. These two object waves were interfered to form the object hologram. As FINCH is in in-line configuration, at least three object holograms need to be recorded with relative phase shifts of Ѳ = 0, 2π/3, and 4π/3 radians and combined in complex space to remove the twin image and bias terms during reconstruction by numerical backpropagation. Let us consider a point object with an amplitude of
(a) Optical configuration of FINCH. Two orientations of polarizers P1 and P2 are shown: red for spatial multiplexing and green for polarization multiplexing. The active axis of SLM is shown in yellow. Refractive lens L is not needed in the case of spatial multiplexing. (b) Random multiplexing matrix. Phase images of the randomly multiplexed bifocal lenses with (c) Ѳ = 0, (d) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (e) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. Simulated PSFs corresponding to (f) Ѳ = 0, (g) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (h) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. (i) Test object. Holograms simulated for (j) Ѳ = 0, (k) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (l) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. (m) Amplitude and (n) phase components of the complex hologram. Reconstructed image of the object by (o) numerical backpropagation and (p) NLR (
In the above case, FINCH hologram was reconstructed by a numerical backpropagation. Recalling the cases of COACH [27] and I-COACH [28], where there was no real or virtual image plane associated with the optical configuration and the phase masks, the reconstruction was carried out using cross-correlation with prerecorded point spread functions (PSFs). Since FINCH is a linear shift-invariant system, the same approach can be applied to FINCH as well. This idea was tested in 2020, which yielded notable results for FINCH [35, 36]. The past studies with scattering masks revealed that nonlinear reconstruction (NLR) [37] yielded better results than cross-correlation, Lucy−Richardson algorithm (LRA) [38, 39], and regularized filter algorithm [40]. The reconstructed image can be given as
A simulation study was carried out using the above equations in MATLAB [41]. The matrix size was 500 × 500 pixels, pixel size Δ = 10 μm, λ = 650 nm,
To avoid the reconstruction noises due to random multiplexing, a polarization multiplexing scheme was introduced [42]. In the first spatial random multiplexing scheme, the light from the object was polarized along the active axis of the SLM, whereas in the polarization multiplexing method, the light from an object was polarized at π/4 radians along the active axis of the SLM. As a result, only about 50% of the incoming light is modulated by the SLM, while the remaining part was not modulated. A second polarizer oriented at π/4 radians along the active axis of the SLM was mounted before the image sensor to create interference between the two object waves. An additional refractive lens was used to collimate the object wave before it is incident on the SLM. In the case of polarization multiplexing scheme, the PSF is given as
Phase images of the quadratic phase masks for (a) Ѳ = 0, (b) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (c) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. PSFs for (d) Ѳ = 0, (e) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (f) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. Object holograms for (g) Ѳ = 0, (h) Ѳ = 2π/3, and (i) Ѳ = 4π/3 radians. (j) Amplitude and (k) phase of the complex hologram. Reconstruction by (l) numerical backpropagation, (m) nonlinear reconstruction, and (n) Lucy-Richardson-Rosen algorithm. (o) Direct imaging.
Recently, a new reconstruction method called Lucy−Richardson−Rosen algorithm (LRRA) was developed by combining the well-known Lucy−Richardson algorithm (LRA) and NLR [43]. In LRA, the (
The above two spatial multiplexing and polarization multiplexing schemes remain the two main configurations of FINCH. Comparing the performances of the above two schemes, it is seen that spatial multiplexing has a higher light throughput than polarization multiplexing while polarization multiplexing has a higher signal-to-noise ratio than spatial multiplexing. As a matter of fact, polarization multiplexing was widely adapted for further developments of FINCH. A secondary multiplexing method was used to reduce the number of camera shots of FINCH from three to one. In the polarization multiplexing scheme, either spatial multiplexing [45, 46] or a polarization multiplexing with a 4-pol camera [47] was used to record multiple phase-shifted holograms from a single recording. The spatial multiplexing sacrificed the field of view while the polarization multiplexing sacrificed the signal-to-noise ratio. In the above secondary multiplexing schemes, the number of shots required remained the same but it was collected simultaneously distributed in space and polarization states. Recently, a two-step phase-shifting method was developed, which reduced the required number of camera shots in FINCH to two [48]. The evolution of FINCH over the years has been described chronologically in [1, 49].
To compactify FINCH, from a manufacturing point of view, the spatial multiplexing scheme is easier to realize as the diffractive optical elements involved have features that are super-wavelength. To realize FINCH in polarization multiplexing scheme, metasurfaces with subwavelength features are needed, which will increase the cost of the manufacturing process and often difficult to achieve a large area. As a matter of fact, there have been attempts to realize FINCH in polarization multiplexing scheme using metasurfaces and geometric phase lenses, which resulted in a high cost, low performance, and suffered from low light throughput due to polarizing of the incoming light [50, 51]. At Nanolab of SUT, two different randomly multiplexed diffractive optical elements were designed. The first element consisted of two binary Fresnel zone lenses with focal lengths of 2.5 cm and 5 cm such that the object is at 5 cm and the sensor is at 10 cm from the diffractive element. The second element consisted of a Fresnel zone lens with a focal length of 5 cm and an axicon. The Fresnel zone lenses were designed to include the thickness of glass plate to avoid spherical aberrations [52].
The randomly multiplexed Fresnel zone lenses were manufactured on Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO)-coated commercial glass plates with a thickness of ∼1 mm, index of refraction of ∼1.5, and a high transmittivity (>95%). The substrate was cleaned in an ultrasonic bath in acetone and iso-propyl alcohol (IPA) for 10 minutes and baked on a hotplate at 180oC for 5 minutes to remove the residual solvents. When the substrate was cooled to room temperature, it was spin-coated with PMMA 950K A7 positive resist at 2000 RPM for a minute to achieve a resist thickness of λ. During spin coating, an edge of the substrate was masked with a tape, which was removed after spin coating. This masked area was connected to the metal clip of substrate holder in the electron beam lithography system RAITH150TWO. An acceleration voltage of 10kV, aperture of 120 μm, and a beam current of ∼3 nA was used with a working distance of 10 mm and write field of 100 μm. The diffractive element designed with a diameter of 5 mm was fabricated (∼6 hours) without any stitching errors. The fabricated device was developed in methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) and IPA in the ratio of 1:3 for 1 minute. The optical microscope image of the randomly multiplexed Fresnel zone lenses is shown in Figure 3a. A second diffractive element consisting of a Fresnel zone lens and an axicon with a period of 100 μm was fabricated under the same fabrication conditions. The optical microscope image of the fabricated device is shown in Figure 3b. The magnified sections of the 3(a) and 3(b) are shown in Figure 3c and d, respectively.
Optical microscope images of randomly multiplexed (a) Fresnel zone lenses and (b) Fresnel zone lens and axicon. Magnified images of sections of (a) and (b) are shown in (c) and (d), respectively.
Optical experiments were carried out using the fabricated devices and a spatially incoherent source (Thorlabs, M617L3,
(a) PSF. (b) Direct imaging result recorded at the focal plane of one of the Fresnel zone lenses, (c) object hologram and (d) reconstruction result for randomly multiplexed Fresnel zone lenses. (e) Hologram of a section of dragonfly larvae wing. (f) Reconstruction result using NLR (
The experiment was repeated using the second diffractive element − randomly multiplexed Fresnel zone lens and axicon. The PSFs recorded for λ = 617 nm and λ = 530 nm are shown in Figure 5a and b, respectively. Two objects (Group – 2, Element – 6, 7.13
PSFs recorded for (a) λ = 617 nm and (b) 530 nm. Holograms of USAF and NBS illuminated by λ = 617 nm and λ = 530 nm, respectively, but mounted at the same distance of 5 cm. The reconstruction results using NLR (
FINCH has been implemented in a compact optical configuration using static diffractive optical elements manufactured using electron beam lithography techniques. The imaging distances were only 5 cm between object to diffractive element and 10 cm between diffractive element and sensor, which is close to palm-size systems [53]. The diffraction efficiency was about 40%, which is higher than polarization multiplexing configurations. Both 3D spatial and spectral imaging have been demonstrated. The preliminary results are promising.
The optical configuration of I-COACH or CAI is simpler than FINCH, as shown in Figure 6, consisting of only one optical element between the object and image sensor. In this study, only chaotic coded apertures are considered [54]. The use of URA [21], MURA [22], and masks for spectral imaging methods involve many optical components [23] unlike I-COACH with chaotic coded apertures. The intensity distribution for an object
Optical configuration of I-COACH or CAI with chaotic coded aperture.
Simulation results of PSF, object intensity distribution and reconstruction results using NLR for an amplitude mask with 50% light throughput (green window), phase masks with σ = 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.02.
The amplitude mask was designed by rounding off a normalized (0,1) 2D random function. The phase masks were engineered using Gerchberg−Saxton algorithm [55] by imposing a constraint on the size of the window in the spectrum domain as discussed in [54], where σ =
The chaotic coded apertures were realized as a pinhole array [58, 59] as well as a quasi-random phase mask manufactured using lithography procedures [60]. It must be noted that the first demonstrations of I-COACH without lens required an SLM as at least two camera shots were needed in order to create a bipolar matrix [28, 61]. Due to the expected background noise in amplitude masks, the pinhole array mask was designed using a two-step optimization procedure. The number of pinholes was selected as 2000. In the first step, the 2000 pinholes were spatially randomly arranged in 1000 ways and the reconstruction noise was simulated for every case. The optimal case of random arrangement was selected for the next round of optimization. In the next step, the location of every pinhole was shifted in steps of 5 pixels every time the background noise was estimated. When the noise decreased, the new position was retained and if the noise increased, the pinhole was shifted back to the previous position. The above two optimization procedures involved a total of about 5000 iterations. The final mask pattern demonstrated an SNR improvement of ∼60% in comparison to a case with a minimum SNR. The final mask design was transferred to a chromium-coated mask plate using Intelligent micropatterning SF100 XPRESS. The size of the QRAP was 8 mm and the diameter of the pinholes was 80 μm after fabrication.
The PSF was recorded using a pinhole of diameter of 20 μm for an object distance of 10 cm from the pinhole array and sensor at 10 cm from the pinhole array as shown in Figure 8a. The pinhole was replaced by a USAF object (Group 2, Elements 4, 5, and 6) and the intensity distribution was recorded as shown in Figure 8b. The reconstruction result using NLR for (
Images of the (a) PSF and (b) object intensity distribution for USAF object, and (c) reconstruction result by NLR. (d) PSF and (e) object intensity distribution for wing of an insect, and (f) reconstruction result by NLR.
(a) Recorded object intensity pattern and reconstruction result for (b) green channel and (c) red channel at
In the experiments using pinhole array, the results were significant, but the main challenge was the low light throughput. The above mask could not be used for imaging in low-intensity conditions such as fluorescence and astronomical imaging. To expand the applicability of the method, improvement to design was made at multiple levels. In the first step, the amplitude mask was replaced by a phase mask. A ground glass diffuser is a good choice but offers less control over the intensity distribution [62, 63, 64]. So, the phase mask was designed in a specific way by combining a chaotic coded phase mask and a quadratic phase function. The resulting phase function is called a quasi-random lens (QRL). This special lens behaves like a Fresnel zone lens, but instead of collecting light and focusing it on a point, it focuses on an area and within the area, light is scattered. In other words, the QRL creates controlled scattering similar to the mask designed in lensless I-COACH [61]. The generated phase of the QRL was converted into two levels by a standard rounding-off procedure. A QRL with a diameter of 5 mm and focal length of 5 cm was fabricated using electron beam lithography (RAITH150TWO) using the same fabrication settings as described in Section 2. The optical microscope image of the fabricated device is shown in Figure 10a. The PSFs recorded using a pinhole with a diameter of 100 μm and using red (617 nm) and green wavelengths (530 nm) as shown in Figure 10b and c, respectively. The object hologram obtained by summing of the object intensity distributions recorded for two objects NBS (10 lp/mm) and USAF (Group 2, Element 2) separated by 1 cm and illuminated by red and green wavelengths, respectively, is shown in Figure 10d. The reconstruction results using NLR and red and green PSFs are shown in Figure 10e and f, respectively.
(a) Optical microscope image of the QRL. Recorded PSFs for (b) 617 nm and (c) 530 nm. (d) Object hologram. Reconstruction results using PSFs recorded using (e) red and (f) green LEDs.
I-COACH has been realized in a compact optical configuration with a total length of 20 cm. This is quite compact in comparison to CASSI, MURA, and also other incoherent holography techniques. The maximum efficiency achievable with the binary QRL is only about 40%, which can be improved to >90% by manufacturing a greyscale version of the QRL. With the latest advancements in rapid fabrication technologies and nanoimprint techniques, mass production of greyscale QRL is not expensive in comparison to using active devices such as SLM [65, 66, 67, 68].
Optical Tweezer (OT) is a powerful tool to manipulate micron-sized objects by creating an optical trap [69, 70]. In 1970, Arthur Ashkin first reported that the gradient forces from the laser can trap micron-sized particles [71]. Years later, Ashkin and his colleagues invented optical tweezers and demonstrated the ability of the single-beam optical trap to attract particles intended for analysis [72]. The advancements in the technologies such as invention of SLMs and diffractive optical elements led to the development of holographic optical tweezers (HOT) [73]. In general, a conventional tweezer system comprises trapping architecture and imaging architecture as shown in Figure 11. In HOT, computer-generated holograms (CGH) are designed and displayed in the SLM to modulate the trapping beam for sample control and manipulation. The trapping beam can be single or multiple based on the design adapted in the CGH and can be dynamically manipulated. The HOT quickly emerged and became indispensable in the field of biology [74, 75, 76].
Schematic of the typical holographic optical tweezer. Red and green represent the trapping and the imaging system architectures.
An alternate architecture inspired by FINCH polarization multiplexing scheme to the conventional trapping architecture for single beam compact trapping and imaging is shown in Figure 12. The proposed optical configuration uses a polarization multiplexing scheme. A polarizer P1 at 45o orientation with respect to the active axis of the SLM was set before the SLM and a diffractive lens is displayed on the SLM. At the SLM, only part of the optical beam is modulated and so two beams namely, trapping beam and imaging beam, are generated. The modulated trapping beam creates a tightly focused spot to trap the sample and the unmodulated imaging beam is utilized for the imaging. Before the image sensor, a second polarizer P2 oriented at 90o with respect to the active axis of the SLM was introduced to avoid the trapping beam, affecting the imaging. The optical power of the trapping beam can be controlled by adjusting the polarization degree of P1. To achieve tight focusing, a projection system might be needed, which can increase the strength of the trap and imaging beams.
Optical trapping and imaging configuration inspired for FINCH’s polarization multiplexing scheme.
In this chapter, two widely used incoherent holography systems, namely FINCH and I-COACH, are discussed with a focus on compactification using static diffractive optical elements. In FINCH, the required three camera shots and active optical device have been avoided by applying NLR. The diffractive optical element proposed in the first version of FINCH was designed and fabricated using electron beam lithography techniques in a compact optical configuration of 15 cm. I-COACH was realized using both an amplitude element and a phase element fabricated using photolithography and electron beam lithography systems, respectively, in a compact 20 cm configuration. The preliminary results are promising to begin research on building prototypes. There are still some challenges present in FINCH, as well as in I-COACH. From the manufacturing side, it is necessary to fabricate multilevel structures to improve the efficiency from the current 40% to >90%, which increases the cost and time of fabrication. With the latest developments in Femtosecond fabrication methods, it is possible to rapidly manufacture high-efficiency diffractive optical elements at a low cost [77, 78, 79]. The second challenge lies in the current performances of computational reconstruction methods. In both FINCH and I-COACH, the computational reconstruction generated background noise that could not be minimized to the level of lens-based imaging. With the advancements in deep learning techniques, we believe that it is possible to achieve a high SNR. The chapter concludes with an intriguing possibility of extending FINCH configuration for optical trapping experiments, which we believe may revolutionize optical tweezer and tomography research directions.
V.A thanks Tiia Lillemaa and Aravind Simon for their administrative support. D. S.; S. H. N.; T. K.; and S. J. are grateful for the financial support via ARC Linkage LP190100505 project. V. A. acknowledges the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme grant agreement No. 857627 (CIPHR). V.B.; P.J.M.; C.D. acknowledges King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) for the funding.
Christian Depeursinge has financial interests in Lyncee Tec and Nanolive; Pierre J Magistretti has financial interests in Lyncee Tec.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1165",title:"Urologic Oncology",slug:"urologic-oncology",parent:{id:"204",title:"Urology",slug:"urology"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:93,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1165",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10339",title:"Modern Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment of Bladder Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d1fdae263fb8a59eef2795dc748a1155",slug:"modern-approach-to-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-bladder-cancer",bookSignature:"Francesco Ziglioli and Umberto Maestroni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10339.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62240",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Ziglioli",slug:"francesco-ziglioli",fullName:"Francesco Ziglioli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6424",title:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9305ef1c5e6ad63407fd9262a27cf31",slug:"evolving-trends-in-kidney-cancer",bookSignature:"Sashi S. Kommu and Inderbir S. Gill",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6424.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9902",title:"Dr.",name:"Sashi S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Kommu",slug:"sashi-s.-kommu",fullName:"Sashi S. Kommu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6423",title:"Prostate Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d072a079624084c12169a118fdbbfa87",slug:"prostate-cancer",bookSignature:"Cem Onal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43940",title:"Dr.",name:"Cem",middleName:null,surname:"Onal",slug:"cem-onal",fullName:"Cem Onal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5516",title:"Bladder Cancer",subtitle:"Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa255c022acc85f2bd2c12ce4cd9a67b",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",bookSignature:"M. Hammad Ather",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"54132",doi:"10.5772/67473",title:"Cross-Polarization OCT for In Vivo Diagnostics and Prediction of Bladder Cancer",slug:"cross-polarization-oct-for-in-vivo-diagnostics-and-prediction-of-bladder-cancer",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter contains three parts covering recent efforts to increase the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) differential diagnostics of bladder pathologies. The first part compares the diagnostic efficacy of traditional OCT and cross-polarization OCT (CP OCT); CP OCT and fluorescence cystoscopy (FC) for detecting flat lesions in the bladder at the early stages of cancer. The second part contains a report on achievements in application of CP OCT for detection of recurrent carcinoma in the scar area that is a hardly distinguishable form of bladder cancer using an optimized CP OCT image analysis. The third part of the chapter reviews the results on CP OCT usage for in vivo diagnosis of the bladder cancer after radiation therapy of cervical cancer.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Elena Kiseleva, Gladkova Natalia, Streltzova Olga, Kirillin Mikhail,\nMaslennikova Anna, Dudenkova Varvara, Yunusova Katerina and\nSergeeva Ekaterina",authors:[{id:"68196",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Gladkova",slug:"natalia-gladkova",fullName:"Natalia Gladkova"},{id:"191970",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kiseleva",slug:"elena-kiseleva",fullName:"Elena Kiseleva"},{id:"191990",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Streltzova",slug:"olga-streltzova",fullName:"Olga Streltzova"},{id:"191992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Varvara",middleName:null,surname:"Dudenkova",slug:"varvara-dudenkova",fullName:"Varvara Dudenkova"},{id:"191993",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Maslennikova",slug:"anna-maslennikova",fullName:"Anna Maslennikova"},{id:"191994",title:"Dr.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Yunusova",slug:"katerina-yunusova",fullName:"Katerina Yunusova"},{id:"191995",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Kirillin",slug:"mikhail-kirillin",fullName:"Mikhail Kirillin"},{id:"193422",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",middleName:null,surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"ekaterina-sergeeva",fullName:"Ekaterina Sergeeva"}]},{id:"54019",doi:"10.5772/67309",title:"Bladder Cancer Markers and Recent Innovations",slug:"bladder-cancer-markers-and-recent-innovations",totalDownloads:1702,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer (urothelial carcinoma) is the most common tumor of the urinary tract. It occurs more frequently among men about 65 years old on average. Two forms of the tumor are known: a non–muscle-invasive one and a muscle-invasive one. The latter turns out to be very aggressive with a survival of 5 years average. The non–muscle-invasive form frequently recurs (60–70%) and in 15% of cases, it progresses into the invasive form. The diagnosis is made mainly by cystoscopy and urine cytology. A high number of researches were dedicated in order to find a simple test using voided urine to frequently monitor possible tumor recurrence. During the last 10 years, many tests were proposed concerning either special proteins of which the most common are the bladder tumor antigen (BTA) and the nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) or the presence of genetic mutations [most frequently, fibroblasts growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) and TP53], alteration of DNA methylation, chromatin structure and, more recently, the presence of specific micro-RNA. Recently the analysis of lipids present in voided urine showed a difference in fatty acids between healthy individuals and those affected by non-invasive forms. These markers appear to have a high specificity and sensitivity: a deepening of these results could lead to the development of a test that avoids invasive treatment and the cost of cystoscopy.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Mariapia Viola-Magni, Samuela Cataldi and Daniela Marocco",authors:[{id:"192375",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariapia",middleName:null,surname:"Viola-Magni",slug:"mariapia-viola-magni",fullName:"Mariapia Viola-Magni"},{id:"197851",title:"BSc.",name:"Samuela",middleName:null,surname:"Cataldi",slug:"samuela-cataldi",fullName:"Samuela Cataldi"},{id:"197852",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Marocco",slug:"daniela-marocco",fullName:"Daniela Marocco"}]},{id:"54063",doi:"10.5772/67280",title:"Intravesical Chemohyperthermia for NMIBC: Rationale and Results of This Developing Treatment",slug:"intravesical-chemohyperthermia-for-nmibc-rationale-and-results-of-this-developing-treatment",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men, and the lifetime risk of getting bladder cancer is 2.4%. Approximately 75% of newly diagnosed cases of bladder cancer are non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC), and half of them will show recurrence and/or progression after transurethral resection. Therefore, after transurethral resection, in high-risk patients, intravesical therapy is mandatory. However, bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is associated with important side effects such as systemic tuberculosis and bladder retraction. Chemohyperthermia (CHT) has shown a 60% lower recurrence rate than standard mitomycin C (MMC). However, its effectiveness in high-risk patients, especially CIS and BCG refractory patients, is even more important. CHT will probably be an option for patients unsuitable for radical cystectomy or those on whom BCG can’t be used. Two main technologies are currently available for intravesical CHT: microwaves and recirculating heated fluids. Both of them have pros and cons that should be known and evaluated by a urologist. In this chapter, we will speak about rationale, technical options, clinical results, ongoing studies, and future perspective for this interesting treatment option for intermediate and high-risk patients with NMIBC.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Sousa-Escandón Manuel Alejandro, Flores Carbajal Javier, Sousa-\nGonzález Daniel and Rodriguez Gómez Silvia",authors:[{id:"191356",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa-Escandón",slug:"alejandro-sousa-escandon",fullName:"Alejandro Sousa-Escandón"}]},{id:"54147",doi:"10.5772/67443",title:"Lymphadenectomy in Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer",slug:"lymphadenectomy-in-muscle-invasive-bladder-cancer",totalDownloads:1273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer is the second most common genitourinary malignancy with urothelial cancer comprising nearly 90% of primary bladder tumors. Urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder is the fifth most common malignancy in the United States, with an estimated 76,960 new cases and 163,900 deaths in 2016. Radical cystectomy with lymph node dissection remains the standard treatment for patients with muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder, and also for nonmuscle-invasive disease, refractory to intravesical therapy. The current approaches to pelvic lymph node dissections are based on the removal of lymph nodes most commonly harboring metastatic disease, notably the external iliac, obturator, and hypogastric lymph nodes. The boundaries for a standard pelvic lymph node dissection generally include the bifurcation of the common iliac vessels superiorly and the genitofemoral nerve laterally. Extended pelvic lymph node includes the removal of lymph nodes between the bifurcation of the common iliac vessels and the level of the aortic bifurcation, sometimes including distal aortic and caval nodes up to the level of the inferior mesenteric artery, as well as presacral nodes. Extended and superextended dissection has been reported to be associated with superior survival outcome.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Mustafa Ozan Horsanali and Kutan Ozer",authors:[{id:"59702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa Ozan",middleName:null,surname:"Horsanali",slug:"mustafa-ozan-horsanali",fullName:"Mustafa Ozan Horsanali"},{id:"192699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kutan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozer",slug:"kutan-ozer",fullName:"Kutan Ozer"}]},{id:"59222",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73515",title:"Development of Oncolytic Adenoviruses for the Management of Prostate Cancer",slug:"development-of-oncolytic-adenoviruses-for-the-management-of-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Prostate cancer (PCa) is the fifth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in men globally. Androgen receptor (AR) signalling plays a vital role in initiation and progression and antiandrogens are standard of care first-line therapeutics. However, resistance frequently develops resulting in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Management of CRPC is currently chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy but is mostly palliative due to rapid development of resistance. The need for novel approaches to eliminate mCRPC is compelling; a promising option is replication-selective (oncolytic) adenoviruses with demonstrated efficacy in preclinical models of multidrug-resistant PCa. The safety of various viral mutants has been confirmed in numerous clinical trials with minimal toxicity in patients. Importantly, oncolytic adenoviruses synergise with the current standard of care for mCRPC even in treatment-resistant cells. In early phase I–II clinical trials, promising efficacy in patients with localised PCa was reported after intratumoural administration, and phase III trials are underway. To enable systemic delivery, for targeting of mCRPC, further developments are necessary because of the short half-life of the adenoviral mutants in human blood. Current progress in preventing the high-affinity binding of adenovirus to erythrocytes, hepatocyte uptake, and elimination by hepatic Kupffer cells will be described.",book:{id:"6423",slug:"prostate-cancer",title:"Prostate Cancer",fullTitle:"Prostate Cancer"},signatures:"Ahmed A. Ali and Gunnel Halldén",authors:[{id:"80427",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunnel",middleName:null,surname:"Hallden",slug:"gunnel-hallden",fullName:"Gunnel Hallden"},{id:"232386",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"ahmed-ali",fullName:"Ahmed Ali"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70881",title:"Robot-Assisted Partial Nephrectomy: Evolving Techniques",slug:"robot-assisted-partial-nephrectomy-evolving-techniques",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy is now embraced in urology as a recommended treatment option for small localised renal tumours. There is an increasing trend towards setting up robotic-assisted services in urological centres across the world. Our aim is to review the available published common robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy techniques. We present our institutions’ established step-by-step technique for performing robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy, in order to guide aspiring urologists interested in performing robotic-assisted partial nephrectomies. The importance of pre-operative review of imaging in a multi-disciplinary approach is critical. We emphasise certain tips inperforming a safer procedure.",book:{id:"6424",slug:"evolving-trends-in-kidney-cancer",title:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer",fullTitle:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer"},signatures:"Mohammed Kamil Quraishi, Edward Ramez Latif, Milan Thomas, Ben Eddy, Elio Mazzone and Alexandre Mottrie",authors:[{id:"277566",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Kamil",middleName:null,surname:"Quraishi",slug:"mohammed-kamil-quraishi",fullName:"Mohammed Kamil Quraishi"},{id:"277570",title:"Dr.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"milan-thomas",fullName:"Milan Thomas"},{id:"277571",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",middleName:null,surname:"Eddy",slug:"ben-eddy",fullName:"Ben Eddy"}]},{id:"54132",title:"Cross-Polarization OCT for In Vivo Diagnostics and Prediction of Bladder Cancer",slug:"cross-polarization-oct-for-in-vivo-diagnostics-and-prediction-of-bladder-cancer",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter contains three parts covering recent efforts to increase the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) differential diagnostics of bladder pathologies. The first part compares the diagnostic efficacy of traditional OCT and cross-polarization OCT (CP OCT); CP OCT and fluorescence cystoscopy (FC) for detecting flat lesions in the bladder at the early stages of cancer. The second part contains a report on achievements in application of CP OCT for detection of recurrent carcinoma in the scar area that is a hardly distinguishable form of bladder cancer using an optimized CP OCT image analysis. The third part of the chapter reviews the results on CP OCT usage for in vivo diagnosis of the bladder cancer after radiation therapy of cervical cancer.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Elena Kiseleva, Gladkova Natalia, Streltzova Olga, Kirillin Mikhail,\nMaslennikova Anna, Dudenkova Varvara, Yunusova Katerina and\nSergeeva Ekaterina",authors:[{id:"68196",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Gladkova",slug:"natalia-gladkova",fullName:"Natalia Gladkova"},{id:"191970",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kiseleva",slug:"elena-kiseleva",fullName:"Elena Kiseleva"},{id:"191990",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Streltzova",slug:"olga-streltzova",fullName:"Olga Streltzova"},{id:"191992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Varvara",middleName:null,surname:"Dudenkova",slug:"varvara-dudenkova",fullName:"Varvara Dudenkova"},{id:"191993",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Maslennikova",slug:"anna-maslennikova",fullName:"Anna Maslennikova"},{id:"191994",title:"Dr.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Yunusova",slug:"katerina-yunusova",fullName:"Katerina Yunusova"},{id:"191995",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Kirillin",slug:"mikhail-kirillin",fullName:"Mikhail Kirillin"},{id:"193422",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",middleName:null,surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"ekaterina-sergeeva",fullName:"Ekaterina Sergeeva"}]},{id:"61307",title:"Genetics in the Prostate Cancer",slug:"genetics-in-the-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Any disruption in the intracellular functions ranging from DNA transcription to protein ligand binding as well as intercellular communication may cause cellular transformation to malignant cell in the proper microenvironment when it could escape from the immune system. In this chapter, specifically, genetic alterations playing role in the prostate cancer are intended to be reviewed briefly under the subheadings of genomic instability and the hallmarks of cancer which are sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling the replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, activating invasion and progression to metastatic disease, reprogramming of the energy metabolism and evading immune destruction.",book:{id:"6423",slug:"prostate-cancer",title:"Prostate Cancer",fullTitle:"Prostate Cancer"},signatures:"Hikmet Köseoğlu",authors:[{id:"111496",title:"Dr.",name:"Hikmet",middleName:null,surname:"Köseoǧlu",slug:"hikmet-koseolu",fullName:"Hikmet Köseoǧlu"}]},{id:"54587",title:"Genital Organs‐Sparing Radical Cystectomy in Female Patients with Muscle Invasive Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder",slug:"genital-organs-sparing-radical-cystectomy-in-female-patients-with-muscle-invasive-urothelial-carcino",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"There has been considerable interest in urethral‐sparing cystectomy and preservation of the gynecological tract to maintain continence mechanism, sexual function, and reproductive function in young patients who undergo radical cystectomy for muscle‐invasive bladder cancer and this new technique gained acceptance in many centers. The issue of oncological safety of a urethra and anterior vaginal wall‐sparing cystectomy in selected patients has been addressed by several authors. The chapter will discuss the following items: (I) Technique of genital‐sparing radical cystectomy in female patients with muscle invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. (II) Definition and rationale of genital‐sparing radical cystectomy in female patients. (III) Rational and value of urethral preservation in genital‐sparing cystectomy in female patients with urothelial carcinoma. (IV) Previous reports about genital‐sparing cystectomy in patients with urothelial carcinoma. (V) Value of preservation of the internal genital organs in female patients undergoing radical cystectomy.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Hosni Khairy Salem",authors:[{id:"96052",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosni",middleName:"Khairy",surname:"Salem",slug:"hosni-salem",fullName:"Hosni Salem"}]},{id:"67209",title:"Robotic Surgery and Successful Set-Up: A Stepwise Approach",slug:"robotic-surgery-and-successful-set-up-a-stepwise-approach",totalDownloads:690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Robot purchase, implementation, and sustainability require a number of key challenges to overcome. We provide our experience of managing a potentially daunting task, summarizing the key steps to help deliver such an exciting project. We will take you through team approach options for purchase and safe implementation in the current financial climate.",book:{id:"6424",slug:"evolving-trends-in-kidney-cancer",title:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer",fullTitle:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer"},signatures:"Christopher J. Anderson and Hiten R.H. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"