Assessment criteria for existing Thames Water pipeline and sewer assets (reproduced from Ref. [20]).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5984",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"A Multidisciplinary Look at Menopause",title:"Menopause",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Look at",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Menopause is a natural state of development in women, but it is also a period of vulnerability to the development of several disorders, such as vasomotor symptoms, hot flashes, vaginal dryness, osteoporosis, cognitive deterioration, depression, and anxiety. Factors as diverse as culture, diet, exercise, maternity, age, and genetics can influence the severity of symptoms that are experienced during menopause and can modify the response to diverse therapies. Studying menopause from a multidisciplinary perspective will help elucidate the different factors that affect health during this specific stage of a woman's life. This book presents several aspects of menopause, including its evolutionary origins, novel nonhormonal therapies, and the neurobiology of related disorders.",isbn:"978-953-51-3406-0",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3405-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4708-4",doi:"10.5772/66558",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"a-multidisciplinary-look-at-menopause",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8608e36ebed0f1f01881486213b5f7df",bookSignature:"Juan Francisco Rodriguez-Landa and Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo",publishedDate:"August 16th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5984.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11361,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:48,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 2nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"45702",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Landa",slug:"juan-francisco-rodriguez-landa",fullName:"Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45702/images/system/45702.png",biography:"Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa received his doctorate degree in Psychology (Behavioral Neuroscience) from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). He is a full-time researcher at the Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Neuroethology, Universidad Veracruzana. He is a lecturer in Neuropsychopharmacology and belongs to the National System of Investigators (SNI 2) and Mexican Academy of Sciences. His research interests include the effects of neurosteroids and natural products on anxiety, depression, and neuronal activity in some brain structures related to anxiety and depression disorders. He has published multiple specialized scientific papers, book chapters, and books. He is an expert journal peer reviewer and active member of the European Behavioral Pharmacology Society, International Society for Neuroethology, and Mexican Society of Physiological Sciences, among others.",institutionString:"Universidad Veracruzana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Universidad Veracruzana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"199455",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Cueto-Escobedo",slug:"jonathan-cueto-escobedo",fullName:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199455/images/system/199455.jpeg",biography:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo received his doctorate degree in Psychology (Behavioral Neuroscience) from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. He is currently a researcher at the Institute of Health Sciences, Universidad Veracruzana and a member of the National System of Investigators (SNI I). His research interests include experimental models of anxiety and depression, neurobiology of behavior, particularly addiction and food intake as a reward with a translational perspective. He has published 10 book chapters and 13 scientific papers and made more than 20 presentations at international conferences. He has also published several works of science divulgation. He has lectured at several universities in México, including the University of Xalapa, University of Veracruz, University of Guadalajara, University of Tlaxcala, and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.",institutionString:"Institute of Neuroetology, University of Veracruz",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidad Veracruzana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1068",title:"Menopausal and Geriatric Gynecology",slug:"menopausal-and-geriatric-gynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"56413",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Multidisciplinary Look at Menopause",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70114",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-multidisciplinary-look-at-menopause",totalDownloads:1186,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Juan Francisco Rodríguez‐Landa and Jonathan Cueto‐Escobedo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56413",authors:[{id:"45702",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",surname:"Rodríguez-Landa",slug:"juan-francisco-rodriguez-landa",fullName:"Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa"},{id:"199455",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Cueto-Escobedo",slug:"jonathan-cueto-escobedo",fullName:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"55275",title:"Menopause Female Reproductive Senescence from the Viewpoint of Evolutionary Anthropology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68682",slug:"menopause-female-reproductive-senescence-from-the-viewpoint-of-evolutionary-anthropology",totalDownloads:1508,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Female reproductive senescence is characterized by the so‐called menopausal transition taking place between the ages of 40 and 60 years. The major event of menopausal transition is menopause itself, which is biomedically defined as the cessation of menstrual function and the irreversible termination of female reproductive capability. Recent human females experience a postreproductive period from about 30 years. Such a long postreproductive period is absolutely uncommon among animals. Consequently, human menopause is still an evolutionary puzzle and several theories to explain the evolutionary basis of menopause have been presented. Menopausal transition, however, is also seen as a period of increased somatic and psychic symptoms which make this phase of life quite uncomfortable for affected women. In the present study, menopause and climacteric complaints are discussed from the viewpoint of evolutionary anthropology.",signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55275",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}],corrections:null},{id:"56061",title:"Menopause in Nonhuman Primates: A Comparative Study with Humans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69657",slug:"menopause-in-nonhuman-primates-a-comparative-study-with-humans",totalDownloads:1679,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although menopause is a phenomenon predominantly studied in humans or laboratory animals, this chapter discussed the case of nonhuman primates (NHPs), not only with the objective of employing them as study models but also to better understand phylogenetic divergence among species. Those taxonomic differences are reflected in reproductive processes that may be similar to those of human beings, with the presence of a defined cycle or periods of estrus, but perhaps at different ages as well, where menopause plays a crucial role. First, it is important to delimit the concept of menopause by considering its anatomical, physiological, and biochemical parameters, including the cessation of menstrual bleeding or perineal swelling—when present—or follicular depletion and hormonal changes. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to discuss some of the similarities between NHPs and human females, during the menopause period. Studying these phenomena should help us achieve a better understanding of the social, physiological, and environmental factors without adopting any particular cultural view of menopause.",signatures:"María de Jesús Rovirosa-Hernández, Marisela Hernández González,\nMiguel Ángel Guevara-Pérez, Francisco García-Orduña, Abril de los\nÁngeles Aguilar-Tirado, Abraham Puga-Olguín and Brisa Patricia\nVásquez-Domínguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56061",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56061",authors:[{id:"174651",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Puga-Olguín",slug:"abraham-puga-olguin",fullName:"Abraham Puga-Olguín"},{id:"203584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma De Jesus",surname:"Rovirosa Hernandez",slug:"ma-de-jesus-rovirosa-hernandez",fullName:"Ma De Jesus Rovirosa Hernandez"},{id:"203585",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco",surname:"García-Orduña",slug:"francisco-garcia-orduna",fullName:"Francisco García-Orduña"},{id:"203586",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisela",surname:"Hernández-González",slug:"marisela-hernandez-gonzalez",fullName:"Marisela Hernández-González"},{id:"203587",title:"Dr.",name:"Abril De Los Ángeles",surname:"Aguilar-Tirado",slug:"abril-de-los-angeles-aguilar-tirado",fullName:"Abril De Los Ángeles Aguilar-Tirado"},{id:"206508",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Angel",surname:"Guevara-Pérez",slug:"miguel-angel-guevara-perez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Guevara-Pérez"},{id:"206510",title:"Dr.",name:"Brisa",surname:"Vásquez-Domínguez",slug:"brisa-vasquez-dominguez",fullName:"Brisa Vásquez-Domínguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56181",title:"Psychological and Social Aspects of Menopause",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69078",slug:"psychological-and-social-aspects-of-menopause",totalDownloads:2563,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Menopause is one of the age-related phases of physiological transition of females. There is robust research and information regarding its biological aspects specially its endocrine base, yet the psychosocial aspect is quite interesting and debatable due to its variability among different cultures and climates. There are certain subthreshold response in form fear and loss of reproductive life to no more ability to reproduce and a feeling of loss of femininity. The period of menstruation simulated to reproductive age or fertility is around half of their lives; therefore, loss of fertility or reproductive life may be a source of stress specially among tribes where long reproductive age period is desired on the cultural belief that this will lead to a large family size that is considered as a symbol of success. Psychological factors such personal or inter-psychic (personality, self-esteem, and coping skills) and intra-psychic (relationship issues and social support) may contribute in the onset, course, and repose to perimenopausal period. There are certain psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depressive disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric syndrome related to premenopausal period that must be screened. Before embarking on pharmacological treatment, psychosocial intervention especially lifestyle modifications must be offered to avoid complications.",signatures:"Iqbal Afridi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56181",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56181",authors:[{id:"203383",title:"Prof.",name:"Iqbal",surname:"Afridi",slug:"iqbal-afridi",fullName:"Iqbal Afridi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56195",title:"Depression and Serotonergic Changes during the Climacteric and Postmenopausal Stages: Hormonal Influences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69786",slug:"depression-and-serotonergic-changes-during-the-climacteric-and-postmenopausal-stages-hormonal-influe",totalDownloads:1528,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Depression is a psychiatric disorder that affects a high percentage of women. Most of the depression disorders turn up during the premenopause and perimenopause stages when the hormonal oscillations make an impact in the brain function principally on the serotonergic system, which is related to neurobiology of depression. 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors change on functionality and density in afferent areas related to emotional modulation and increased serotonin clearance, and the binding potential of serotonin transport has been related to the underlying mechanism of the depression during the climacteric or postmenopausal stage. Some findings have been proven on preclinical studies. These studies on animals have recognized how estrogen treatment activates intracellular signaling pathways as mitogen-activated protein (MAP)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), tyrosine kinase brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor (TrKB), insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3)/serine/threonine-specific protein kinase (Akt), and metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) which interact with the serotonergic system to allow establishment of the estradiol effects on mood regulation. Thus, the interaction between the woman’s reproductive status and the serotonin changes could be useful to create prevention strategies, early diagnosis, and medical treatment of climacteric and postmenopausal women with depression, in order to improve their quality of life.",signatures:"Rosa Isela García-Ríos, Armando Mora-Pérez and Cesar Soria-\nFregozo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56195",authors:[{id:"174653",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Isela",surname:"García-Ríos",slug:"rosa-isela-garcia-rios",fullName:"Rosa Isela García-Ríos"},{id:"174654",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Soria-Fregozo",slug:"cesar-soria-fregozo",fullName:"Cesar Soria-Fregozo"},{id:"198327",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",surname:"Mora-Perez",slug:"armando-mora-perez",fullName:"Armando Mora-Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56089",title:"Use of Phytoestrogens for the Treatment of Psychiatric Symptoms Associated with Menopause Transition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69541",slug:"use-of-phytoestrogens-for-the-treatment-of-psychiatric-symptoms-associated-with-menopause-transition",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Menopause transition is recognized as a vulnerable period in women life to develop or aggravate symptoms of psychiatric disorders. Several treatments including antidepressants and hormonal restitution with estrogens have been suggested to ameliorate the symptoms. Also, in this period of life is frequent the use of other drugs to treat is also frequent the use of other drugs to treat comorbid pathologies that might even increase the risk of drug-drug interactions. Literature reports that some phytochemicals with estrogenic activity have beneficial effects during menopausal transition without collateral events. This chapter shows evidence about the use of phytoestrogens as an alternative therapy for the treatment of some psychiatric symptoms associated with the menopausal transition. Data derived from preclinical research related to the use of classical phytoestrogens (isoflavones), considering the beneficial effects, as well as adverse events, are discussed. Also, the use of polyphenols and organosulfurate compounds as an alternative for the treatment of anxiety- and depressive-like behavior as well as fibromyalgia is included. A narrative review was conducted using bibliography reporting the use of isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, equol), coumestans or lignans for the reduction of depressive-like or anxiety-like behavior. Furthermore, it is described if the use of this compounds impact in other signs of menopause, i.e. vasomotor and osteoporosis. In addition, due to the high frequency of comorbid pathologies as diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia or metabolic syndrome with psychiatric disorders, the use of these phytochemicals is discussed.",signatures:"Erika Estrada-Camarena, Carolina López-Rubalcava, Brenda Valdés-\nSustaita, Gabriel Sinhue Azpilcueta-Morales and Eva María\nGonzález-Trujano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56089",authors:[{id:"114710",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika",surname:"Estrada-Camarena",slug:"erika-estrada-camarena",fullName:"Erika Estrada-Camarena"},{id:"200969",title:"Prof.",name:"Carolina",surname:"López Rubalcava",slug:"carolina-lopez-rubalcava",fullName:"Carolina López Rubalcava"},{id:"200970",title:"MSc.",name:"Brenda",surname:"Valdés Sustaita",slug:"brenda-valdes-sustaita",fullName:"Brenda Valdés Sustaita"},{id:"200971",title:"BSc.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Azpilcueta",slug:"gabriel-azpilcueta",fullName:"Gabriel Azpilcueta"},{id:"207957",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",surname:"Gonzalez-Trujano",slug:"eva-gonzalez-trujano",fullName:"Eva Gonzalez-Trujano"}],corrections:null},{id:"55829",title:"The Benefits of Physical Activity on Climacteric Women",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68829",slug:"the-benefits-of-physical-activity-on-climacteric-women",totalDownloads:1250,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As the population ages, there is a need of developing ways to prevent or revert the deleterious effects of aging, especially in climacteric women who suffer with the problems caused by hormonal changes. Exercise is a nonmedicated intervention that can be applied on that population. The benefits of physical activity can positively change body composition, increase levels of muscular strength, balance, and functional capacity. Strength training, aerobic exercise, whole body vibration, and aquatic exercises are some of the modalities that health professionals can prescript to these individuals. Although there are many studies about these exercises, a technique called blood flow restriction is emerging as an alternative to high load exercises but with the same benefits.",signatures:"Simoni T. Bittar, José O.R. de Macêdo, Elisio A. Pereira Neto,\nHidayane G. da Silva, Patrick A.S. Pfeiffer, Janine A. Padilha, Wagner\nV. dos Santos and Maria do S. 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These may include, depending on the type of bridge, temporary supports for precast girders or beams, box structures, and temporary staging for cast in-situ construction of the deck, and may also involve specialist operations for complex forms of bridge, e.g., post-tensioning. Many projects focus on optimising the concrete volumes and steel tonnage but a very few focus on how best to integrate temporary works and buildability concepts into the permanent design at the early stages.
Temporary works (TW) are the parts of a construction project that are needed to enable the permanent works to be built. Usually the TW are removed after use—e.g. access scaffolds, props, shoring, excavation support, falsework, and formwork, etc. It may be possible that sometimes the TW an integral part of the permanent works—e.g. props for excavation can be used as part of permanent steelworks, haul road foundations and crane or piling platforms may be used for hard standing or road foundations. In view of safety, it is very important that the same degree of care and attention is given to the design and construction of temporary works (TW) as to the design and construction of the permanent works. As TW may be in place for only a short during the construction phase of the project, there is a tendency to assume they are less important. Lack of care with design, selection, assembly, etc. leaves TW liable to fail or collapse [1]. This places people at risk of injury and can cause the project to be delayed. Therefore it is important to ensure that the methods, materials, and sequence of construction is thought through with the construction team during early stages and that the risks to the structure as well as the third-party asset owners are resolved.
Where bridges form features of modern infrastructure in densely populated cities and urban areas, the designers will be challenged with site logistics, narrow and busy streets, and third party assets such as railways, underground tunnels, and buried services and it is extremely important in these cases to be more diligent about designing for safety of the temporary works. While the principles can be applied to all bridges, this paper does not cover large suspension bridges on water.
Although there were bridge failures in 1950s in USA, Canada and other parts of the world, much of the development in temporary works design in UK was improved when Barton Bridge, Lodden Bridge [2, 3, 4] in 1960s and 1970s collapsed during construction and the government was moved to determine whether the industry was in a fit state to manage falsework. Following these major failures in the UK, Professor Stephen Bragg report [4], helped to set the standard for temporary works design and management in the UK. Major failures of UK temporary works have almost disappeared since BS 5975 [5] was published in 1982, following the Bragg report in 1975 into recent falsework disasters in which many lost their lives. In the UK, the design of temporary support trestles would normally comply with the requirements of BS 5975 [6] unless the use of Eurocode 12811 [6] and EN 12812 [7], is stipulated as a contractual requirement. More recently, a Temporary Works forum (TWf) was formed in 2009 [8] in the UK as an independent, non-profit company that operates on a limited cost base. Useful guidance and toolkit and guidance documents are produced by TWf that address the issues of temporary works and applicability of Eurocodes for safer construction in the UK [9]. The general principles of these tool kits generated by the TWf are applicable worldwide.
More recently, the Institutions of Civil Engineers and Institution of Structural Engineers (UK) formed an independent body called SCOSS/CROSS [10] Structural Safety Body in 2005. This Structural-Safety Body is a body devoted to evaluating, and anticipating where possible, trends in the construction industry and issuing warnings where necessary. A confidential (anonymous) reporting system called ‘CROSS [10]’ broadcasts events which it believes should be more widely known.
While UK standards are developed to a fuller extent to eliminate the catastrophic events in temporary work through the introduction codes, guidance documents [11, 12] we still see that failures occur for various reasons. A publication in ICE Forensic Engineering summarised failures in bridges until 2012 [13] and more than 60 major catastrophic failures across the world have been reported since 2012 to date [14] including the most recent failure in Florida. A few more recent failures are reviewed from the literature survey in this paper to highlight the importance of temporary works.
This paper describes briefly the existing construction techniques of bridges, and reviews more recent failures. There are many types of bridges and but this paper summarises a brief literature survey of current construction methods for precast, prefabricated, and cast-in-situ bridges.
This paper summarises typical scenarios in urban and rural environments and considers a few case histories with a view on how to safely manage the risks associated with the construction of bridges in an urban environment. Most forms of bridge construction, whether preassembled or cast-in-situ will require temporary works on site. These may include, depending on the type of bridge, temporary supports for precast girders or beams, box structures, and temporary staging for cast-in-situ construction of the deck, and may also involve specialist operations for complex forms of bridge, e.g. post-tensioning. Many projects focus on optimising the concrete volumes and steel tonnage but a very few focus on how best to integrate temporary works and buildability concepts into the permanent design at the early stages.
Precast concrete members in bridge systems are appealing because they lend themselves well to incorporating Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) methods. In some cases, ABC also includes integral column and cap beam systems for bridges utilising precast concrete girders which have several advantages over structures consisting of steel girders or cast-in-place concrete alternatives as shown in Figure 1 [15, 16].
Precast girders with GRP deck panels for in situ deck.
For single-span bridge decks, temporary support is normally undertaken directly from the abutment bearing shelf or equivalent and this is relatively straightforward. Beams to multi-span bridge decks may require a more complex temporary support system. If the beams are designed in short lengths until they stitched, they will require a temporary support. A common solution is to provide a temporary trestle support either on a temporary foundation or on the permanent foundation of the piers. Beams are landed on the trestle that supports the bridge deck structure until such time that it becomes self-supporting. These trestles can cost significant sums and involve extensive working at height.
Given the consequences of failure and the difficulty of correcting issues that manifest themselves following landing of bridge beams, a robust temporary support structure is a necessity. Factors of safety (as per permissible stress design, e.g. BS 5975) and design factors (as per limit state design, e.g. Eurocodes [17, 18]) can be used amended by the designer to reflect the above. Safety can also be enhanced by building redundancy into the structure. Unless reasonable calculations are made of the specifics, there should be reasonable margins in the design for uneven distribution of load, accidental load and out-of-tolerance assembly.
In the case of steel structures, and launching steel bridge girders, we may need temporary trestles on temporary foundations. These trestles will require careful consideration due to the launching operations as their stability under dynamic conditions is of utmost importance.
The trestles are generally designed for dead loads, live loads, moving dynamic loads, notional horizontal loads, secondary forces from mis-alignment and will in some cases have impact loads if they are near a live highway.
Segmental construction is one of the most important developments in construction in the last century and is a very well proven method for delivering durable, long span, and repetitive structures that are both cost-effective and visually appealing.
Segmental concrete construction can be executed in two ways: using precast elements or through cast-in-place construction.
The advantages offered by precast elements are mainly related to fabrication, conducted in a plant that produces more consistency in quality products and where segments can be fabricated in parallel with early field construction activities, thus improving scheduling. The main challenges involved with precast segmental construction lie in the logistics and the setup process between the casting yard and the construction site. This includes a large temporary work system involving specialist materials and jacks, and large movable gantry parts.
Alternatively, cast-in-place construction requires that a substructure be completed prior to fabrication of the superstructure. Cast-in-place segmental construction is used when precast segments are too heavy to be shipped or access to the site is too restrictive, which can occur as spans get longer or bridges get wider.
Construction time is a key factor for projects in urban areas which require lane closures, detours, and traffic interruptions to be minimised. Precast concrete segments are often optimal as they can be built and stored until needed for erection, thus reducing the on-site time of large equipment and construction activities, thus increasing the pace of construction. Figure 2 shows a multi span bridge over a busy highway built using precast and GRP panels for deck.
Precast beams and cats in situ deck with GRP panels for formwork over existing highway–4 span bridge.
The choice between precast or cast-in-place primarily depends upon project size, construction schedule, weight of segments, and site access.
The balanced cantilever construction method is used when several spans ranging from 50 to 250 m exist. Bridges using this method can be either precast or cast-in-place. Once the piers are built, they are used as an erection platform for precast segments, or to support a form traveller for cast-in-place segments.
This method can also be easily adapted to irregular and long span lengths, congested project sites, rough and water terrain, rail crossings, and environmentally sensitive areas.
The cantilever method is the preferred method for building cable-stayed bridges. Once segments are installed, they are supported by new cable-stays in each erection stage. Since no auxiliary supports are required, it is both an economical and practical solution for long cable-stayed bridges.
As can be seen from the above, all of the techniques will require sophisticated forms of temporary works to enable safe construction. Despite much regulation and improvement in methods/processes in temporary works design, we are still, unfortunately, experiencing catastrophic accidents in bridges (examples include Barton bridge in Manchester in 2016 failure of lifting systems revealed and a 2019 failure in Norway failure of bolts). The failures of temporary works can be grouped into the following main areas;
Scaffold collapse
Failure of the lifting equipment, or temporary bearings
Insufficient design capacity of a cantilevered arm of the cantilevered construction
Girder and connection failures
Design and detailing errors
Incorrect construction sequence
Negligence and construction errors
If the temporary structures are located close to third party assets, there are further risks that are very expensive to correct there are explained in the following section. The paper covers bridges on land and in populated areas and will not cover large suspension bridges on water.
At bridge construction sites in the urban environment, it is not uncommon to come across: party walls, railways, existing grade listed buildings, existing underground utilities and live highways and riverways. The bridge design and construction will have to address how these asset owners can be protected including the safety of public road and railway users where applicable. The requirements of the asset owners may vary but the fundamental aspect of the construction logistics is to ensure that all assets and owners are protected and public safety is ensured. As per the CDM regulations in UK [18], the design and construction should also address life cycle management and also demolition at the end of design life [19].
Injuries are usually caused by the explosive effects of arcing current, and by any associated fire or flames that may result, when a live cable is penetrated by a sharp object such as the point of a tool. Such effects can also occur when a cable is crushed severely enough to cause internal contact between the conductors. Injuries are typically severe, potentially fatal, burns to the hands, face and body. There is also a risk of electric shock.
Inadvertent contact or being in close proximity to overhead electricity lines with equipment such as scaffold tubes, irrigation pipes, metal ladders or vehicles, such as cranes, poses a risk of electric shock. Direct contact with overhead lines is not necessary as electrical current can arc or flashover any gap between the overhead lines and the object. It is therefore important to ensure sufficient clearances for overhead lines are maintained and plant/surcharge loading is restricted from trestle foundations.
Damage to underground gas pipes can cause leaks that immediate or time related that may lead to fire or explosion. The ground pressure from trestles or crane mats or outrigger could pose a risk to the stability of the gas pipes and therefore a risk assessment is required from the surcharge loading.
Although damage to water pipes is less likely to result in injury, the following may occur;
A jet of water from a main can injure a person.
Leaks of water from underground pipes can affect adjacent services and reduce support for other structures.
Damage to, or removal of thrust blocks can result in sudden loss of containment and the movement of pipe fittings that may travel some distance or cause impact damage. While some sewage is pumped at pressure, sewers are generally gravity-fed, and the main hazards from damage to a sewer are the possibilities of contamination and subsidence.
The type of materials for these water/sewage pipes, will include brick, cast iron, ductile iron, clay or concrete. Some asset owners, will give limitations on the surcharge loading and acceptance criterion for ground settlements or strain, an example of which is shown below from Thames water UK [20]. Current regulations in UK will require a risk assessment before placing any temporary foundations or surcharge on these assets (Tables 1 and 2).
Assessment criteria for existing Thames Water pipeline and sewer assets (reproduced from Ref. [20]).
Maximum rotation for vitrified clay and concrete pipes.
Damage to telecommunication and TV cables may require expensive repairs and can cause considerable disruption to those relying on the system, especially emergency or essential services. The risks of direct personal injury are normally low, but claims for consequential losses may be substantial.
It is important to ensure that surcharge loading from temporary foundation on buried cables is limited.
In addition to the above utility services, the presence of other pipes and cables should be anticipated. These include fuel oil pipes at States housing developments and private/security electricity and telecommunications cables. Risk assessment will be required on a case by case basis to suit to owners’ requirement.
Any movement of tunnels if they are underground or above ground (cut and cover) is very critical for the performance and therefore the asset owners will have very stringent requirements for the movement temporary works plant around these structures. Generally clearances need to be maintained between the plant and the assets and this will vary depending on the depth of the asset below the ground. No plant can operate within these zones while constructing the bridges. An example of the Cross Rail exclusion zone in London [20] is shown in Figure 3.
Exclusion zone limits for crossrail underground lines (figure reproduced from Ref. [
These include third party buildings, existing walls of private owners, and grade listed buildings. Generally, if the temporary works for bridge construction works are carried out by the contractor near these assets, he will have to ensure that the damage to either Partywalls or nearby listed grade buildings is minimal. In UK, there are party wall agreements on movements and crackwidths as per Boscardin guidelines [22].
In order to manage the risks from bridge construction operations, it is necessary to prepare a carefully coordinated construction method statement with all the supply chain involved and which includes the sequence, hazard identification, and a risk assessment. A management procedure is required to manage the residual risks on site and contingency measures to mitigate or control the risks.
Catastrophic events in construction are real issues which require proper consideration by all stakeholders, led by directors and senior staff.
These potentially catastrophic events are sometimes referred to as ‘Top Events’. It is appreciated that they can have a disastrous impact on a company’s reputation and well-being and upon society. The process of examining the risk of a catastrophic event requires that a ‘safety case’ is prepared, based upon a safety risk assessment.
CIRIA and HSE UK reports [23, 24] have looked at the risks of ‘Catastrophic Events’ in the UK construction industry and summarised its findings in the report. This report identified the types of events, reason for occurrence, and control measures and included:
The types of catastrophic event which have occurred or which might occur during construction
The reasons for occurrence when there have been (or could have been) catastrophic events during construction, including an examination of the underlying factors
The controls which would contribute to an avoidance of a catastrophic event
Where the UK construction industry could improve
It was clear that there have been Catastrophic Events with major consequences. Their importance was recognised by the industry, although it is considered that in their day-to-day work few people realised the severity of what might happen if things went seriously wrong.
The key issues proposed in this reports are as follows:
Issue 1: The industry should recognise that catastrophic events need further attention
Issue 2: Corporate risk management systems should be improved
Issue 3: Knowledge, skills and experience of safety risk management should be raised
Issue 4: Communication and interface management should be improved
Issue 5: Competence is key
Issue 6: Effective management of temporary works is crucial to success
Issue 7: Independent reviews should be employed
Issue 8: The industry should learn from experience.
Method statements and drawings need to fully detail all aspects of the works. All safety critical items and hold points/permits to load should be identified.
Low likelihood/high severity items are to be given careful consideration with appropriate monitoring at all levels.
More invasive questioning and understanding of sub-contractor’s Method Statements and Risk Assessments
The terms used in risk assessment vary considerably in the literature. In this report, a harm is defined as an adverse effect on a person. It might be, for example, a serious illness or injury, but effects on well-being are also taken into account. A hazard is a potential cause of harm to a person, for example a faulty staircase. A hazardous situation exists when a person is exposed to a hazard, for example by using a faulty staircase. The risk associated with a hazard is a function of (a) the likelihood of the hazard causing harm and (b) the severity of the harms or their consequences.
Safe systems of work shall comprise:
Assess the risks.
Plan the work - obtain all information relating to the work carried out.
Check that the plans are accurate.
Carry out the work in a safe manner.
At all stages THINK and REVIEW.
The assessment of risk should be considered at all stages of the work, from planning through to final reinstatement. This may be accomplished by the use of formal risk assessments coupled, where necessary, with a work permit system. Risk assessment should include all related work activities and identify training and competency needs as well as the level of supervision required for the risks involved [10].
Sometimes, it is necessary to carry out trials on site before the bridge structure construction begins. This may take include some mock structures to be built on site to validate all the assumptions in the design. The purpose is to ensure that the sequence of construction can be carried out safely. Examples include test loading on the trestles or surcharge loading, and monitoring of displacements etc. and mock assembly in case of structural steel joints. Eurocodes can be implemented to optimise the temporary works design if suitable testing is carried out.
In the following section, we give more recent literature survey of failures in the temporary works that involved public and third party asset owners and give additional examples of how we have managed the risks (as explained in Sections 3 and 4) during the construction for the projects in which Sir Robert McAlpine and their joint partners were involved. Our recent project also demonstrate how we have used trials on site for back analysis and how monitoring was carried out to improve the confidence in predictions and stakeholder assurances.
In the UK the First Barton bridge collapsed in 1959 whilst erecting 4 No, 200 ton steel girders, 80 ft. above the ground [3, 14]. The supporting scaffolding collapsed bringing down the girders and killing 4 men. Sixty men, that would normally have been on the girders, were lining up for their pay at the time. Ironically after 57 years, at the same location in 2016, temporary lifting system failed collapsing a major chunk of the new bridge span across the river as shown in Figure 4a and b.
(a) Barton bridge scaffold collapse (1959) and (b) lifting failure of a modern bridge (2016) (figures reproduced from Refs. [
GE19 is an 84 m long, single span Warren truss girder bridge on a 3.3% gradient from East to West with a bridge weighed 1300 tonnes post launch and had an In-situ deck on ‘Omnia’ permanent formwork [25]. Minimum clearance of 650 mm to overhead lines. It was found that the bridge had moved longitudinally 38 mm out of position post launch. This necessitated corrective plan jacking that had not been envisaged during pre-planning. At approximately 19:15 hours on 28th May 2008, an hour after work had stopped, the site security guard heard three loud bangs. The Bridge deck had dropped by approx. 200 mm resulting in damage to scaffolding and bearings. Five planks fell onto the live rail below the bridge, ponded water onto the overhead lines and track and the track had to be closed. There were no injuries to any members of the public or employees. PTFE material had been placed on a slope, the vertical load of the bridge generated a horizontal force component. The presence of a second slip plane allowed the wedge of packing between the PTFE surface and bearing surface to be ejected as in Figure 5. A similar incident did not occur at the West abutment because the permanent bearings were of a fixed type and hence did not fail (see Figure 6).
Temporary bearing.
Bridge launch over railway (reproduced from Ref. [
In March 2019 the temporary works of a motorway bridge near Ancona, Italy, shown in Figure 7 [26] failed with the immediate collapse of the bridge deck onto cars passing below sadly killing two members of the public [14, 26]. The motorway was subsequently closed. An example of both the human and financial consequences of errors in construction. A design error was blamed for the collapse of the bridge.
Colombian bridge failure (reproduced from Ref. [
Two people were killed and 19 injured when the formwork supporting the under-construction bridge collapsed unexpectedly in 2016 shown in Figure 8 [27]. The initial inquiry showed that some of the site inspection registers for the period just before the collapse were not available [27].
Collapse of temporary supports 2018 (figure reproduced from Ref. [
A Hydrogen embrittlement crack has been identified as causing the failure of one of the cable anchor bolts of the Norway Halogaland Bridge shortly after installation shown in Figure 9 [28]. The initial enquiry showed that that the root cause of the cracking is the hydrogen exposure of the bolts. It is not known if the bolts were exposed to Hydrogen during manufacturing, transportation or at the site.
Hydrogen cracking in bolts (figure reproduced from Ref. [
Incorrect positioning of temporary bearings during incremental launching was identified as the primary cause of the fatal 1998 Injaka Bridge collapse in South Africa [29].
Inexperienced design and construction staff, poor construction quality control and a failure to react to a ‘clear warning that all was not well’ with the structure, led to the disaster. At 300 m long, 14 m wide and up to 37 m above the river bed, Injaka Bridge was a major structure and the consultant and contractor had extensive experience with such incrementally launched post-tensioned structures. The collapse occurred after the contractor had slid out five of the 20, 15 m long sections of the 3 m deep box section deck. The sixth segment was being jacked as the structure collapsed. At that point the concrete deck extended 24.4 m beyond pier 2 with the leading edge of the 27 m long launching nose projecting 7.1 m beyond pier 3.
The primary cause of the collapse was found to have been the positioning of temporary bearings on which the deck structure slid out during construction as shown in Figure 10.
Failure of a multi span bridge (figure reproduced from Ref. [
The initial investigation showed that where the tow truss members meet, at joint 11, there was overestimation of the capacity and under estimation of the loads as shown in Figures 11 and 12 [25, 30, 31].
Florida Bridge collapse, 2019 (reproduced from Ref. [
Node 11 failure (reproduced from Ref. [
Examples of case studies from our recent project experience published by the author in various reports (internal and external) are outlined below. These case studies show how the temporary works design should address the stake holder’s expectations in managing risks. Five case histories discussed here show the importance of design, checking, and monitoring and back analysis.
An example of assets affected by the bridge launch—temporary trestle foundations next to network rail assets, and piling plant and movement of construction plant on the sensitive underground railway tunnels (Figure 13).
Bridge launch.
Assessments were carried out to ensure that the settlements, and movements and surcharge loadings were managed. Monitoring was carried out to gain confidence in the predictions and to ensure that mitigation measures can be placed (Figure 14).
General arrangement plan and section showing trestles, UG services, tunnels, and network rail.
The road bridge is on the new spur off the A8 into the new headquarters for the Royal Bank of Scotland. The bridge deck was being erected on temporary trestles, located on either side of the road and in the central reservation. The box girders will be lifted into place in half span sections, each weighing approximately 73 T. Secondary beams span between the box girders to support the deck. The deck was cast on ‘omnia plank’ permanent formwork. The sequence is depicted in Figure 15 and the temporary trestles that required design for impact loads are shown in Figure 16.
Erection sequence of the bridge, trestle.
Temporary trestles near live highway.
The arch was being erected in three sections. Each of the two outer pieces was supported by the bearing plate at one end and a trestle on top of the deck at the other.
Finally the centre section was dropped in to complete the arch. The arch was welded together, 25 m above the road. Ten tension rods support the bridge in the centre.
As a part of the M74 completion project in Glasgow, Sir Robert McAlpine Design group, working closely with the site based Joint Venture, has been responsible for many elements of design and checking for the West section of the work [31]. Included in the West section is a 1350 m length of an elevated structure formed of trapezoidal steel girders with in-situ concrete deck and parapets. This section passes over three sections of the overground line which are a part of Network Rails assets; the Paisley Line, the Cook Street Link, and the West Coast Mainline. Parts are also close to a section of the Strathclyde Passenger Transport (SPT) underground line.
With the exception of the West Coast Mainline section, the steel sections were lifted in place using mobile cranes. These sections were supported on temporary trestles whilst they were welded. The section of superstructure spanning over a 65 m wide cutting containing the West Coast mainline was installed by launching the bridge as shown in Figure 17a. A 235 m long, 4200 tonne section was formed to the West of the cutting, complete with a section of in situ deck and parapet, and then launched a total of 166 m during a series of short night-time possessions. The cantilever distance to the first temporary trestle support beyond the cutting is 89 m. In order to ensure safety to both Public and the existing network rail assets, the temporary works design included the following and was developed collaboratively with the supply chain partners in the joint venture project.
Assessment of the ground was necessary for designing working platforms for all the plant and craneage required for the steel lifts. Outrigger loads from the cranes were up to 4200 kN, with 6000 kN of superlift loadings.
Assessing the effect of the applied loads on the Scotland Public Transport (SPT) infrastructure.
Design of frames and anchored rock netting to protect Network Rail assets during piling and pier construction operations adjacent to the railway cutting.
Design of temporary support trestles and their support piles to take the vertical and horizontal loads applied during the bridge launch operations. The calculated vertical loads were up to 18,000 kN on a single temporary leg under the worst case loading. The design of the trestles evolved as work proceeded as exploratory works were carried out in advance of the piling and services or obstructions were encountered:
One pair of temporary trestle bases was cast adjacent to a Network Rail Retaining and within a main road. The design had to take account of the need to avoid unacceptable movements to the nearby masonry retaining wall.
The six 1200 mm piles to each base had to be installed in locations which avoided impacting on three gas mains, electric cables and a brick sewer.
Design of additional support walls to take the bridge launch loads on the pile caps under the temporary loading conditions.
(a) Launch of the bridge over the live highway and railway, (b) aerial photo of the launch (extract from Ref. [
Working collaboratively with our supply chain partners, loads on each of the trestles for the launching operations were derived and were used in the analysis of temporary trestles. Trestles foundations included piles where space was restricted and pad foundation where space was not restricted. The analysis for various combinations of normal loads and accidental loads were carried out in ANSYS and typical results from the analysis were summarised in Table 3. These were used for monitoring the loads and the movements of the foundations using targets on trestles and foundations.
Item | Trestle 1 | Trestle 2 | Trestle 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Vertical settlement | 8 mm | 8 mm | 0 mm (under lifting strut). 6 mm elsewhere. |
Anticipated lateral movement (at pile cap). Parallel to launch | 10 mm | 10 mm | 9 mm |
Maximum lateral movement (worst case soils) at pile cap. Parallel to launch | — | — | 21 mm |
Maximum lateral movement (worst case) at pile cap. Perpendicular to NR retaining wall | — | — | 14 mm |
Worst case lateral movement at network rail wall for worst case soils and bridge being pulled back (westwards) | — | — | 3 to 5 mm |
Total maximum vertical load on support | +5000 kN | 34,500 kN | 20,000 kN |
Total minimum vertical load on support | −4350 kN | — | — |
Amber trigger levels for movements and loads on trestles.
This case study, published in detail in Ref. 32 by the author, shows how the temporary works were managed by the project team in order to ensure that there was no repeat of ‘Gerrards cross failure’. The failure at Gerrards Cross, reported in 2005, demonstrated the importance of controlling the backfill and carefully controlling and monitoring the deflections of the arch bridges during construction. The 87 m long arch unit spanning 15.5 m with a rise of 5.6 m was built on the monolithic principle, which means it acts as one single structure. The radius of the curved track underneath is 500 m, which proved a challenging aspect of the project.
The structure was in the form of a short tunnel, a proprietary system by Asset International, comprising pre-cast concrete arch segments springing from an RC slab and upstand, supported on piled foundations. The arch was formed from pre-cast concrete elements using a proprietary arch system with an elliptical cross-section. The two ends of the tunnel consisted of portal sections which are bevelled to follow the slope of the new embankment for the realigned section of road. Since the bridge structure is made up of arch-shaped pre-cast elements, the elements at the ends of the tunnel are cut-off, and no longer form a full arch. These truncated elements, therefore, are connected to each other by means of cast-in-situ reinforced concrete collars to form a monolithic reinforced concrete shell. This monolithic shell includes the two outermost full arch rings which allow all loads acting on one side of the bevel to be transferred to the other side and to the foundations. Working collaboratively with the project team, we have developed a safe system of construction as described below.
In order to predict the behaviour of the tunnels during construction and to advise the construction teams on the methodology, it was necessary to model each stage both in 2D and 3D models. The construction sequence was represented in the analysis by a total of 15 stages as shown in Figure 18. Full details of the FE model, assumptions, approach, and the sequence including sensitivity analyses were published in a separate paper Ref. [32] by the author(s). Only extracts from Ref. [32] are presented in this paper.
Construction sequence model analysed in the finite difference software (FLAC).
The construction phases are summarised below.
Phase 1: Establish initial conditions for existing ground and railway embankment;
Phase 2: Place new fill up to the level of the existing railway embankment, and install piles and pile caps;
Phase 3: Construct arch;
Phase 4: Place fill for the new road embankment away from the arch structure up to 75% of the overall height of the arch segments;
Phases 5–13: Place backfill against the arch with a maximum differential between sides of 600 mm, with compaction load of 11.5 kN/m2 on the surface of the fill;
Phase 14: Place final layer of fill over the arch, with compaction load of 11.5 kN/m2 over the full width of the model on the top surface;
Phase 15: Remove compaction load of 11.5 kN/m2 on top surface of the model.
It was important to carry out sensitivity studies with respect to soil stiffness, backfill characteristics, interface stiffness, and initial conditions of the arch to establish lower and upper bounds of movements. These sensitivity studies helped us to develop a safe and robust scheme of backfilling sequence and helped us to set new trigger limits for safe construction. Closed-form solutions predict the movements for a fully backfilled scenario however they will not predict the movements for unsymmetrical backfilling on either side of the arches and therefore numerical models in 2D and 3D will give insight to real behaviour. The models developed here in 2D and 3D, therefore, gave insight into the development of the movement throughout the construction process. The power of the modelling is demonstrated by comparing the analytical results with observations on site. The site observations matched well with the numerical predictions from 2D and 3D models as shown in Figure 19.
Movement of the crown of the arch while backfilling sequence is progressed to build the highway bridge over the railway.
The Bull Ring Redevelopment in Birmingham consisted of demolishing the existing 1960s concrete shopping centre and replacing it with a new one. The northern part of this new complex lies directly above the New Street South railway tunnels, which carry the main lines to London and the West Country through them. During the redevelopment work there was the potential to affect the railway tunnels at various stages of construction.
To maximise the available retail space at the northern end of the development, 2 No. hanging structures were to be constructed to extend the development over the Northern Arm road, with the pedestrian footbridge described above providing the ‘sandwich’ between the hanging structures. To support these hanging structures a structural steelwork bowstring truss is positioned at either end of each structure, spanning across the Northern Arm to carry all other intermediate steelwork, reinforced concrete floor slabs, roof, cladding, etc.
The western hanging structure is supported by trusses T1 and T2, which are supported at their northern end by double columns supported off a reinforced concrete pile cap founded on a cluster of mini piles constructed within the basement of the Rotunda. At its southern end these trusses are again supported by a twin steel column section founded behind the contiguous piled wall and thus forming part of the main development structural frame. The brick arch railway tunnels are not continuous for the full length of the Northern Arm. At its western end the brick arch tunnels give way to a reinforced concrete road bridge, built 1961–1962. This road bridge continues in a westerly direction towards the New Street station junction, noting that immediately northwest of truss T1 the road bridge deck slab is discontinuous with an open section of railway exposed and only protected by a 1.8 m high concrete parapet wall constructed around the opening. Working collaboratively with our supply chain partners, we have developed a safe erection methodology as described below.
Once the fabrication location was established, crane sizes and locations were firmed up, thus allowing a detailed crane analysis to be carried out to produce theoretical outrigger loads, including any redistribution of loads resulting from any crane slewing, jibbing in/out, etc. during the lifts. The Railtrack structures were then assessed under these loads, with feedback to the site team accordingly if the structures were likely to be overstressed, with recommendations to relocate cranes, increase outrigger mats, distribute outrigger loads onto twin mats, etc.
Once craneage locations were finalised, craneage layouts were firmed up, structural checks were completed, scaffold layouts finalised and method statements produced. Craneage used for the fabrication of the trusses and associated erection of the temporary works support scaffold varied from truss to truss, but for each truss one of the cranes used for the tandem lift of that truss was utilised as the service crane for the above works. Therefore, for trusses T1 and T2 a 400 T crane was used with an 800 T crane used for trusses T3 and T4. As part of the checks undertaken during the initial piling works to establish constraints for the piling plant, its location, and associated excavations, a considerable amount of design checks using finite element analysis had been undertaken on the brick arch tunnels. To satisfy railtrack/network rail requirements the following monitoring equipment had been installed into the tunnels before works started and included, electro level beam surveys, vibration sensors, tilt meters, and tape extensometers.
Temporary works design checks undertaken were based on theoretical outrigger loads prepared by the crane manufacturers following assessment of the different lifts by the different cranes. On the basis that these outrigger loads did not cause distress to the structures below, it was essential that outrigger loads were checked to ensure that the theoretical maximum loads were not exceeded. Hence use was made of the crane digital outrigger load readout indicator to monitor these loads. The details of the finite element analysis and the assumptions are presented in a full paper in Ref. [33] and only extracts from Ref. 33 are presented in this paper.
During each lift and at various times during the fabrication of the trusses, the tunnel monitoring system PC was attended full time by one of our site engineers to observe any changes, notably deformation movements. A site engineer would also monitor the full time the crane outrigger load indicator during major lifts.
During the crane lifts and during the fabrication of the trusses no discernible deformation to the tunnel was recorded—noting that, when the tunnel monitoring system PC was not being observed full time, the system did activate a telephone alarm once a deformation of 7 mm occurred.
The crane outrigger loads, as observed on the outrigger load indicator, were generally well inside the theoretical figures. On truss T1 lift the 800 T crane on the bridge beams had a maximum outrigger load of 74 T against a predicted value of 106 T. On truss T2 lift the 800 T crane on the tunnel central wall had a maximum outrigger load of 92 T against a predicted value of 98 T.
One the same lift the 400 T crane on the transfer beams spanning across the beams had a maximum outrigger load of 99 T against a predicted value of 120 T. Figure 20 shows the truss T1 over the tunnels.
Erection of 140 T truss over the railway with a soil cover of 3 m.
Immediately following each lift on the first available track possession/isolation a visual inspection of the tunnel was undertaken and no visible signs of distress and movement were ever observed. Tape extensometer checks were also undertaken and again no significant movement attributable to the crane lifts was ever recorded.
Finite element models were developed in ANSYS (commercially available software) in view of the above. In particular, two-dimensional linear and non-linear global analysis and a three-dimensional non-linear local analysis were carried out. Figure 21 shows the finite element model. Planar elements were used for two-dimensional analysis whereas solid elements with no tension were used in the three-dimensional analysis.
Non-linear finite element analysis of soil structure interaction for the loads from erection of the truss over the live railway.
ANSYS results were calibrated against site observations by making test trails on-site by surcharging pile plant loading on the tunnels and results are shown in Table 4.
Measured and observed movements of the arch for 70 T rig on the tunnels.
Analysis method, assumptions, and further details of the finite elements are presented in the detailed paper by the authors in CIRIA report on tunnelling [33]. Only extracts are presented in this paper.
Temporary works are an integral part of the safe construction of bridges and should be designed by competent bodies. Independent checks, and balances are to be in place to ensure that the public and asset owners are protected by the construction method, construction sequence of bridges. This paper summarises more recent failures and draws the conclusion that some of the best practice guidelines as developed in the UK can be adopted outside the UK. Early engagement by the contractor and communication to all the parties involved play a significant role in the safe delivery of the works at the site. Every aspect of the temporary work should be looked into in detail with reasonable margins of safety. Regular monitoring during the construction to ensure that the early warnings are not exceeded and are vital to verify the performance is as predicted and that no unsafe condition is being approached.
The author is thankful to Parsons Brickenhoff for supply of the data and Asset International for sharing site measurements and photos. The author is thankful to our JV team of M74 and Paul Doughty of Sir Robert McAlpine Design Group for sharing data and photographs.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nuclear reactors rely on instrumentation and control (I&C) systems to maintain critical primary and secondary processes within desired parameters to ensure safe and efficient operation. Safety-related I&C systems are specifically designed to protect against critical failures that can lead to high consequence events. Designers rely on traditional safety-analyses, such as failure modes and effects analysis and probabilistic risk assessments (PRA), to inform them of specific protections needed in the design of these systems to maintain safe operation and the health and safety of the public.
I&C systems maintain real-time response, high availability, predictability, reliability, and distributed intelligence via a set of interconnected assets and subsystems that perform three main operations: acquisition, control, and supervision. Reactors have historically used analog I&C systems. As modernization occurs in the existing reactor fleet and as new advanced reactors are designed and commissioned, analog systems are replaced with digital I&C (DI&C) systems due to their many advantages, including reliability, efficiency, additional functionality, and data analytics. While DI&C provides enhanced operational capabilities, new risks associated with adverse impacts from cyber incidents are introduced. Whereas nuclear safety is the primary focus of reactor design, cyber risk must now also be considered in any digital-based reactor design. Cyber risk not only includes digital failures and unintentional cyber incidents, but the possibility that an adversary may try to purposefully disrupt, deter, deny, degrade, or compromise digital systems in such a manner as to place a reactor outside its intended design.
Since the complete set of failure modes for DI&C may never be fully known, and since DI&C can never be completely secured, a robust process is required to address and reduce cyber risk throughout the entire systems engineering lifecycle. Specifically, engineering and design personnel must be fully cognizant of the cyber risks and understand how to protect against intentional and unintentional cyber incidents. Cyber-Informed Engineering (CIE) is an approach in which cyber risks are considered at the earliest design stages and are continually reanalyzed throughout the entire lifecycle. Regardless of reactor design, cyber risk must be eliminated or reduced as much as possible to sustain a safe and secure nuclear industry.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a background on nuclear reactor I&C systems, both analog and digital, as well as considerations for use of DI&C in new advanced reactor designs and applications. Section 3 steps through aspects of cyber risk analysis and cyber risk management for nuclear reactors. Section 4 provides an overview of CIE along with detailed descriptions of each CIE principle prior to concluding the chapter in Section 5.
Chemical, manufacturing, and nuclear processes rely on instrumentation, such as pressure, temperature, and flow sensors, to measure and monitor process parameters. These industrial processes are then maintained by control systems that operate physical equipment, such as valves, pumps, and heaters, to keep the process parameters within predefined limits. Nuclear reactors vary by type (e.g., pressurized water reactor, pool-type reactor, liquid metal cooled reactor, molten salt reactor, gas cooled reactor) and purpose (e.g., power reactor, research reactor, nuclear propulsion). The remainder of this section first describes the fundamentals of generic nuclear reactor I&C prior to discussing the transition to digital technology, including its benefits and challenges. The section concludes with an overview of future DI&C applications, including those in new and advanced reactors, as well as integrated systems and decision support systems.
Nuclear reactors initiate and control nuclear fission or fusion reactions. These processes must be monitored and closely controlled to ensure reliable and efficient operation while maintaining the health and safety of the public. The number and type of parameters monitored in a reactor will vary depending on the reactor type and purpose, but both nuclear and non-nuclear instrumentation will likely be used. Nuclear instrumentation includes detectors to monitor neutron and gamma flux for routine reactor monitoring and control as well as reactor safety. Neutron detectors, such as proportional counters and ion chambers, are commonly used to provide source range, intermediate range, and power range monitoring, while gamma detectors are used for post-accident monitoring. These detectors may be out-of-core or in-core, or a combination thereof, depending on the reactor type. Other compact in-core detectors, such as small fission chambers or self-powered neutron detectors, are also commonly used for continuous real-time monitoring of reactor core conditions, including reactor power distributions.
Non-nuclear instrumentation includes sensors used to monitor process parameters, such as temperature, pressure, differential pressure, level, and flow. Additionally, non-nuclear instrumentation may be used to monitor other parameters, including control rod position, area radiation, fuel-pin fission gas pressure, vibrations, acoustics, fuel or vessel strain, process fluid chemistry, moisture and gas analysis, and leaks.
Local instrumentation data is transmitted from the sensors to control board indicators, data recorders, applications, and control systems via analog or digital circuits, often through multiplexers or combinatorial logic circuits. Applications are commonly used to auctioneer (e.g., signal selection), aggregate, and/or perform calculations on the data to provide real-time reactor and plant status indications to operators.
While operators will also perform manual actions on a reactor, such as starting and stopping pumps or opening and closing valves, I&C systems are commonly used to automatically control reactor operations and maintain reactor safety. Control systems can be simple, like a single programmable logic controller, or complex, like a reactor control system. Control systems can combine numerous sensors, transmitters, controllers, and actuators to change the physical state of process equipment, such as a valves, pumps, or motors, by using signal feedback loops to monitor and maintain desired conditions. In a nuclear power plant (NPP), non-safety control systems may include feedwater control (or fluid control), turbine control, and reactor control.
Most nuclear reactors will have at least two types of control systems—reactor control systems and reactor safety systems. Depending on a reactor’s purpose, there may also be other control systems, such as plant control systems in an NPP or experiment/sample control systems in a research and test reactor. Reactor control systems are used to control the nuclear fission or fusion reaction within specified acceptable fuel design limits by adjusting physical components according to the reactor design. For example, a reactor control system may raise or lower control rods in a light water reactor (LWR), turn control drums in a heat pipe reactor, or start or stop feedwater flow in a research reactor.
In an LWR, reactor control systems are used to maintain desired thermal megawatts by balancing primary and secondary systems. For example, as shown in Figure 1, an integrated control system may automatically maneuver reactor, feedwater, and turbine systems to match megawatts generated to megawatts demanded by adjusting control rod positions, valve positions, and pump speeds.
A notional automatic integrated reactor control system for an LWR.
In comparison to reactor control systems, reactor safety systems are used to shut down and maintain safe shutdown of a reactor in the event a reactor safety limit is met or exceeded to assure reasonable protection against uncontrolled release of radioactivity. For example, reactor safety systems in an LWR include Reactor Protection Systems (RPS), Engineered Safety Feature Actuation Systems (ESFAS), and diverse actuation or diverse trip systems. Reactor safety systems often use either two-out-of-four or two-out-of-three logic. For instance, an RPS may have four redundant instrumentation channels that monitor key parameters, such as reactor power, reactor coolant temperature, reactor coolant pressure, reactor coolant flow, reactor building pressure, reactor pump status, and steam generator level. If any design limits are exceeded on two separate channels, an automatic trip signal is sent to the control rod system to shut down the reactor. A notional representation of an RPS is shown in Figure 2.
Signals for a notional RPS.
In an LWR, an ESFAS is designed to provide emergency core cooling for the reactor and to reduce the potential for offsite release of radiation. Comparable to an RPS, ESFAS uses multiple channels of equipment in two-out-of-three logic (or similar) to monitor signals such as reactor coolant pressure and containment pressure. Based upon the specific coincident actuation signals received, ESFAS will start the required safety system, such as emergency core cooling systems, emergency feedwater, containment isolation and ventilation, containment spray, or emergency diesel generators.
Although the first closed-loop industrial computer control system was installed by Texaco Company at its Port Arthur refinery in 1959 [1], I&C in nuclear reactors largely remained analog until about 30 years ago when digital transmitters, indicators, controllers and data recorders began replacing analog sensors, indicators, actuators, and pen-based chart recorders. And, while non-safety digital control systems (e.g., feedwater control systems, turbine control systems and reactor control systems) are now commonly installed in nuclear reactors, safety-related digital control systems (e.g., RPS, ESFAS) are much less common, especially in the United States. The United States has been slow to adopt digital technology because of previously unanalyzed risks associated with new and unknown attributes, including common cause failures and cyber risks. International adoption of digital technology in nuclear reactors, including safety-related control systems, has been more aggressive than in the United States. Of course, new advanced reactors are being primarily designed with DI&C.
As described by the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), an I&C device in the U.S. power reactor industry is typically considered ‘digital’ if it contains any combination of hardware, firmware, and/or software that can execute internally stored programs and algorithms without operator action [2]. Hardware includes microelectronics, such as digital or mixed signal integrated circuits, as well as larger assemblies, such as microprocessors, memory chips, and logic chips. Hardware may also include other peripherals, such as expansion drives or communication controllers. Software includes operating systems, platforms, and applications used for process control, human machine interfaces, and other specific programs used for device or system operation. Firmware is software stored in non-volatile memory devices that provides low-level control specific to the hardware. Firmware executes higher-level operations and controls basic functionality of the device, including communication, program execution, and device initialization.
Field sensors and controllers may be standalone, small local systems, or larger distributed control systems. Devices may be connected by physical cables or wireless technology (e.g., WiFi, cellular, satellite, Bluetooth, radio frequency identification). There is also a range of communication protocols used in DI&C depending on the design and manufacturer.
The systems, structure, and components (SSCs) used in U.S. NPP safety-related protection systems are categorized as Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) class 1E technologies as defined by IEEE 308-1971 (and later) [3]. They must be designed to conform with General Design Criteria (GDC) in 10 CFR 50 Appendix A [4], IEEE 279-1971 [5], IEEE 308-1971 [3], and IEEE Std 603-1991 [6], as applicable based on construction permit dates. Guidance in Regulatory Guide 1.152 [7] and IEEE 7-4.3.2-2003 [8] may also be used to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations. Internationally, applications or components that perform IEC category A safety-related functions may fall under IEC 61513 [9], International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) SSR-2/1 [10], and IAEA SSG-39 [11] requirements.
These general design criteria include conformance requirements for independence and single-failure criterion such as defense-in-depth, diversity (i.e., different technology), redundancy (i.e., secondary equipment that duplicates the essential function), physical separation, and electrical isolation. The purpose of single-failure criterion is to ensure no single failure of a component interferes with the safety function and proper operation of the safety system [6]. Generally, it is impossible to prove that digital systems are error free. And, while common-cause failures can occur with analog equipment, it is more likely that software errors will result in common-cause failures, such as identical software-based logic errors that could cause simultaneous functional failure of all four RPS divisions. Thus, since unanticipated common-cause failures are more likely in digital systems than analog systems, there is increased burden to prove to the regulator that the design adequately meets the general design criteria outlined in the applicable requirements.
The systems engineering lifecycle for analog modifications, such as changing mechanical relay logic, can take significant time to design, procure, reconfigure, and test hard-wired devices installed inside control cabinets. These changes can require many hours for maintenance personnel to rewire, physically rearrange components, and/or add new cabinets, terminal blocks, power supplies, and wiring. Labor resources are also required for post installation quality checks.
Contrary to analog I&C, a significant benefit of DI&C is the ability to quickly reprogram the functionality of a device or system with minimal physical hardware changes. These modifications are performed via microprocessors, expansive memory storage, and standardized communications that allow for remote connectivity. Moreover, the utilization of reusable software and common microprocessors lowers overall product costs. Moreover, the global supply chain has promoted further innovation, improved efficiencies, better product availability, and reduced costs.
An additional benefit of DI&C is the capability to incorporate numerous functions within one device. This capability reduces overall size of the I&C systems (e.g., fewer racks and cabinets) and relieves potential space constraints within facilities. Furthermore, the ability to choose from a wide array of functions in one device not only reduces the cost, but also allows for unique control algorithms not necessarily available in the past. Whereas analog I&C was limited to using a single proprietary signal conveying only one piece of information (e.g., the process value), adding a digital signal overtop an analog signal allowed for increased device diagnostics and calibration capabilities without any additional hardware changes and helped pave the way for logical extension of DI&C in nuclear facilities.
Other applications enabled by DI&C include enhanced online monitoring for condition-based maintenance systems. These systems improve visibility into equipment conditions to improve maintenance activities and potentially reduce or eliminate required preventive maintenance. Additionally, training departments are now able to simulate plant operations with fine detail that was difficult to achieve before.
On the other hand, digital technology introduces new challenges. As existing nuclear reactors are modernized, plant personnel throughout the organization must be trained on their design, installation, operation, and maintenance. This skillset is often very different than what is required for analog I&C and can take many years to acquire. Moreover, not only is there an increase in common-cause failures and potentially unknown failure modes with DI&C, but there is also additional risk associated with malicious and unintentional cyber threats not typically seen with analog I&C. These DI&C cyber risks are further described in Section 3.
While existing reactors primarily designed and built with analog technology are transitioning to DI&C, new generation III+, small modular reactor (SMR), microreactor, and advanced reactor designs will likely apply digital technology from project inception to take advantage of increased flexibility, better performance, and improved reliability. It is anticipated that these designs will also include hybrid approaches, similar to existing reactors, incorporating both analog and DI&C components and systems for reactor control and reactor safety. However, since most of the new reactor designs will likely incorporate passive safety features, they may have fewer (or no) safety-related control systems compared to current LWRs.
Nuclear reactors are primarily designed with safety as the underlying principle. Ensuring safety of reactor personnel and maintaining the health and safety of the public is more important than secondary objectives, such as producing electricity or medical isotopes. Thus, any new reactor technology that challenges the nuclear safety paradigm is met with strong caution. However, as new advanced reactors are designed with DI&C, significant effort and analysis will be undertaken to ensure cyber risks are fully understood such that the designs will fully withstand regulatory and public scrutiny and not interfere with reactor safety. Nevertheless, the inclusion of passive safety features that reduce the footprint of digital safety systems not only reduces the number of high-consequence design basis accidents (DBAs), it also reduces overall cyber risk.
Sites built with multiple reactor modules (e.g., SMRs) may have additional I&C systems to enable integrated and coordinated operation across multiple units. Furthermore, proposed advantages of SMRs and microreactors include the capability for remote and autonomous (or nearly autonomous) operation, including anticipatory control strategies to maintain operational limits for both planned and unplanned internal or external disturbances which increase overall operational flexibility. The passive safety systems in advanced reactors may enable fewer operators and more automation, however, these new modes of operation and previously unanalyzed consequences require careful evaluation by designers and regulators to ensure minimization of cyber risks. Mobile reactor designs must also anticipate and address additional requirements for safe and secure transportation.
Similar concerns exist for remote operations, which is under consideration for advanced reactors in isolated environments or reactors connected to microgrids using autonomous distributed energy control schemes. Remote operations imply some finite distance between reactor and operator utilizing digital communications for both monitoring and control. Not only does the external pathway potentially enable an exploitable pathway for adversaries, it also potentially presents unanticipated cyber risks from communication failures.
Whereas remote and autonomous reactor operation may have a long timescale for development, regulatory acceptance, and construction, integrated energy systems may be available on a shorter timescale. As shown in Figure 3, integrated energy systems use the thermal heat from reactors for other purposes, such as hydrogen generation, district heating, water purification, and chemical manufacturing. They may also have direct electrical connections to integrated systems. The interconnections between a reactor and these secondary processes will likely contain additional sensors, controllers, and actuators in order to balance the electrical and heat demands of the plant with the demands from the integrated energy systems.
Conceptual integrated energy system including generation sources and applications.
Digital twins are virtual replications of a physical system that can be used to provide various capabilities and decision-support at a nuclear facility. The degree of representation by a digital twin depends upon the computing power and the ability to accurately model both reactor physics and data-driven processes. Proposed applications include the use of digital twins for running artificial intelligence or machine learning (AI/ML) applications for hybrid control schemes, such as flexible operation for electric grid load-following, anticipatory control, or autonomous control; the use of AI/ML on digital twins for equipment condition monitoring, diagnostics, prediction, and prognostics; and the use of digital twins for designing engineering modification prior to building the actual physical system.
Using digital twins for reactor and/or system design may enable vulnerability discovery, such as potential for equipment failure, process anomalies, human error, or cyber compromise. Understanding system operation as well as potential vulnerabilities and consequences prior to construction is not only a benefit to designing better and safer reactors but also, if used with CIE principles as described in Section 4, a reactor with reduced cyber risk.
Applications of digital twins will likely continue to expand. The capabilities of digital twins, AI/ML, and other monitoring and control systems will be enabled with the increased use of wireless technologies (e.g., Wi-Fi, radio frequency identification, Bluetooth, Zigbee, cellular) in addition to traditional wired networks. Moreover, the use Internet of Things (IoT) or Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) will continue to expand within nuclear facilities enabling improved efficiencies, reduced maintenance, and real-time insights for decision-making. Whereas the difference between operational technology (OT) and information communications technology (ICT) is that OT uses digital devices to control physical processes, such as nuclear reactors, IIoT uses a wide range of lower cost sensors that are traditionally connected via wireless networks to increase the number datapoints available for machine-to-machine communication and enhanced monitoring using data analytics, big data, and AI/ML.
Risk is classically defined by Kaplan and Garrick as the possibility of loss or injury, including the degree of probability of such a loss [12]. Traditional safety PRA in the nuclear industry uses a logical framework combining fault tree analysis and event tree analysis to identify the likelihood and consequence of severe accidents which could lead to radiation release impacting the health and safety of the public. Nuclear safety PRAs typically use data on functional failures (i.e., manufacturer failure analyses, historical plant and industry failure data) along with known events (i.e., historical data on prior nuclear-significant events).
Unfortunately, the PRA approach is insufficient for cyber risk analysis as the complete set of failure modes for digital assets and systems may be unknown as they can fail in unexpected ways. Additionally, deliberate actions, such as intentional, intelligent, and adaptive actions by an adversary are challenging, if not impossible, to effectively model. Furthermore, threats and vulnerabilities are constantly evolving, a reality which does not lend itself to PRA. Therefore, rather than follow the Kaplan and Garrick risk triplet of ‘scenario, likelihood, consequence’ [12], cyber risk is better identified by evaluating threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences [13].
It is important to note that cyber risk includes all risk from both intentional and unintentional actions. Holistic cyber risk includes human performance errors and equipment failures as well as adversarial events. Adversarial events include malicious actions, including those by an unwitting insider, intended to cause damage or disruption to reactor and facility operations. Adding to the concern, intelligent threat actors can potentially adversely impact nuclear DI&C by remotely exploiting vulnerabilities, a threat that does not exist with analog I&C.
A nuclear reactor has a licensing basis that identifies high-consequence DBAs that can potentially lead to radiological release. This licensing basis includes those safety-related SSCs that must remain functional during a DBA to protect the health and safety of the public. While safety-related impacts are the primary concern, consequences from a cyber incident at a nuclear reactor could potentially range from intangible impacts (e.g., reputation damage, industry perception) to financial impacts (e.g., lost generation, equipment damage, repair costs) to adverse public health and safety impacts due to radiological release or theft of special nuclear material (SNM). Examples of low to high consequence impacts from a cyber incident are illustrated in Figure 4. Table 1 expands on several of these consequences to provide causal examples of functional failures from hypothetical cyber incidents.
Potential consequences from a cyber incident at a reactor.
Radiological release | Failure of a safety system to actuate when needed | Digital RPS does not trip the reactor on low feedwater flow |
Lost generation | Inadvertent actuation of a safety system leads to extended plant shutdown | Digital high-pressure coolant injection actuation with no loss of coolant |
Lost generation | Inappropriate operator action | Operator does not recognize that a digital indicator on the main control board is incorrect |
Equipment damage | Pump suction valve closed | Digital valve controller closed valve with pump running |
Potential consequences from a cyber incident at a reactor along with hypothesized functional failure and initiating cyber incident.
Cyber-induced consequences at a nuclear reactor can be minimized by maintaining availability, integrity, and confidentiality of DI&C components and systems. Nuclear reactors may be designed to run continuously (e.g., NPP) or intermittently (e.g., research and test reactor). In either case, data and communication flow must remain available to ensure safe and reliable operation of the reactor. Delay, disruption, or prevention of data or communication within an OT system can result in unintended control actions, such as inadvertent component actuation or reactor trip. As listed in Table 2, cyber incidents that impact availability can be malicious and intentional, such as from a denial of service attack [14], or non-malicious and unintentional, such as excessive network traffic from failing equipment [15].
Availability | Denial of service attack [14] | Failing equipment leading to excessive network traffic [15] |
Integrity | Man-in-the middle attack [16] | Software update resetting plant data [17] |
Confidentiality | Reconnaissance attack leads to data exfiltration [18] | Sensitive data posted on external site |
Examples of malicious and non-malicious cyber incidents by security objective.
The integrity of DI&C information, data, and system parameters must also be maintained. Control systems require accurate, truthful, and complete information for safe and reliable operation. For instance, unintended modification of data, logic, or commands by man-in-the-middle attacks can cause equipment failure [16] or poorly executed software updates can reset plant data and cause actuation of a safety system [17]. Operators also rely on truthful and accurate data for decision making; inaccurate data on indicators or human-machine interfaces could cause operators to make improper decisions or perform incorrect actions. Operationally, it is often more dangerous to have a reactor in an unknown state instead of safely shut down. Consider an unexpected cyber incident that is visible to the operator—the operator can detect and respond to the incident, thereby minimizing further impacts. On the other hand, cyber incidents that are invisible to the operator can potentially result in persistent and higher consequence adverse impacts as operators are unaware of true reactor status.
While not as important in OT systems, confidentiality is also a cybersecurity objective. Loss of confidentiality, such as unauthorized exfiltration of sensitive information [18] or inadvertent posting of sensitive data in the public domain, can enable development of further attacks or cause other business-related concerns. Gaining sensitive nuclear information can provide adversaries roadmaps, schedules, vendors, plant layouts, and a host of other sensitive information shortening the attack timeline and delivering potential pathways to be considered towards ransomware, blackmail, or general political unrest.
Cyber threat vectors into a nuclear reactor include wired and wireless networks or connections, portable media and maintenance devices (e.g., USB drives, maintenance laptops), insiders, and the supply chain. Furthermore, cyber threats can be classified as non-malicious or malicious. Non-malicious actions are often caused by employees or other facility personnel who perform actions not intending to cause harm. These actions are often human performance errors in which a worker mistakenly performs an adverse action, such as misconfiguring a device, selecting the wrong option, or disclosing sensitive information.
Malicious threats against nuclear reactors are initiated by adversaries with the intent to cause harm. Adversaries include recreational hackers, malicious and unwitting insiders, criminals, terrorist organizations, and nation states. Sophisticated attacks against nuclear reactors will likely be launched by organizations that have greater resources (e.g., skilled personnel, funding, time) and sufficient motivation (e.g., economic gain, military advantage, societal instability). Additionally, cyber-attacks may be one-dimensional or multi-dimensional, hybrid, coordinated attacks combining multiple threat vectors in both physical and cyber domains. For instance, adversaries may use cyber means to gain access to enable physical destruction or theft of SNM or use physical means to gain access to computer systems to enable unauthorized theft of sensitive information or sabotage.
In the United States, power reactors licensed by the NRC must provide high assurance that critical digital assets (CDAs) are protected against cyber-attacks, up to and including the design basis threat (DBT) [19]. CDAs are defined as digital assets associated with safety-related, important-to-safety, security, or emergency preparedness functions as well as support systems and equipment which, if compromised, would adversely impact these functions. A DBT describes adversarial attributes and characteristics, including level of training, weapons, and tactics, that must be defended against to safeguard the reactor against radiological sabotage and prevent theft or diversion of SNM. Generally, a beyond-DBT, a threat from an adversary who has capabilities beyond what is defined by the DBT, is considered nation-state activity which falls under responsibility of the state (e.g., federal government) for prevention, detection, and response.
Vulnerabilities are known or unknown weaknesses. Vulnerabilities in hardware, firmware, and/or software can leave digital assets susceptible to accidental failure or unintentional human error. Additionally, vulnerabilities may be exploitable, enabling adversaries to extract information or insert compromises allowing unauthorized access to perform malicious activities. Vulnerabilities can allow adversaries to penetrate and move throughout systems without the user’s knowledge to compromise the availability, integrity, and confidentiality of complex control systems.
Most digital devices can be reprogrammed or modified to perform unintended or undesired functions. Any vulnerability that allows an unauthorized reprogramming or modification of a critical digital asset can result in adverse function of the DI&C systems. As most design approaches wait until system implementation to evaluate vulnerabilities, vulnerability response and mitigation often relies on bolted on security controls. However, if engineers who design and maintain complex control systems are trained to identify, understand, and mitigate these vulnerabilities throughout the lifecycle, including during design stages, vulnerabilities can be addressed early and often, thereby leading to lower overall cyber risk.
From a maintenance perspective, manufacturers often identify vulnerabilities and send information notices to asset owners along with mitigation measures, if applicable. Numerous vulnerability tracking databases and notification services also exist which serve to improve awareness and facilitate mitigation or protection [20, 21, 22, 23]. Engineers and stakeholders should maintain awareness of these external vulnerability notifications or sites for their digital assets throughout the entire lifecycle so that they can be addressed immediately.
Of course, cyber risk cannot be calculated by simply multiplying numerically derived values of threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences together. For instance, low-threat, high-consequence cyber incidents will likely have a much different risk significance at a nuclear reactor than a high-threat, low-consequence incident. While many techniques have been proposed for incorporating the results of consequence, threat, and vulnerability analyses into a final cyber risk analysis [13], determining, evaluating, and prioritizing cyber risk is highly dependent on the reactor design, regulatory requirements, and organization’s risk tolerance.
Cyber risk management is the continual process of analyzing cyber risk, evaluating and prioritizing the identified risk against organizational and regulatory requirements, and then applying risk treatments. In the United States, current nuclear power reactors typically follow guidance in NRC Regulatory Guide 5.71 [24] or the NEI cybersecurity series (NEI 10-04 [2], NEI 08-09 [25], and NEI 13-10 [26]) to identify CDAs and risk treatments. Corresponding cyber security guidelines for the international nuclear community are provided in IAEA Nuclear Security Series (NSS) No. 13 [27], NSS 17-T (Rev. 1) [28], NSS 42-G [29], NSS 33-T [30], and IEC 62645 [31]. For risk management activities, IAEA NSS 17-T (Rev. 1) refers readers to ISO/IEC 27005. Additionally, IEC 62443-3-2 provides an international security risk assessment standard for I&C systems [32]. Cybersecurity regulation and guidance for advanced reactors is still in development.
Regardless of the equation or formula used, cyber risk is managed by analyzing the potential worst-case consequences and then using risk treatments (e.g., avoidance or elimination, mitigation, transference, or acceptance) to lower the risk to a level acceptable to the organization. Unlike analog I&C, where failure analysis was the primary focus of PRA, the use of DI&C has resulted in the capability for hardware, firmware, and software to be altered in a manner not intended by the original design. Since both malicious and unintentional actions can potentially adversely impact operational functions, continually evaluating cyber threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences in a cyber risk management program is necessary to maintain awareness into the constantly evolving risk environment. The goal of this consequence-driven analysis is to prioritize risk treatments for those DI&C components needed to ensure critical reactor functions are maintained.
Consequence-driven, Cyber-Informed Engineering (CCE) is a formal cyber risk management approach that focuses on reducing the impact from high consequence events (HCE) for an overall business entity [33]. As shown in Figure 5, CCE is a four-step process. In phase 1, HCEs are identified and prioritized using a severity score calculated based upon consequence criteria weights and criteria severity. For the identified HCE(s), a system of systems analysis identifies the most critical functions in phase 2 and potential cyber-attack scenarios on those functions are then identified in phase 3. In phase 4, appropriate protection and mitigation strategies are developed.
The four-phase CCE process [
Additionally, cyber risk management must not only be considered for nuclear reactor SSCs, but also any digital technology used in their design, operation, and maintenance. For instance, AI/ML and digital twin applications are susceptible to both adversarial and unintentional cyber risk. These technologies are often considered ‘black box’ techniques in which the end-user is unaware of how the insights are determined. Even if more ‘gray box’ techniques are used, trust in AI/ML and digital twin models must be established to gain acceptance and approval by operators and regulators. Similarly, adversaries can gain access to these tools and cause data and/or model corruption to adversely affect model operation.
Digital technology will be increasingly used in both existing and future nuclear reactors. While DI&C enables improved operations and new capabilities, the cyber risks must not only be understood, but risk treatments and protections must be put in place to lower this risk from malicious and unintentional actions. Whereas significant strides have occurred with securing ICT systems, these ICT-based solutions are not always effective for OT systems which are often designed to perform a limited set of functions and therefore have limited processing, memory, storage, retrieval, and proprietary communication protocols. Additionally, cyber risk mitigations have historically been applied after DI&C systems are installed, which limits the range of risk treatments available. On the other hand, applying the concepts of CIE throughout the entire systems engineering lifecycle can reduce overall cyber risk.
Engineers, operators, maintenance personnel, and other technical staff who support the systems engineering process are critical to the design, implementation, and secure operation of complex control systems. Nevertheless, this staff often lacks the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to effectively address and mitigate cyber risk. Given the critical functions of DI&C in nuclear reactors, this gap must be filled. For this reason, the Department of Energy Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response is developing a national strategy for CIE to fundamentally change the culture of the engineering discipline to consider cybersecurity as a fundamental design principle.
Figure 6 illustrates the typical stages in the systems engineering lifecycle. While this model is intended to be used iteratively and potentially out-of-order throughout the lifecycle as design modifications occur, the left side of the V-model indicates a top-down approach moving from system to subsystem to component levels and the right side indicates a bottom-up approach through implementation, integration, and testing. This model is useful for both new builds (e.g., new reactor designs) or existing builds (e.g., engineering modifications).
Systems engineering V-model [
CIE is a multidisciplinary approach that advocates the use of CIE principles in each of the systems engineering lifecycle stages to ensure that cyber considerations are included in every aspect of design, testing, implementation, operation, maintenance, and disposal or decommissioning [36]. CIE is fundamentally a cyber risk management tool that complements existing OT cybersecurity risk standards and guidelines by incorporating engineering solutions along with ICT and OT cyber solutions to minimize risks from malicious and unintentional cyber incidents. Considering cyber risk and cyber risk treatments early and often throughout the lifecycle provides simpler, more secure solutions at lower cost, precluding the need to use ineffective, bolt-on solutions during later lifecycle stages.
As shown in Figure 7, the primary CIE principle that encompasses the entire CIE methodology is cyber risk analysis. The remaining CIE principles are divided into two categories: design principles and organizational principles. The CIE design principles are fundamental engineering design practices and techniques that build cybersecurity and cyber-resilience into DI&C early in the systems engineering lifecycle and then continue to ensure cyber-awareness is maintained throughout the remaining stages. This secure-by-design approach is more effective and less expensive than bolting on security controls after installation as the design can be influenced by factors that improve the ease, simplicity, and effectiveness of cyber considerations without impacting the performance of the intended system function.
CIE principles adapted from [
Cyber risk is also reduced by instilling cyber-awareness at organizational- or facility-level functions. CIE organizational principles are fundamental cyber practices that enable holistic integration of cyber considerations into other programs within the facility, such as asset inventory, supply chain, response planning, and training.
While cyber risk and cyber risk analysis were discussed in Section 3, it is important to remember that consequence-driven risk analysis is necessary to prioritize design requirements and risk treatments of those digital SSCs required for ensuring reactor safety and the health and safety of the public. Like the CCE methodology, since resources are often limited, organizations should first ensure that the most stringent protections are around those critical functions that, if compromised or lost, could lead to unacceptable radiological consequences, sabotage, or theft of SNM.
Risk management is the process of identifying, evaluating, and responding to risk. Traditional risk treatments for responding to risk include risk avoidance or elimination, risk transference, risk mitigation, and risk acceptance. As shown in Figure 8, engineering risk treatments for cyber risk are similar, where risk can be designed out, shifted to another organization, mitigated with security controls or countermeasures, or accepted by making a conscious decision to tolerate the risk without implementing changes.
Engineering cyber risk treatments [
Security controls, as identified by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) SP 800-82 [37], NRC Regulatory Guide (RG) 5.71 [24], or NEI 08-09 [25] are typically considered administrative, physical, or technical. As indicated in Figure 8, these controls mitigate cyber risk that cannot be eliminated. Unfortunately, engineering risk treatments, including security controls, are typically not considered until after installation. However, waiting until after installation is often too late to provide adequate protection. On the other hand, implementing engineering risk treatments during design stages can actually eliminate specifically identified risks by designing it out altogether or more efficiently and effectively reduce risk by incorporating security controls into the design.
The goal of the secure architecture CIE principle is to establish network and system architectures that segregate and limit data flows to trusted devices and connections within and between subsystems, systems, and systems of systems. Properly designed architectures reduce cyber risk by isolating critical functions, minimizing the cyber-attack surface, and lowering the probability of unauthorized access or compromise of critical SSCs.
To ensure defense in depth, the design should consider use of isolated (e.g., air-gapped) or segregated network levels and zones, boundary devices, data flow rules, and unidirectional, deterministic communication, such as data diodes. In the United States, NRC Regulatory Guide 5.71 recommends power reactors to implement a defensive architecture with only one-way data flow from safety and security network levels outward to the plant network [24]. Internationally, as illustrated in Figure 9, the IAEA recommends implementing security levels with common requirements and zones separated by decoupling devices, such as data diodes and other boundary devices, such as gateways, routers, or firewalls, to minimize communications to untrusted devices [38]. Engineers should consider these secure architecture approaches during design stages to limit overall risks from compromised pathways or devices.
Example implementation of a secure architecture [
A cyber incident can only adversely impact DI&C functions if a vulnerability is exploited by a threat (intentional or unintentional). Vulnerabilities decrease as the complexity of DI&C decreases. Thus, the goal of the design simplification principle is to reduce the complexity of the system, component, and architecture while maintaining the intended function. Design simplification minimizes vulnerabilities and reduces overall cyber risk.
Design simplification is considered in conjunction with the secure architecture, resilient design, and engineering risk treatment principles. Complex or overbuilt designs result in a digital footprint larger than necessary. As the number of digital assets increases in a system, the number of digital failure possibilities and exploit locations also increases. Additionally, it is possible for adversaries to repurpose unused or latent functions and features on SSCs to behave in unanticipated ways.
On the other hand, simplifying the design, such as by using simpler digital devices or hardening the system by eliminating, limiting, or disabling unnecessary functions or capabilities, minimizes the overall cyber-attack surface and reduces vulnerabilities. The intent of design simplification is to simplify the engineering design itself, not sacrifice security requirements for the sake of simplicity. Nevertheless, in cases where extreme safeguards are required, analog I&C may be implemented instead of DI&C to protect against cyber incidents.
Resilience is a system’s capability to withstand internal and external disruptions, including equipment failure, grid disturbances, or cyber incidents. A control system is resilient if it continues to carry out its mission by providing its required functionality despite disturbances that may cause disruptions or degradation. In nuclear reactors, general design criteria of separation, redundancy, diversity, and defense in depth are used for designing safety-related systems. Separation and independence are achieved by physical separation and electrical isolation. Redundancy is achieved by using more than one component to perform the same function. Diversity is achieved by using different technology within the system and with the redundant components.
Current DI&C systems operate in an untrusted environment, which presumes that users, devices, and systems cannot be trusted (e.g., users can be unauthorized, devices can be infected with malware). Additionally, it is impossible to design DI&C systems to withstand every malicious or unintentional cyber incident. Thus, resilient design is required to ensure continued safe and secure operation of the reactor and facility not only during an incident, but afterward as well.
While safety-related DI&C systems in nuclear reactors should be designed using the general design criteria, consideration should be given to designing similar features into non-safety DI&C systems to address this zero-trust paradigm, depending on the cyber risk prioritization. The objective of resilient DI&C design is to ensure continued operation of critical functions when possible, or graceful degradation when not possible, in the event of an SSC failure or cyber incident. Failure of one function, device, or system should not result in failure of another function. System design and control logic should attempt to eliminate the possibility of such cascading failures.
Additionally, resilient design may also include contingency planning and situational awareness. Contingency planning provides alternative methods for continued operation of critical functions. Using techniques, such as network and system monitoring, to provide situational awareness enables rapid decision making that may be needed for continued operation during a cyber incident. Moreover, operators have been trained to trust their instruments and indicators. This training model may need to be revisited due to the new zero-trust environment.
Finally, it should be noted that while resilient design may seem contrary to design simplification, the intent is to ensure that critical functions remain operational during a cyber incident. If additional devices are required to adequately assure resilience, there may be a tradeoff between resiliency and simplicity.
Security countermeasures and protections can be applied passively or actively. Passive defenses include those defensive architecture techniques described in Section 4.4.2. These passive defenses establish barriers using defense-in-depth techniques to deter and protect against a malicious adversary. This technique, however, is static and reactionary. It is also at a disadvantage for defending against dynamic and adaptive adversary capabilities.
Instead of reliance on passive capabilities, engineers need to build in active defenses to preemptively prevent, detect, and respond to cyber incidents. This paradigm shift is needed to proactively identify malicious and inadvertent cyber incidents to quickly stop the incident and remove the threat before degradation or unrecoverable damage occurs. Active defenses include security information event monitoring and other real-time anomaly detection and response tools that may not yet be developed or deployed. The objective is to enhance resilience capabilities by improving operational situational awareness via dynamic and testable strategies. Ideally, active defense tools can identify cyber anomalies in all five threat vectors (e.g., wired networks, wireless networks, portable media and maintenance devices, insiders, and supply chain).
The CIE organizational principles listed in Figure 7 are those fundamental cybersecurity practices that enable holistic integration of cybersecurity into other programs within the facility or organization. Technical and administrative interdependencies are necessary for safe and secure reactor operation. From a technical perspective, this principle ensures that cybersecurity is considered within all the interconnections between systems and systems of systems, including extended data pathways. Additionally, 10CFR73.54 not only requires adequate protection of safety-related and important-to-safety SSCs but also those support systems relied upon to ensure safe operation of those functions. Support systems may include power, communications, water, or HVAC. Even though there is the potential for adverse safety or security consequences if a cyber incident impacts a support system, these interdependencies are often overlooked.
From an administrative perspective, the interdependency principle promotes a multidisciplinary approach to ensure all project personnel are involved. For instance, when designing or modifying a reactor safety system to perform specific functions, a design engineer relies on safety engineers to provide expertise on safety-related functions, quality engineers to verify correct design implementations, maintenance personnel to provide perspectives on accessibility and maintainability, operators to provide operational feedback under various conditions, and competent authorities to provide safety and security requirements.
With the shift towards DI&C, cyber engineers or specialists should also be included throughout the systems engineering lifecycle to provide valuable insight into cyber risk and risk (and cost) minimization strategies, such as cyber risk treatments, policies, and procedures. Additionally, it is paramount to ensure other disciplines, such as engineering, safety, risk, design, maintenance, operations, human factors, and ICT, are knowledgeable about these system interdependencies and the potential consequences of a cyber incident on a facility function, digital asset, system, or system of systems. While the nature of the multidisciplinary engagements may differ with each stage, similar to safety, the intent is to ensure cyber engineering remains a core domain throughout the entire lifecycle.
Although new installations or modifications to existing facilities will include equipment database inventories of SSCs, this list often is out-of-date, incomplete, and without enough information to support cyber requirements and incident response decisions. Thus, the digital asset inventory CIE principle is intended to ensure that an accurate as-built digital asset inventory is maintained throughout the systems engineering lifecycle, including initial design, maintenance, configuration changes, and upgrades or modifications.
It is impossible to provide adequate protection against cyber incidents if there are unknown digital assets installed in a facility. Therefore, it is necessary to establish complete, accurate, and detailed asset inventories for the entire digital bill of materials (DBOM), including make, model, and version information for hardware, firmware, and software. For instance, if a vendor or intelligence agency provides vulnerability and threat information for a specific digital asset, a facility can easily use their inventory to determine if they have that asset installed. Accurate digital asset inventories improve the overall vulnerability management process. Without the inventory, it is very difficult to track whether newly identified cyber risks are applicable to the facility.
In addition to the DBOM, configuration information, backup requirements, and restoration information should be maintained for each digital SSC. Since cyber compromises do occur within the supply chain and early lifecycle stages, this complete design record should be maintained under secured configuration control such that all modifications or updates are captured. When used in conjunction with the incident response planning principle, this detailed information can be used to restore or rebuild a system after a cyber incident.
The use of third-party digital hardware, firmware, and software has increased tremendously in the past several decades. The cost-benefit of purchasing general purpose multifunctional digital devices has become a mainstay for many custom in-house and engineered solutions. However, since vendors, integrators, and service providers are profit driven, they will likely not invest in additional cyber security designs and controls for their products and services unless required by procurement specifications.
Since the supply chain is one of five threat vectors into a nuclear facility, it is imperative to develop supply chain controls that incorporate techniques into the procurement and acquisition process to prevent malicious or inadvertent compromise of hardware, firmware, software, and system information, where system information is defined as the “complete record of information regarding a digital system or component, including system level and component level information and/or data such as requirements specifications, design documentation, fabrication, assembly or manufacturing details; validation and verification documentation; operation and maintenance manuals; credential, authentication, or cryptographic information; and product lifecycle plans” [39].
The primary objectives of cyber supply chain risk management include the ability to maintain authenticity, integrity, confidentiality, and exclusivity throughout the system engineering lifecycle [39]. Authenticity assures the components are genuine; integrity assures the components are trustworthy and uncompromised; confidentiality assures there is no unauthorized loss of data or secrets; and exclusivity assures there are limited touchpoints to reduce the number of attack points [40].
A simplified, notional DI&C supply chain cyber-attack surface is illustrated in Figure 10. It is important to understand this attack surface so appropriate risk treatments can be implemented to reduce cybersecurity risk throughout the lifecycle. Logically, the parallel use of the design simplification CIE principle reduces this supply chain cyber-attack surface by reducing the number of stakeholders and touchpoints. Ensuring cyber supply chain provenance and trustworthiness is easier with a smaller supply chain cyber-attack surface.
A notional DI&C supply chain cyber-attack surface illustrating the complexity of the supply chain lifecycle overlaid with potential supply chain attacks at key stakeholder locations and touchpoints [
Procurement contracts should include cybersecurity requirements, such as those provided by the Department of Homeland Security [41], the Energy Sector Control Systems Working Group [42], or Electric Power Research Institute [43]. This procurement language should include all aspects of a product or service including the ability to review the supply chain stakeholder’s cybersecurity program, including any assessments or cybersecurity testing. Without inclusion of cybersecurity requirements into procurement contracts, the likelihood of insecure or compromised products and services increases.
It is important to recognize that supply chain cybersecurity is necessary during early lifecycle stages even when only system information is available. Reconnaissance is a primary method used by an adversary to acquire preliminary information about an organization, operations, and system designs. Theft of confidential or proprietary system information may result in loss of intellectual property, counterfeiting, and enable development of future sophisticated cyber-attacks. In addition, compromise or falsification of system information could lead to developers inadvertently including malicious codes, falsified data, latent vulnerabilities, or backdoors into the system or component during supply chain activities.
Unfortunately, protection of sensitive information is historically inadequate—sensitive information can often be found on social media, corporate websites, conferences, business and employment-oriented online services, vendor advertising, and other third-party entities that store nuclear-related information, such as nuclear regulators. Of course, poor cybersecurity hygiene can occur at every stakeholder in the supply chain, including hardware manufacturers, programmers, and integrators, as well as the reactor designer and operator. Since engineering records, asset inventories, master drawings, procedures, specifications, analysis, and other sensitive system information is much more accessible today, responsibility for protecting system information lies not only with the entire nuclear organization but all supply chain stakeholders.
Incident response planning, in conjunction with contingency planning in resilient design and an accurate and complete digital asset inventory, ensures that procedures, current backups, and accurate configurations are available to respond to and recover from deliberate or inadvertent cyber incidents. Cyber incidents can occur at any stage in the lifecycle. For example, theft of system information or IP can occur during design, introduction of malware by a subcontractor can occur during testing, and downloading of corrupted firmware can occur as part of maintenance. Incident response planning should occur in each stage of the systems engineering lifecycle to safeguard the stakeholder, system information, and DBOM against a cyber incident. IAEA TDL006 [44] and NIST 800-61 [45] provide incident response guidelines.
An organization’s culture is demonstrated every day through the actions of its employees. Nuclear facilities are guided by a nuclear safety and security culture which emphasizes protection of public health and safety over other competing goals, such as electricity generation. Personnel are instilled with the understanding that they can and should speak up when there are safety or security concerns. Since cybersecurity is part of the overarching nuclear security policy to guard against theft and sabotage, developing and maintaining a cybersecurity culture and training program is just as important.
The human-in-the-loop is essential for maintaining a robust security posture. As digital technology is prevalent in both OT and ICT systems, every person is responsible for cybersecurity, not just ICT or engineering staff. Similar to the nuclear safety culture, an organization-wide cybersecurity culture and training program will equip all personnel with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to recognize, prevent, and respond to cyber incidents. The goal of CIE is to develop cyber-informed engineers and personnel as opposed to cybersecurity specialists. Development of cyber-awareness and cross-functional cyber capabilities will provide personnel with information on the importance of their role in an organization’s overall security plan. Simply recognizing and reporting phishing emails or suspicious activity can prevent an adversary’s entry into an organization. Without this knowledge of how cyber incidents can occur and what unauthorized interactions can look like, compromises can remain persistent and undetected, thereby leading to greater consequences for the organization or nuclear reactor.
Applying the CIE approach throughout the entire systems engineering lifecycle, from design and testing to maintenance and decommissioning, provides enhanced capabilities for cyber protection, detection, and response. Figure 11 is a notional diagram summarizing potential usage of CIE principles throughout the lifecycle. The primary objective of CIE is to ensure engineers and stakeholders consider CIE principles during each activity within every stage of the lifecycle. Continual cyber risk analysis ensures that new or updated consequences, threats, and vulnerabilities are quickly identified. CIE design principles ensure that approaches to address and reduce the identified cyber risk are considered to the greatest extent possible. And, finally, CIE organizational principles provide long-term cyber risk reduction benefits by holistically integrating cyber considerations throughout the facility and organization.
Notional usage of CIE principles throughout the systems engineering lifecycle.
Since nuclear engineering projects differ in scope, it is impractical to define a standard level of effort for all CIE principles across each stage. For instance, the design and construction of an advanced reactor will likely have a very long timeline and involve multiple organizations, while a simple modification at a research reactor may occur relatively quickly and include only a small group of people. As an applied integrated energy system example, the CIE approach was used during the high-level design of a hydrogen generation project in which heat and electricity were provided by an interconnected NPP [35]. The use of a multi-disciplinary team to address system of system interdependencies through a structured risk analysis process resulted in new insights into the potential for both adversarial and unintentional cyber risks. As a result, the system was immediately redesigned to eliminate specific identified risk as well as to incorporate more simplified and resilient design features [35].
With the continued modernization of the existing nuclear fleet and future advanced reactor designs and applications, the use of DI&C in nuclear reactors will continue to grow. Additionally, once DI&C is installed or new reactors are commissioned, maintenance and updates will occur throughout a reactor’s lifetime. The fundamental CIE objective to consider cyber requirements from the onset of conceptual design provides expanded opportunities for recognizing cyber risks, thereby enabling cyber risk reduction through redesign prior to initiation of any procurement or construction activities. While CIE can positively impact design modifications in existing reactors, it may have even greater potential in improving the security posture of new reactors. Convening multidisciplinary teams will enable novel cyber solutions that otherwise would not be possible, thus minimizing cybersecurity-related costs and expensive rework later in the lifecycle. Addressing cyber concerns after installation with bolt-on solutions is arguably less effective and less efficient, especially given the fact that some SSCs may not tolerate or allow the use of security controls.
CIE is a multidisciplinary approach incorporating design and organizational principles to protect digital technology from cyber risk. The continued adoption of CIE in nuclear organizations as well as the development of curriculum in academic engineering and industry education programs furthers the goal of globally reducing nuclear cyber risk.
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Katya Le Blanc and Timothy R. McJunkin, who provided critical reviews and suggestions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This work was supported by the U.S. DOE Office of Nuclear Energy Cybersecurity Crosscutting Technology Development program under the DOE Idaho Operations Office, Contract DE-AC07-05ID14517.
AI | artificial intelligence |
CDA | critical digital asset |
CCE | consequence-driven, cyber-informed engineering |
CIE | cyber-informed engineering |
DBA | design basis accident |
DBOM | digital bill of material |
DBT | design basis threat |
DI&C | digital instrumentation and control |
DOE | Department of Energy |
ESFAS | engineered safety feature actuation system |
GDC | general design criteria |
HCE | high consequence event |
I&C | instrumentation and control |
IAEA | International Atomic Energy Agency |
ICT | information and communications technology |
IEEE | Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers |
IIoT | industrial internet of things |
IoT | internet of things |
LWR | light water reactor |
ML | machine learning |
NEI | Nuclear Energy Institute |
NIST | National Institute of Standards and Technology |
NPP | nuclear power plant |
NRC | Nuclear Regulatory Commission |
NSS | nuclear security series |
OT | operational technology |
PRA | probabilistic risk analysis |
RPS | reactor protection system |
SMR | small modular reactor |
SNM | special nuclear material |
SSC | systems, structures, and components |
USB | universal serial bus |
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Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4124,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. 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Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. 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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8293,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3371,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"},{id:"82949",title:"Corruption and Deterioration of Democracy: The Brazilian Lesson",slug:"corruption-and-deterioration-of-democracy-the-brazilian-lesson",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106194",abstract:"Although it has emerged, nationally and internationally, as one of the largest investigations against political corruption, Operation Car Wash—at its peak of popular prestige—cleared the path for the political rise of Jair Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil. And by doing so, to a certain extent, it paved the way for a set of arbitrary practices that today threaten and weaken the main Brazilian democratic institutions. Brazilian democracy today pays a high price for the Judiciary’s lethargic and condescending response to the unorthodox and illegal practices of Federal Judge Sérgio Moro during the golden years of Operation Car Wash (2014–2018). The lesson that the Brazilian episode brings to the international legal community is that the constant disrespect for the rules of due criminal procedure in large cases of corruption erodes the institutional bases that support the proper confrontation of this type of crime. The pertinent fight against corruption in a democracy can only take place in strict obedience to the law.",book:{id:"11772",title:"Corruption - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg"},signatures:"Fabio Roberto D’Avila and Theodoro Balducci de Oliveira"},{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",abstract:"This chapter discusses the walking accessibility to primary healthcare by the olders in Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA), Portugal, and its contribution for age-friendly environments as a factor of inequity. Constrains emerged from the collation of the supply approach, represented by service catchment areas based on walking distance time, and the demand approach, through a survey. The location and density of primary health network are a major factor, as it is related to distinct land use patterns within the LMA. The settlement structure influences the potential walkability to primary healthcare. The discrepancy between the potential walking accessibility and the real options is notorious, as olders` choices are diversified in terms of transportation modes and destinations, but mostly keeping relatively short time distances. This phenomenon is also influenced by factors such as personal preference, difficulty to walk, negative perceptions about the surroundings, and insufficient care support. This debate is already an effective concern of local authorities with spatial planning, social and health competences, insofar as solutions in terms of service flexibility and new travel solutions adapted to the specific needs of the olders are a growing reality in the LMA, promoting more age-friendly, health, and inclusive environments, and hence an equitable metropolis.",book:{id:"11479",title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg"},signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata"},{id:"82834",title:"Perspective Chapter: Social Work Education in University Curricula for Sustainable Development",slug:"perspective-chapter-social-work-education-in-university-curricula-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106246",abstract:"Universities of both global North and South have been changing from the traditional teaching-learning centers to cater to sustainability issues of those countries. Yet, there is a remarkable difference between the universities in the developed and the developing world. It has been found out that the different disciplines of university curricula can be integrated to address and minimize the adverse effects of unsustainability issues. The graduates of the universities will be the future leaders who have to cater to the needs and cope with the challenges of the next generation. There is a dearth of professional social workers to provide the necessary services as numerous catastrophes occur. The global society needs individuals who are equally sound in the knowledge of theory and the experience of practice. As the contemporary global issues become complex, the world needs competent social workers who can serve in different fields of practice. Social work could be the pivotal discipline in understanding common tragedies of the people to apply problem-solving model with the practitioners who are equipped with twenty-first century skills. Social work has to take a transition from a unidisciplinary to a multi- and trans-disciplinary perspective in achieving this objective.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Upul Lekamge"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:146},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"