Geothermal energy potential in Europe for different temperature ranges of heat sources [19].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"911",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Water Stress",title:"Water Stress",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Plants experience water stress either when the water supply to their roots becomes limiting, or when the transpiration rate becomes intense. 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Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"201022",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hasegawa",slug:"hiroshi-hasegawa",fullName:"Hiroshi Hasegawa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201022/images/4967_n.jpg",biography:"Hiroshi Hasegawa received his D.Sc. 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Increasing of population growth [1] and escalating process of electricity are mostly due to emission gases from the industry, vehicles, deforestation and others. In the aerospace industry, engineers continuously search for new methods to upgrade the efficiency of the engines. Recovery waste heat could increase the engine efficiency [2]. Although society undergoes global issues, social problems or economy crisis, this does not stop aerospace industry from expanding which leads to increase in demand on aircraft. This results in increasing of fuel price since more conventional fuel is needed and causes pollution into the environment [3]. Still, the price in this development is used to optimize the engine. In each flight, greater revenue could be achieved when the number of passengers is greater. And to have more passengers, lighter aircraft is needed. It is important to note that weight is very crucial in changing aircraft engines as it connects linearly with the amount of fuel used in every unit of force powered by engine (specific fuel consumption). Waste heat recovery (WHR) is one of the most important solutions found to lower the emission and fuel consumption [4]. Waste heat or low- grade waste heat is heat energy produced in the atmosphere through internal combustion. However, these low-grade waste heat are not sufficient enough to generate power due to insufficient low temperature. Thus, to recover these waste heat, organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system is one of the beneficial exhaust heat recovery technologies which is widely utilized in the applications of low grade heat recovery rather than conventional Rankine cycle [5]. By combining an ORC with energy system, for instance in power plants, organic fluid of low boiling point is utilized to change heat into electricity. The organic fluids or refrigerants used in air conditioning systems accumulates (collect) heat from a volume of air and release it to different type of heat exchanger which increases the expansion of high vapor pressure in expander. The heat accumulated is transformed into mechanical power or electricity and therefore will help to increase the thermal efficiency and the overall performance of the engine. Thus, higher thrust could be obtained as less electrical power is needed from aircraft engine resulting lower engine bleed air [2, 5, 6]. Because of its thermodynamic properties, organic fluid is the best selection for low quality heat sources with temperatures below than 100°C [2]. By selecting proper working fluid for low waste heat recovery system and modeling an optimum design of heat exchanger configurations, the waste energy recovered through this ORC system could be maximized. Thus, designing a fuel-efficient and cheaper heat exchanger, ORC power plant can effectually utilize the economic and environmental issues especially in aerospace industry.
Based on second law of thermodynamics, the efficiency of a process would not be 100% as there is no process that can entirely transform all amount of heat into work. The energy that is not used to produce work is being dissipated as heat at different temperatures, levels streams. On aircraft, half of the fuel energy lost through this way. Nevertheless, these sources of waste heat are everywhere; from this lost energy, only a part of it can be used to produce mechanical work or other purposes, where around 30% of the total waste heat could be changed to useful work. As the demand of aircraft is increasing vastly, the aviation industry has been the world center of attraction as new technologies are needed and maximum exploitation of fuel is a must. The conversion of heat energy to mechanical or electrical power depends on the characteristics of the source. Let say in an air conditioning system, an external hose is two or three degrees above the ambient temperature, it is a waste to recover that little amount of energy, however, this power leak will be an irreversibility process together with other similar leaks will decrease the thermal efficiency. This is called as waste heat and is an unused heat energy produced as a by-product of process of energy transformation, as a natural consequence on any non-adiabatic process from the thermodynamics law. Most of the available waste heat is low waste heat that can be used by an ORC which utilizes low boiling point organic fluid as working fluid, for example, toluene, hexane or pentane. Presently, there has not been any waste heat recovery (WHR) system added to an aircraft. Nevertheless, researchers suggest on adding WHR system to future engines and propose to make changes in current engines. However, it is a hassle to change the actual design of the engine as more expenses will be used in research, tests and certifications and a lot of heat source needs to be taken into account. Pasini et al. [7] analyzed the possibilities of heat recovery results in overall efficiency of an aircraft engine. A waste heat recovery system is modeled in a jet engine and a turbo propeller engine. Their project takes into account the nozzle works in off design state. The heat emitted influences greatly in the system performance. They also developed a numerical thermodynamic code to evaluate the positive impacts of waste heat recovery in a turboprop, a turbofan and a turbojet. The turbofan engine is of great interest due to large fraction of thrust is provided by cold flow, whilst gas generator supplies needed power. The authors then concluded that the enthalpy level ahead of exhaust nozzle of gas generator could be decreased without losing a lot of thrust. From the results of the calculations, it was found an increase of thermal efficiency about 4% when heat recovery was done (efficiency of regeneration was 0.5). At the same time, if the efficiency was 0.7, an increase of 10% was achieved. From the numerical simulations, the best place for heat recovery is from hot gas before entering nozzle. Another research done by Li et al. [8] was to study the small-scale ORC system performance with low grade heat sources to provide electricity in various working state. The experiment setup includes normal ORC system components, for instance, turboexpander with high speed generator, finned tube condenser, ORC pump and plate evaporator. Results found that the turbine power and condenser heat output, ORC pump power and evaporator heat input, turbine isentropic, overall efficiencies and system thermal efficiencies rises when heat source temperature rises too. The fluid of ORC during superheat and pressure at turbine inlet were two crucial variables that kept constant with temperature heat source and pump speed of ORC.
ORC utilizes organic compound instead of water as a working fluid, generally, a refrigerant, a hydrocarbon such as pentane, butane, perfluorocarbon or silicon oil. The organic fluid’s boiling point is much lesser compared to water and enable heat recovering at lesser temperatures instead of the steam Rankine cycle [9]. ORC’s first commercial applications with medium-scale power plants for geothermal and solar applications were developed in the 9 late 1970s and 1980s. These days, over 200 ORC power plants are recognized with more than 1800 MWe installed and the technologies keep on increasing day by day [10]. Mostly, the plants were installed in biomass CHP application, geothermal plants and plants of WHR followed. The layout of ORC is much simpler compared to the steam cycle as there is no water vapor attached to the boiler, and a single heat exchanger could be utilized for the three processes of evaporation including preheating, vaporizing and superheating. ORC is able to use low grade heat sources than steam Rankine cycle. Since it could be utilized in lower temperature at the turbine inlet and reduce thermal stresses in the boiler. In regular steam plant systems, the performance cycle is at risk damage due to gaseous infiltrations that occur in sub atmospheric condensing pressure. In steam-based cycle, the usage of a single tube for evaporation is abstained due to large density difference that exists in between liquid and vapor phases. However, some organic fluids have condensation pressure higher than the atmospheric pressures and this avoids the infiltration of non-condensable gases in the condenser. The small differences in density organic fluid phase of liquid and vapor also enables the use of once-through boilers. This led to avoidance of using stream drums and simplified the operation of the whole plant. A simple plant system can be developed and less cost is needed when uses organic fluid compared to steam based cycle. In ORC, usage of deaerator is unnecessary but that is not the case for steam base cycle. Due to presence of oxygen, water deaerator or water treatment must be added to avert erosion. Because of low fluid density in the cycle low-pressure part, steam cycle also needs large turbines, heat exchangers and hydraulic diameter for pipes. Meanwhile, since organic fluid has higher density fluid, usage of compact appliances is allowed, especially in marine application, the available space for recovery plant of waste heat is restricted. Other than that, the enthalpy drop in ORC is much lower compared to steam cycle. The process in ORC can be done in a single stage with much simpler turbine compared to steam cycle which requires turbine with some expansion stages. ORC normally operated at much lower pressure levels and rarely exceeding 30 bars. Thus, ORC is beneficial in low to medium power range due to its cycle simplicity, less cost and stress level needed at boiler, easier to control and simpler usage of components [11].
Traditional steam Rankine Cycle utilizes water and higher pressure vapor as the main flow fluid in the cycle and mainly used in high temperature more than 500°C. However, ORC uses organic pure less boiling point or working fluid mixture mostly used in lower temperature process less than 500°C. Thus, ORC is more advantageous in recovering less temperature heat energy for various temperature ranges. Although steam Rankine cycle is the most common technology used in recovering heat process that converts heat into electricity, it is unfit for conditions of low temperature and pressure. This results from the need for high temperature and pressure in operation. If exhaust temperature and pressure are similar, the SRC exhaust steam enthalpy is greater and the heat from the cold sources increases [12].
Based on the Figure 1 which is the T-s diagram above, two important differences could be found. Firstly, the curve of the organic fluid is abundantly vertical, meanwhile, water has negative curve of saturated vapor slope. Hence, when process of expansion finish, the limitation of vapor quality invisibles in ORC cycle and superheating vapor is unnecessary before the turbine inlet. Second, the gap in entropy between saturated liquid and saturated vapor for organic fluids is lesser. Thus, the enthalpy vaporization is lesser. The organic working fluid mass flow rate should therefore be greater than water to absorb equal thermal power in the evaporator, resulting in more pump consumptions [13].
T-s diagram of the water saturation curves of water and a few typical ORC organic fluids applications [
ORC can be operated in a subcritical or supercritical cycle. In supercritical cycle, the working fluid evaporation ends in supercritical area and the heat rejection in condenser occurs in the subcritical area. Many studies have been performed on the supercritical ORC. Figure 2 provides the temperature and entropy changes of supercritical ORC.
Supercritical ORC temperature and entropy change [
Yagli et al. [14] modeled subcritical and supercritical ORC to recuperate exhaust gas waste heat of biogas fuelled CHP engine. Comparing with subcritical condition, supercritical ORC shows greater performance. At constant pressure, supercritical ORC performance rise as turbine inlet temperature rises. The most excellent performed cycle net power, thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency are evaluated as 79.23 kW, 15.51 and 27.20% for subcritical and 81.52 kW, 15.93 and 27.76% for supercritical ORC, respectively. Guo et al. [15] studied the subcritical and transcritical ORC performance in regards to the evaporator pinch point locations. Found that transcritical ORCs gives higher performance as the heat source outlet temperatures lessen. Ran et al. [16] studied the impact of big transformation in the thermophysical properties of pseudocritical region. Utilizing network output, thermal efficiency and total vapor area an optimization method was found. The results showed that in transcritical ORC’s, the thermophysical properties of the working fluid work at supercritical coefficient and logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD). Moloney et al. [17] analyzed the pressure effect to optimize the first law efficiency, second law’s efficiency and net power of a supercritical ORC with 170–240°C turbine inlet temperature suitable for geothermal reservoirs of medium temperature. Found that supercritical cycle is much more efficient than subcritical cycle to optimize the plant efficiency. Chowdury et al. [18] presented an ORC simulation with different source of heat from the actual vehicle exhaust in supercritical state. The simulation shows that the key in transforming the operating temperature at the evaporator outlet is to modify the mass flow rate.
The ORC technology has been utilized broadly and applied in various industrial activities especially in biomass and geothermal application. Nevertheless, ORC technology has been increasing in solar thermal system and heat recovery applications from industrial waste heat.
There is widespread use of agricultural or industrial processes such as lumber or agricultural waste in biomass due to low energy density than the fossil fuels and availability of heat and electricity, where biomass is suitable on off-grid case or unreliable grid connection. Local generation results in smaller power plants that exclude traditional steam cycles that in this power range are not profit-making.
Figures 3 and 4 define the working principle of such cogeneration system, at a temperature from 150 to 320°C, heats from combustion is transmitted from the flue gases to the heat transfer fluid in two heat exchangers. When temperature lowers a little bit below 300°C, heat transfer fluid (thermal oil) is sent to the ORC loop to evaporate the working fluid. Then, the evaporated fluid expands, to preheat the liquid using recuperator and when temperature reached 90°C, the fluid condensed to produce hot water.
Energy flows in a CHP system of biomass [
Biomass CHP ORC system working principle [
ORC efficiency is lesser compared to traditional steam cycles and gradually reduces for small scale units. To raise the overall energy conversion efficiency of plant, heat demand is needed and could be met through space heating or industrial processes (wood drying). Load of plant could be managed through on- site heat request or maximize power generation which includes additional wasting heats but increases, the full load operating hours per year.
From Figure 3, even though the CHP system’s electrical efficiency is somewhat less (18%), the overall system efficiency is 88% greater than centralized power plants where most residual heat is lost. These gases need to be cooled to the least possible value, so that acid dew point could not be achieved and to lower the losses in flue gases. Two heat transfer loops are utilized to achieve this point (high and low temperature). The lower temperature loops are installed after the high flue temperature to lower the outlet temperature. Competitive technology in generating electric out of solid biofuels is biomass gasification where biomass changes into an organic gas mainly consisting H2, CO, CO2 and CH4. In order to remove solid particles, this synthetic gas is treated and filtered and finally burned in an ICE or in a gas turbine. Contrasting Biomass CHP’s technology and costs with an ORC with gasification, gasification yields higher investment costs (75%), higher maintenance costs (200%) and more power-to-thermal ratio, where utilization is increase profit-making. ORC is an established technology meanwhile gasification plants are normally used as prototype in operation.
Geothermal heat sources ranges from 10 to 300°C. The actual lower technological limit to generate electricity is about 80°C, and became less efficient with temperature less than 80°C and causes uneconomical geothermal plants. The potential of geothermal energy in Europe is shown in Table 1 and indicates that low temperature sources have higher potential.
Temperature | MWth | MWe |
---|---|---|
65–90°C | 147,736 | 10,462 |
90–120°C | 75,421 | 7503 |
120–150°C | 22,819 | 1268 |
150–225°C | 42,703 | 4745 |
225–350°C | 66,897 | 11,150 |
Geothermal energy potential in Europe for different temperature ranges of heat sources [19].
For better production and injection, boreholes need to be drilled in the ground (Figure 5) to recover heat at an acceptable temperature. Then, the hot brine is pumped out of the first one and injected at a lower temperature in the second. Boreholes might be few thousand meters deep which results in working continuously for few months depend on the configuration of the geology and causes increasing share of drilling for geothermal plant cost investment (up to 70%) [19]. High auxiliary consumption is also characterized by low geothermal ORC: the pumps ingest 30–50% of the gross power output [20]. The brine pump together with a significant flow rate has to circulate the brine over large stances is the primary consumer. Working fluid of pump consumption is greater than higher temperature cycles, as the ratio of pump consumption to turbine output power (‘back work ratio’) rose as evaporation temperature lowered. Geothermal heat sources temperature (>150°C) allow for CHP, where the condensing temperature is restricted to a higher temperature such as 60°C, enabling district heating uses cooled water. Thus, the overall efficiency of energy recovery rises with lower electrical efficiency expenses.
Geothermal ORC system working principle [
Solar power concentration is the best technology on a linear or punctual collector that tracks and reflects the sun, transferring heat to high temperature fluid. Electricity is generated as heat is transmitted to a power cycle; electricity is generated. The three primary technologies of concentration are the parabolic platform, solar tower and the parabolic trough. Punctual concentrating technologies consist of parabolic dishes and solar towers, results in more concentration factor and greater temperatures. For solar towers, the Stirling engine (small-scale plants), the steam cycle or even the combined cycle is the best suited power cycles. Parabolic troughs operate at lesser temperature (300–400°C). Till today, they were combined to traditional steam Rankine cycles to generate electricity [21]. Geothermal or biomass power plants for example, steam cycles need higher temperatures, pressure and installed power to be more cost- effective. Organic Rankine cycle is a favorable technology that could lower the small scale of investment costs by working at lesser temperatures and reduce total installed power to kW scale. The working principle of the system is shown in Figure 6. As Fresnel linear technology need lower investment costs [22], they are suitable for ORCs but operate at lesser temperature.
Solar ORC system working principle [
Till recently, only a few of CSP plants with ORC are accessible on the market:
In 2006, at Arizona, a 1MWe solar concentration of ORC power plant was accomplished. The ORC module utilizes n-pentane as the working fluid with 20% efficiency. On design point, the overall solar energy efficiency is 12.1% [23].
Few small-scale for the applications of remote-off grid were studied. The only proof of concept obtained is that 1KWe system installed for rural electrification in Lesotho by “STG International”. To produce and integrate small size solar thermal technology with medium temperature collectors and an ORC to acquire economics equivalent to big installation of solar thermal is the objective of this project. This design intended to change or adding diesel generators in developing countries at off-grid areas through generating clean power at lesser costs.
At low temperature, most of the application in manufacturing industry reject load. Normally, the heat is enormous in large-scale plants, and could not be used again for on-site district heating. The heat then discharged into the atmosphere and results in two types of pollution [24]:
Health/Environmental issues results from pollutants (CO2, NOX, SOX, HC) of flue gases.
Unbalance of aquatic equilibrium and negative effector biodiversity due to rejection of heat.
These two types of pollution could be diminished by waste heat recovering. Moreover, it could provide on-site electricity to be consumed or sent it back to the grid. Normally, waste heat is recuperated through an intermediate heat transfer loop in such a system and used to evaporate the cycle’s working fluid. In USA, power generation from industrial waste heat sources is approximately about 750 MWe [25]. Some industries have greater potential in recovery of waste heat. One of it, the cement industrial loses 40% of flue gas heat. These flue gases are placed at a temperature of 215–315°C after the preheater of limestone or in the clinker cooler [26]. CO2 released from the cement industry is 5% of the world’s total CO2 emissions, half of the results from fossil fuels combustion in kilns [24]. Further possible industries include iron and steel industries (for example, 10% of CO2 emissions in China), refineries or chemical industries. Although their potential is higher and cost-effective (1000–2000 €/kWe), ORC recovery waste heat cycles have only 9–10% of the world’s installed ORC plants compared to biomass CHP and geothermal units [10].
Perullo et al. [27] integrated an ORC to an engine for power generation. They mentioned the problem, as bypass ratio keep on growing and the engine cores becomes effective, the diameter of engine fan increases and the core size decreases which causes pneumatic offset needing greater percentage of the core flow and results in higher performance penalties. They tried to solve the problem by changing the pneumatic off-take to an electrical and used power generated to drive external air to the environmental control system (ECS). With the idea of no-bleed aircraft, performance penalties for shrinking cores and increased fan diameter are supposed to be eliminated and they had demonstrated that a rise in efficiency from 0.9 to 2.5% is possible. Boeing has also applied the no-bleed system; but using generator as the source of energy, not ORC where the generator works with energy taken from the APU and engines. As this application save fuel by 3%, this explain why they put this idea together in ORC rather than extracting energy from fuel, the waste heat could supply the energy needed. ORC is used due to the low quality of the range temperature. The WHR system is placed in the core jet exhaust of a turbofan engine. Conversely to land ORC systems, used in steam power plants for instance, an on-board ORC would suppose operating conditions that may vary continuously in the course of every few hours in external pressure and temperatures. The amount of heat extracted from the engine should be considered to avoid reduction of thrust. The system is distributed in the nozzle, the nose cowl and the Pylon. It uses R245fa as the working fluid having demonstrating highest thermal efficiency in a wide range of operating pressure. The MathCAD 2001 software was used to model the design to govern whether energy is enough to extract our f the exhaust gases to a power of 270 hp. motor. Figure 7 below describes the ORC schematics.
Aircraft engine ORC system working principle [
The model was integrated on a CFM56-7B configuration and cruise conditions were used in it. Some assumptions were done; not analyzing the system with take-off conditions as working fluid dissociates at high temperatures, heat is taken out of core exhaust flow before expanding in the nozzle, assuming a weight of 430 kg and was used to calculate the fuel burn reduction (0.9%) a TSFC reduced its value in 2% compared to the engine alone. It was also assumed that the ORC could produce greater power which is needed to drive the ECS air compressor and resulted in reduction of TSFC for 22%. Perullo et al. [27] concluded that an ORC WHR system could produce more power on the existing engine and can be utilized to supply sufficient power to a compressor driving air to the ECS. They suggested that the design system should be reconfigured to obtain the best results of fuel burn and take into account the need of an electric starting mechanism if the bleed system was removed in future research. The option of using the engine cowl or the anti-icing system in the wing s as the condenser of the ORC system was suggested as well.
Regenerative ORCs are designed where ORCs and turbine bleeding are integrated to a heat exchanger. The cycle heats up the working fluid upon infiltrating the evaporator which is almost similar to the ORC with recuperator. Figure 8(a) and (b) provides the schematic cycle and T-s diagram of regenerative cycle.
(a) ORC with regenerator and its (b) T-s diagram [
At 139°C of turbine inlet temperature, Le et al. [28] utilized a genetic method to optimize the first law and effectiveness of the system for diverse fluids. When examining, CO2 results the worst while recuperative cycle was discovered for greater efficiencies compared to simple cycle. Moloney et al. [17] studied the environmental fluids with critical temperature below 200°C in regenerative supercritical ORCs to upgrade the geothermal energy efficiency and noted that CO2 operates the lowest. The same purpose was enforced by Muhammad et al. [29] to the basic ORC; single and double stage regenerative ORC for applications of recovering waste heat. Studies showed that the single and double stage regenerative ORC has greater thermal efficiency with lower economic performance rather than the basic ORC.
Found that superheating of dry fluid negatively affects the ORC’s efficiency while wet fluid positively affects the ORC’s efficiency and isentropic fluid did not really affect ORC. Nevertheless, an experimental observation by [15] indicated that ORC with wet fluid superheat utilizing R245fa at 1.8°C and if the superheat rises to 8.7°C, the system is stable. Thus, even for dry working fluid, superheating is essential.
Li et al. [30] conducted an experimental study to inquire the performance of a small-scale ORC system with low grade heat source to produce electricity at various working state. It was found that the fluid of ORC during superheat and pressure at the turbine inlet were two main variables able to be managed with temperature of heat source and speed of the ORC pump. It was also found that superheat and internal heat exchanger are crucial for ORC from both perspectives of thermodynamic and techno-economic. Roy et al. studied the consequences of superheat and recovering on ORC system at certain degree of superheat [31]. Note that Guo et al. [15] argued if the superheat coupled with an internal heat exchanger, greater development could be done. Zhang et al. inquires the consequences of superheat and internal heat exchanger on three ORC designs’ thermos-economic performance from fluid properties and heat sources. It has been discovered that the thermo-economic performance of internal heat exchanger ORC with dry surpasses the wet fluid as temperature of heat source load increases [32]. Brizard et al. [33] suggested preventing condensation drops during operation of superheating; the inlet of expander must exceed 20°C. Radulovic et al. [34] mentioned that superheat is important in cycle especially in wet fluids. As the temperature of superheater rises, the cycle efficiency also rises and the chance of the working fluid condenses during pressure drop inside turbine, resulting in corrosion and efficiency drop is lesser. To get a higher efficiencies and net power output, superheating is important to prevent wet expansion. Feng et al. [35] found that rises the superheat degree assure the decrease in mean heat transfer temperature difference in superheating area of evaporator causes decreasing of overall heat transfer area, and decrease in the investment cost of the system. It was also found that outlet temperature of evaporator and superheat degree gives good feedback on the efficiency of exergy. Li et al. [30] construct an investigation on the experimental of a small-scale ORC system under designated working state for the recovery application of low-grade thermal energy. The reaction between condenser cooling water temperatures and superheat.
R245fa at turbine inlet were measured and analyzed on the performance of the system. The outcomes show that when evaporating pressure is constant, superheat at the inlet of expander gives negative feedback on the turboexpander and performance of the at some temperatures of cold water. In conclusion, superheat is crucial in assuring an efficient and safe system operation. Bianchi et al. [36] presented an experimental micro-ORC setup for low-temperature application by implementing a test bench to acquire data for the energy system characterization. From the results, it was found that for the tested working points, efficiency is from 2.9 to 4.4% and increases as degree of superheating decreases. Ismail et al. [37] concluded that utilizing superheated vapor in the system with internal heat exchanger results in increasing of thermal efficiency ORC. The mass flow rate required for the system together with superheated vapor is lower than the saturated vapor system. Thus, superheated is essential to lower the mass flow rate, and enhanced the performance of the system with presence of internal heat exchanger.
This chapter presents a comprehensive review on the developments of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems that have been used for power generation by using a waste heat source. This review also highlights more on the different configurations of ORCs used, depending on their applications. From here, we could conclude that superheating and the condition of the organic working fluid are crucial in ORC system from the thermodynamic point of views. Therefore, this study plans to investigate the design of an ORC model with better output power by modifying the configurations and adding a superheating device and also to study the effect of using organic dry working fluid (R245fa) at supercritical condition.
Low cost single mode semiconductor laser diodes emitting at wavelengths, λ, in the 1.6–2.1 μm wavelength range are highly desirable as light sources for trace gas spectroscopy due to the strong absorption bands [1] in this spectral region. Compared to conventionally used systems based on electrochemical point sensors, tuneable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) offers a number of benefits for the detection of gases such as; rapid response time, long term stability, high selectivity and sensitivity, rugged systems and measurement capability over long distances using open path systems [2]. TDLAS is based on the molecular rotational-vibrational absorption of gases that produce distinct peaks in the near to mid-infrared (IR) spectral range. These molecule resonances cause characteristic ‘fingerprints’ by selective absorption of laser light as the wavelength is tuned by changing the laser bias current or heat sink temperature. Great interest is due to the strong absorption lines of various important gases, such as methane (1.665 μm), hydrogen chloride (1.743 μm), and nitrous oxide (1.795 μm), in this wavelength range. Two pertinent greenhouse gases, water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2), have strong absorption bands at wavelengths centred around 1.877 and 2.004 μm respectively and are shown in Figure 1. There is also an increasing number of other applications, such as high data-rate communications over hollow core photonic crystal fibre [3, 4, 5, 6] and noninvasive optical blood glucose monitoring [7] which also require compact and robust low-cost laser sources emitting in the 1.6–2.1 μm wavelength range.
Absorption spectra of two important greenhouse gases CO2 and H2O, with strong absorption lines in the near-to-mid-IR extracted from the HITRAN database [
Semiconductor laser diode materials with light emission in the 1.6–2.1 μm wavelength range include indium phosphide (InP) and the gallium antimonide (GaSb) material systems. It must be noted that cost sensitivity is a significant issue for many of these applications and in order to keep the laser chip cost down the InP material is often preferred over the GaSb material system for emission in the mid-IR region. In comparison with the GaSb material platform, the processing technologies for InP-based materials are more mature as they were developed for telecommunications lasers. In addition, superior substrate quality, lower substrate cost, better thermal performance and mature growth methods make InP-based lasers attractive candidates for light sources in this wavelength region [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The III-V compound semiconductor material system (AlGaIn)-(AsP) constitutes an ideal basis for the realization of diode lasers in this wavelength region [16]. InGaAs, either lattice matched to InP or deliberately strained, can be used for the active layer with a direct band gap between 1.1 and 2.3 μm. Recently InP-based type-II QWs have extended the wavelength up to 3 μm [17] which opens up another important wavelength region for the fabrication of lower cost lasers for sensing applications.
This chapter begins with an overview of mid-IR single mode laser diodes and then outlines the state of the art in InP based mid-IR discrete mode laser diodes.
In this section an overview of the current state of the art in compact monolithic single mode laser diodes emitting in the 2.0 μm spectral region will be outlined. Focusing on monolithic chips, external cavity laser devices are not included here. The review will start with an overview of the material systems available for the laser active region emission in the 2 μm spectral region. To date single mode semiconductor lasers have been demonstrated in both the GaSb and indium InP material systems. Both material systems have their pros and cons and an overview of the various technology implementations for achieving single wavelength mode operation in each material system is shown.
The III-V compound semiconductor material system (AlGaIn)(AsSb) constitutes an alternative basis for the realisation of diode lasers in the mid-IR. GaInAsSb is either latticed matched to GaSb substrates or strained and is used as the active layer with a direct bandgap transition covering the λ ∼ 1.8–3.4 μm wavelength region. For the barrier and cladding layers, AlGaAsSb is well suited because of its larger bandgap energy and lower refractive index compared to GaInAsSb. Molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) is the method of choice and most widely used in the wafer growth. The laser structures are grown on (100)-orientated n-doped GaSb substrates but due to the lower demand for GaSb substrates compared to InP the growth cost is higher and substrate quality lower. Conventional fabrication of distributed-feedback (DFB) lasers incorporating buried gratings for longitudinal mode selection is challenging in the GaSb material system due to the difficulty of epitaxial regrowth with the high Al concentrations in the cladding layers. Separately, processing options are quite limited for GaSb due to the cladding material being hygroscopic.
A proposed method for DFB fabrication which was recently demonstrated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) [18], makes use of Bragg gratings etched alongside a ridge waveguide to form a laterally coupled distributed-feedback (LC-DFB) as shown in Figure 2 This approach enables fabrication of single-longitudinal-mode laser following a single epitaxial growth process.
(a) Cross-section scanning-electron micrograph of a 3-μm-wide laser ridge topped with a titanium-platinum-gold contact layer. (b) Top view of the LC-DFB laser structure, with a cross section of the grating (inset) [
Characteristics of the LC-DFB laser are as follows; at a heat sink temperature of −10°C they demonstrate a single mode emission in the 2054 nm region with an SMSR > 30 dB and ex-facet power exceeding 80 mW. This is the highest reported power from a DFB laser at 2 μm. The wavelength shift with current and temperature is reported to be 5.39 × 10−3 nm/mA and 0.2 nm/oC [19]. They also demonstrated LC-DFB laser linewidths of 1.4 MHz and 900 kHz for 500 and 10 ms observation times, respectively. The linewidths were derived from the frequency-noise power-spectral density measured using a Fabry-Perot interferometer.
Ridge waveguide GaSb DFB lasers have also been fabricated by the University of Wurzburg and commercialised by the German company NanoPlus which employ a lateral metal grating at the side of the ridge [20] as depicted in Figure 3. The metal gratings provide strong feedback but generate additional absorption loss in the laser cavity hence the ex-facet laser power is limited to ∼10 mW levels.
Schematic diagram of the ridge waveguide metal grating DFB [
A single mode emission at 2 μm with a side mode suppression ratio of 31 dB is demonstrated in [20] and output power in the 8 mW region. The wavelength tuning rate with temperature is 0.2 nm/oC. Reported linewidth measurements are in the 0.3–0.5 MHz region [21].
To extend the emission wavelength from λ ∼ 1.55–2.1 μm in the InxGa1-xAs material system compressive strain is applied by increasing the indium (In) composition. Figure 6 shows the calculated bandgap wavelength (λg (μm) = 1.2407/Eg (eV)) for a bulk InxGa1-xAs layer on InP as a function of In composition. As shown in Figure 2, a compressive strain larger than 1% is required to obtain a bandgap wavelength longer than 2 μm. Also shown in Figure 4 is the experimentally measured quantum well photoluminescence peak wavelength for four separate active regions with the In composition varied. When a quantum well structure is used instead of a bulk layer, the bandgap wavelength becomes smaller because of the quantum size effect on the bandgap energy. Therefore larger strain is required for InxGa1-xAs quantum wells (QWs) to obtain the same bandgap wavelength as bulk InxGa1-xAs [14].
Calculated bandgap wavelength for InGaAs on InP as a function of In composition. The upper horizontal axis shows the mismatch strain of InGaAs with respect to InP. Red dashed line indicates the lattice constant of InP 5.869A [
InP-based DFB lasers have been extensively developed with wavelengths at 1.3 and 1.55 μm for fibre optic communications over the last three decades. Similar processing techniques can be used for fabrication of single mode lasers operating in the 2 μm wavelength range. NTT-Japan demonstrated a DFB laser with an emission wavelength of 2.051 μm and output power of 10 mW [22]. A schematic of their buried heterostructure DFB grating is shown in Figure 5. The DFB grating was buried and required two regrowth stages after grating formation. There are no reported measurements on the spectral linewidths but they are expected to be in the 2 MHz range. The ex-facet power of 10 mW was improved on in a subsequent paper [23] with a value of ∼20 mW reported. The wavelength shift with current and temperature is reported to be 0.0025 nm/mA and 0.125 nm/oC [24].
Schematic of BH-DFB laser diode [
Light propagation and emission normal to the semiconductor layer structure is characteristic of a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) [25]. The main feature of the VCSEL design is the regrown buried tunnel junction (BTJ) (see Figure 6), which accomplishes current confinement and wave guiding. The active region contains five heavily compressively strained InGaAs-quantum wells separated by tensile strained barriers of InGaAIAs. Current is injected through a contact pad on the epitaxial mirror and the gold heat sink via the n + doped contact layers [25]. The n-doped epitaxial mirror reflectivity of the front mirror of 99.4% and back mirror reflectivity was 99.9%. The dielectric DBR is combined with an integrated electroplated Au-heat sink and a buried tunnel junction. VCSEL’s emitting in the 2 μm region have been demonstrated by the Technical University Munich and commercialised by VERTILAS in the InP material system [25] however the ex-facet power levels from this technology is limited to <1 mW. Due to the very short laser cavity spectral linewidths from VCSEL devices are typically >20 MHz [26], and show high tuning rates of 0.67 nm/mA and 1.5 nm/oC.
Schematic of VCSEL laser diode [
Discrete mode (DM) technology is Eblana Photonics proprietary method of manufacturing single mode lasers. Single wavelength operation in DM lasers is achieved by introducing index perturbations in the form of etched features positioned at a number of sites distributed along the ridge waveguide laser cavity as shown in Figure 7. Eblana has recently fabricated single mode lasers in the 2 μm spectral region [13]. The spectral linewidths for DM laser emitting at 2.0 μm is 1 MHz. The ex-facet power of 5 mW was measured and the wavelength shift with current and temperature is reported to be 0.0025 nm/mA and 0.125 nm/°C [13].
Electron micrograph of Fabry Perot laser cavity (top left) and DM laser, fabricated by etching slots into laser ridge (bottom left) along with spectral characteristics of typical mid-IR laser with and without etched features (top and bottom right respectively).
A typical InP based Type-I laser structure for an emission wavelength of 1.6–2.1 μm is shown in Figure 8 [14]. For most of the laser structures reported on in Section 3, two to three compressively strained QWs are used as the active region with a width of 10 nm. They are separated by 15–30 nm thick InxGa1-xAs barrier layers which are either lattice matched to the InP substrate or tensile strained in order to reduce the average strain in the active region. The active region is sandwiched between two 200 nm-thick InGaAsP separate confinement guide layers with a bandgap wavelength of λg = 1.3 μm which also acts as an etch stop layer for ridge waveguide definition. A 1800 nm thick p-InP layer is grown on top of the separate confinement heterostructure followed by a 200 nm thick highly p-doped InxGa1-xAs contact layer [3].
Direct bandgap profile of an InP-based type-I laser structure with an emission wavelength of 2.1 μm [
For the results shown below, four laser structures with varying In compositions were grown on 75 mm diameter n-type (100)-InP substrates in a metal-organic vapour-phase epitaxy reactor at low pressure. The overlapped photoluminescence spectra for the four wafers are shown in Figure 9 measured at room temperature. The sharp peaks indicate high material quality with low defects.
Overlapped measured photoluminescence spectra at 25°C for four wafers with varying In composition.
The optical waveguiding properties of the ridge waveguide structure was determined by carrying out 2-D numerical simulations and one example for the 2 μm wafer (In = 0.74) is shown in Figure 10. The modal analysis of the structure showed that no higher order lateral modes are supported when the ridge width is 2 μm and that the calculated effective index for the waveguide is 3.2. This effective index is used to calculate the grating pattern spacing required to give single mode emission at the target wavelength which will be described below [3].
2D simulation of a ridge waveguide laser diode.
In order to make good single longitudinal mode lasers, the ability to fabricate uniform, highly reliable FP lasers is essential and complete wafers of FP lasers were processed for material evaluation. For the laser to operate in a single lateral mode, control of the ridge width is critical. Simulations showed that a 2 μm wide ridge results in a stable transverse mode. The waveguide was realised using inductive coupled plasma dry etching, the dry etch chemistry used was Cl/N2 followed by a short wet-etch to remove surface roughness. Electrical contacting was achieved using conventional metals (Ti/Pt/Au) and SiO2 as an insulator for contact definition on the heavily doped (
(a) SEM image of a ridge waveguide FP laser diode. (b) Picture of a processed 3-inch InP wafer.
To evaluate the material quality before fabricating the DM lasers, broad area and FP lasers with varying cavity length were fabricated and characterised on the four wafers, only the results from the 2 μm wafer are presented in this section. As-cleaved broad area lasers with 50 μm wide ridge widths and varying cavity lengths were analysed under pulsed conditions (1 μs pulses with 0.1% duty cycle) to evaluate the material quality. The threshold current density (
A 600 μm long FP ridge waveguide laser was packaged in a fiberised 14-pin butterfly module which contained a thermoelectric cooler and thermistor and the optical characteristics were measured under CW conditions. Figure 12 shows the overlapped CW measurement of light-current (LI) characteristics measured at chip temperatures 10, 25, 45, 50, 60 and 70°C. The power was measured with a large area (Ø3 mm) extended wavelength InGaAs detector (GPD 3000). The light coupling efficiency into the fibre was measured to be 60% and the chip ex-facet power was >20 mW at 200 mA, 25°C. The extracted threshold currents were 18, 30 and 58 mA at 25, 50 and 70°C respectively. The characteristic temperature of threshold current between 25–50 and 25–70°C was calculated to be 49 and 38 K. The measured slope efficiencies in the fibre at 25 and 50°C were 0.08 and 0.06 W/A respectively [3].
Overlapped light-current curves in the temperature range 10–70°C for the 2 μm FP laser.
In Figure 13 the emission spectrum is plotted at a heat sink temperature of 25°C and bias current of 80 mA using a Yokogawa (
Emission spectrum at a bias current of 80 mA and heat sink temperature of 25°C.
Overlapped emission spectra at a bias current of 80 mA in the temperature range 25–50°C.
To demonstrate the wide wavelength coverage from 1.65 to 2.15 μm ∼400 nm we overlap the FP emission spectrum for the four wafers as shown in Figure 15.
Overlapped FP emission spectra at bias currents of 80 mA and heat sink temperature of 25°C for the four InP wafers.
Single wavelength operation in DM laser diodes is achieved by introducing index perturbations in the form of shallow-etched features, or slots, positioned at a number of sites distributed along the ridge waveguide as shown in Figure 16a [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. The slots are realized using ICP dry etching, with a typical depth in the region of 1.5–2 μm and a width of ∼1 μm. The slots are relatively shallow and are not etched into the active (wave guiding) region, however, they will still interact with the mode’s electric field as the mode profile is not fully confined to the active region and will expand into the surrounding cladding regions. This interaction results in a proportion of the propagating light being reflected at the boundaries between the perturbed and the unperturbed sections. In effect the slots act as reflection centres and through suitable positioning the slots manipulate the mirror loss spectrum of an FP laser so that the mirror loss of a specified mode is reduced below that of the other cavity modes [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Using a simplified model, developed in [33, 34], a slot can be described as a one dimensional discontinuity inserted into the cavity; as most of the reflection comes from the front of the slot interface. Figure 16b shows a schematic of a laser cavity with slots introduced into the cavity; where rs is the slot reflectivity, ts is the slot transmission, N is the number of slots, L is the distance between the slots, and ϒi is the reflectivity in a section of the cavity where i is the slot number. The reflectivity from the first slot, ϒ1 is given by rs. The introduction of a slot into the waveguide changes its effective refractive index, so that it differs slightly from the segments of the waveguide without slots. The reflectivity from the waveguide to slot interface can be approximated using Eq. (1):
(a) SEM image of 2 μm wide ridge waveguide with etched grating. The slot width is 1 μm and the spacing between the slots L is 4 μm in this example. (b) Illustration of slot reflection and transmission for N slots.
where
Assuming no loss from the slot Eq. (2),
ϒ2 is the reflectivity from the second slot and is given by Eq. (3)
where β is the complex propagation constant, and the term ts is squared to take account of forward and backward travelling waves. The exponential term describes the medium in which the light travels, and a factor of two is used again to take account of forward and backward travelling waves. The complex propagation constant takes account of the gain and loss in the transmission medium and is defined in terms of Eq. (4)
where n is the refractive index, λ is the wavelength,
and Eq. (6),
respectively; therefore, the reflectivity obtained from four slots is given by Eq. (7):
By letting Eq. (8)
the total reflectivity from N slots can be expressed by Eq. (9) the following series.
Which in terms of known variables can be described as Eq. (10)
The power reflection is related to the reflection amplitude by Eq. (11),
Using this model the power reflection versus etched feature number at a wavelength of 1887 nm was simulated and shown in Figure 17.
Simulated power reflection spectrum as a function of slot number.
For a 600 μm long laser cavity at about 60 slots the peak reflectivity begins to saturate and the FWHM is about 0.9 nm which is equivalent to the FP mode spacing. So this is the optimum number of slots for this cavity length.
The fabrication of the DM laser is exactly the same as the FP laser outlined in Section 3.1.2 width the addition of one extra dry etching step to etch the grating, the dry etch chemistry used again was Cl/N2 and was followed by a short wet-etch to remove surface roughness from the grating. A schematic of the etched features is shown in Figure 18.
Schematic view of the InP DM laser.
Low cost single mode semiconductor laser diodes emitting at 1.87 μm are highly desirable as light sources for trace gas sensing of H2O. The measurement of H2O is important in many industrial applications, for example, continuous emission monitoring in combustion processes where the vapour concentration can be related to performance parameters, such as, efficiency of combustion and heat release. In this section we present data on DM laser diodes operating around λ = 1.877 μm. Fabricated DM lasers exhibit continuous wave (CW) mode hop free operation in the temperature range from 15 to 55°C with emission wavelengths centred at 1.87 μm at 25°C, and ex-facet optical output power >3 mW at 25°C.
A ridge waveguide 600 μm in length DM laser diode was die bonded to an aluminium nitride submount and the optical characteristics were measured under CW conditions. Figure 19 plots the overlapped CW measurement of ex-facet LI characteristics measured at chip temperatures of 15, 25, 35, 45 and 55°C, with the same power and wavelength measurement setup as mentioned in the previous section. The extracted threshold currents were 12, 15, 18, 22 and 29 mA at 15, 25, 35, 45 and 55°C, respectively. The measured slope efficiencies at 15 and 55°C were 0.038 and 0.022 W/A, respectively.
Overlapped CW LI curves as a function of heat sink temperature.
In Figure 20 the emission spectrum of the DM laser diode is measured at a heat sink temperature of 25°C and bias current of 100 mA. A peak wavelength of 1877 nm is demonstrated, with a side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) of ∼45 dB achieved, in excellent agreement with simulated values. In Figure 21a we plot the peak wavelength versus bias current as a function of laser submount temperature. The peak wavelength tunes linearly with bias current at a tuning rate of ∼0.017 nm/mA. In Figure 21b the optical emission spectrum over a wide temperature range, from −5 to 55°C, is plotted. The single mode peak lasing wavelength shows a linear dependence with current and temperature, with a tuning rate of Δλ/ΔI ∼0.017 nm/mA and Δλ/ΔT of 0.113 nm/oC, consistent with that expected due to the temperature-induced change in the refractive index [29].
Normalised optical emission spectrum at a bias current of 100 mA and heat sink temperature of 25°C with SMSR >45 dB demonstrated.
(a) Peak wavelength versus bias current over temperature. (b) Overlapped optical emission spectra versus heat sink temperature at a fixed laser bias current of 100 mA.
Wide gain bandwidth is demonstrated in Figure 22 where the DM peak wavelength is varied by changing the grating period wavelength tunability of 120 nm is achieved. This makes this material promising for widely-tunable mid-infrared single-mode devices such as DM arrays, external cavity lasers and sampled gratings. Eblana’s DM technology has been used to demonstrate single frequency lasers with high side mode suppression ratios spanning a wide wavelength range from 1.75 to 2.1 μm by using the appropriate InGaAs quantum well composition and thicknesses as shown in Figure 23.
Overlapped single frequency spectra of 10 different DM lasers demonstrating 120 nm wide gain for the 1.8 μm wafer.
Overlapped single frequency spectra of different DM lasers based on four InGaAs quantum wells wafers spanning the 1.7–2.15 μm wavelength region.
The wavelength and tuning results demonstrated by DM lasers in this chapter show that the devices operate at a single wavelength with SMSR >40 dB robustly over current and temperature variations and, furthermore, that these devices are highly suitable as low cost sources for TDLAS and other sensor applications. A further important feature of the DM laser diode is that its fabrication is far less complex than that of a distributed feedback laser diode resulting in a significant cost advantage.
In this chapter an overview in the current state of the art in mid-IR single mode lasers was presented and a low cost laser technology platform based on the InP material system for the manufacture of single mode laser diodes in the near to mid-IR wavelength range introduced. These DM lasers, are ridge waveguide Fabry Perot lasers whose emission spectra have been modified to produce a single mode operation. This modification is achieved during wafer processing by etching surface features into the ridge of an otherwise conventional ridge waveguide laser diode structure and therefore avoiding the need for grating overgrowth [35].
The basic principles underlying DM laser operation and their fabrication have been described. Basic static characteristics of the devices have been discussed and operation in the 1.6–2.1 μm spectral window demonstrated. The results demonstrate that InP-based light sources provide a promising concept for mid-infrared semiconductor diode lasers and are suitable for a range of sensor and other applications.
InP based diode lasers covering the 1.8–2.1 μm range have already reached a considerable level of maturity, as evidenced by the low threshold currents and good spectral performance as highlighted in Section 3. Thus current R&D focuses on the optimization of these lasers towards longer wavelengths >2.3 μm where specific application are in high demand.
This work was supported in part by the European project MODEGAP (FP/2007-2013 under grant agreement 258033) and by the European Space Agency (ESA) under contract reference ESTEC/ITT AO/1 7204/12/NL/NA.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. 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Use of batteries, fuel-cells, hybrid topographies with smaller IC engines and use of alternative fuels like methanol, ethanol, DME in the IC engines are some of the ways through which emission of green-house gases can reduced/eliminated. Diesel engines are highly efficient due to higher compression ratios and are used in the heavy-duty transportation vehicles. DME is a single molecule fuel having high cetane number and which can be used as a drop-in fuel on the diesel engines albeit with retro-fitment of these engines with a new pressurized fuel system. DME with a chemical formula CH3-O-CH3 can be produced by different feedstocks such as coal, natural gas, biomass and bio-waste and municipal solid waste. India has a large reserve of high ash coal and generates high quantities of biomass and MSW, all of which can be converted to DME by use of clean production technologies. India’s transport and industrial sectors consume about 100 billion liters of diesel fuel per year produced entirely from imported petroleum. This amount of diesel can be replaced by indigenously produced DME from locally available coal, biomass and MSW.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Anirudh Gautam and Ankita Singh"},{id:"81979",title:"The Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine Using Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil Blends and Conventional Diesel",slug:"the-influence-of-exhaust-gas-recirculation-on-performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-a-diesel-e",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105011",abstract:"Through an experimental study, this work focused on finding the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on waste plastic pyrolysis oils (WPPOs) with diesel as a base comparison fuel. The results show the amount of carbon monoxide emissions seemed to decrease at low engine loads up to intermediate loads of (50%), thereafter continued to increase significantly but marginally. Among fuels tested, blend WPPOB100 reported the highest BSFC, at 0% EGR flow rate. The value was 0.4751g/kW.hr. compared with 0.7235 g/kW.hr. at 30% EGR flow rate. Increased blend ratio had a direct decrease in brake power linearly. At 30% engine load, CD, WPPOB10, WPPOB20, WPPOB30 and WPPOB40 recorded values of 2.125 kW, 2.15 kW, 2.05 kW, 1.98 kW, 1.86 kW and 1.75 kW, respectively. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at 30% EGR flow rate, blend WPPOB10 had the highest reduction in temperature compared with the any other WPPO blends at 320°C. Increased blend ratio and EGR percentage flow rate increased smoke emissions within the test fuels blends. At 15% EGR flow rate, the following data were recorded: 7.53%, 7.1%, 6.72%, 6.25%, 6.0% and 5.4% for CD, WWPO10, WPPO20, WPPO30, WPPO40 and WPPO100, respectively.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Semakula Maroa and Freddie Inambao"},{id:"81895",title:"Performance and Emission Characteristics of Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel as Diesel Engine Fuel",slug:"performance-and-emission-characteristics-of-hydrogenation-derived-renewable-diesel-as-diesel-engine-",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104820",abstract:"Growing anxieties about the continued depletion of fossil fuel reserves, improving the performance of diesel engines, and mandates to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the search for alternative fuels for diesel engines more imperative. Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD) is recognized as a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective alternative to petroleum-based diesel (PBD) fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines. This may be because the physicochemical properties of HDRD are similar to that of PBD fuel. The current effort examines the performance and emission characteristics of HDRD in unmodified CI engines. Performance emissions characteristics such as power, torque, brake specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate matter, and exhaust gas temperature were interrogated and compared with that of PBD fuel in a CI engine. The outcome of the study shows that HDRD is better than biodiesel and a sustainable replacement for PDB fuel to achieve improved performance and reduced emissions of CI engines. Going forward, more investigations are needed to further simplify the preparation and democratize the utilization of HDRD as CI fuels for various applications.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Omojola Awogbemi, Daramy Vandi Von Kallon and Josiah Pelemo"},{id:"81114",title:"Research and Innovation to Improve the Efficiency of Modern Diesel Engines",slug:"research-and-innovation-to-improve-the-efficiency-of-modern-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102759",abstract:"Modern diesel engines are one of the main mobile energy sources and are characterized by a high degree of workflow completeness, design, and manufacturing technology. The chapter summarizes the authors’ experience in improving diesel engines, increasing specific volume power, and reliability, ensuring a low level of environmental pollution emissions. The results of research using industry 4.0 technologies for systematization, choice of directions, and the search for rational ways to improve the efficiency of diesel engines are presented. The application of anergo-exergy method for analyzing the efficiency of the working process of the engine and its systems is considered. Taking into consideration the operating conditions, technical solutions are proposed to improve the reliability of the most heat-stressed parts of high-powered engines. The possibilities for a comprehensive assessment of the fuel efficiency and environmental qualities of diesel engines have been expanded taking into account CO2 emissions when using traditional, alternative, and hybrid diesel fuel.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Andrіy Marchenko, Igor Parsadanov, Volodymyr Pylyov, Oleksandr Osetrov, Linkov Oleh, Serhii Kravchenko, Oleksandr Trynov, Denys Meshkov, Serhii Bilyk, Anatolii Savchenko, Inna Rykova and Rasoul Aryan"},{id:"81849",title:"A Comparative Evaluation of Biodiesel and Used Cooking Oil as Feedstock for HDRD Application: A Review",slug:"a-comparative-evaluation-of-biodiesel-and-used-cooking-oil-as-feedstock-for-hdrd-application-a-revie",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104393",abstract:"The search for clean energy for transportation fuel across the globe has grown in intensity. The use of biodiesel as a fuel for compression ignition (CI) engines has shown some deficiencies, e.g., poor storage, and poor pour point. The carbon chain of biodiesel is one of the factors to be considered; the longer carbon chain length leads to decreased ignition delay, which leads to the formation of OH during the premixed combustion phase. The major challenges that render biodiesel inefficient are discussed, like higher viscosity, lower energy content, higher nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions, lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high cost, and higher engine wear. The novelty of this work is that it shows that biodiesel conversion to green diesel is possible using a biowaste heterogeneous catalyst to obtain quality and high yield of HDRD with lower cost. This renewable energy (HDRD) possesses properties that are directly compatible with CI engines and transportation engines. This research reviewed biodiesel and UCO as feedstocks for the production of HDRD, including the cost–benefit of these feedstocks. Hydrogenation of biodiesel has the potential to overcome the drawbacks of conventional chemically catalyzed processes.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Josiah Pelemo, Kayode Timothy Akindeji, Freddie L. Inambao, Omojola Awogbemi and Emmanuel Idoko Onuh"},{id:"81447",title:"Feasibility of Biodiesel Production in Pakistan",slug:"feasibility-of-biodiesel-production-in-pakistan",totalDownloads:46,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101967",abstract:"Pakistan’s energy is mainly dependent on the imported fossil fuels as the explored fossil fuels of the country are insufficient to meet the country’s current energy needs. Meanwhile, these fossil fuels have negative environmental consequences and are too expensive to electrify remote areas. To address the country’s serious energy shortages, Pakistan’s Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) has suggested to introduce energy mix to meet the increasing energy demand and fuel the economy. Renewable energy endorsing unique environmentally friendly nature, constant supply, wider availability and ease of integration into existing infrastructure. Biodiesel is considered the best and most easily accessible source of energy among all renewable energy resources. However, there is still substantial room for development of renewable energies in Pakistan. This literature review examines the availability of biomass resources in Pakistan and their potential for meeting the country’s rapidly growing energy demand, boosting Country economy and creates new employments in the near future.",book:{id:"11164",title:"Diesel Engines and Biodiesel Engines Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11164.jpg"},signatures:"Juma Sahar, Muhammad Farooq, Anita Ramli and Abdul Naeem"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/107752",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"107752"},fullPath:"/profiles/107752",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()