\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tFoams had always been a paramount material form for industry and science thanks to their wide application range in several industrial, civil and chemical processes. Foams also have many desirable properties, like lightness, resilience, thermal and acoustic insulation, noise absorption, adjustable airflow resistivity and porosity, resistivity to the diffusion of energy flow like heat and so on. They are also stable materials that can absorb gases or liquids and can be used as filters, bio-scaffolds for tissue engineering. Their principal characteristic is to feature a high surface area capable of storing energy or convert it from one form to another. This property could be used to enhance the performance of foams in terms of life existence, robustness and reliability. For these reasons, this book aim is to offer to readers a broad state-of-the-art situation of the current applications of foams, including thermal and acoustic issues and focusing on their new functions, usages and future trends.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-585-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-584-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-586-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9495e848f41431e0ffb3be12b4d80544",bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Caniato",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10699.jpg",keywords:"Foaming, Vacuum, Molten Metal, Formability, Lightweight, Insulation, Vibration Reduction, Absorption, Resistance, Shock, Environmental Protection, Recycling",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Marco Caniato is an internationally-oriented scientist with 10 years of experience in the Italian Universities of Trieste and of Ferrara. He is the inventor of 6 registered patents among which are "Acoustic panel for noise barriers and noise barrier provided with such a panel" and “Multilayer panel for building use".',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"312499",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Caniato",slug:"marco-caniato",fullName:"Marco Caniato",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/312499/images/system/312499.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Caniato is an internationally-oriented scientist with 10 years of experience in well-known Italian universities. His research is focused on the effects of materials thermal and acoustic insulation and behavior. Specifically, his interests are addressed to their influence on human beings' comfort. Dr. Caniato published more than 80 papers, including conference proceedings, journal papers, and book chapters. He is also the inventor of 6 registered patents and often he is appointed organizer in several international congresses.",institutionString:"Free University of Bozen-Bolzano",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Free University of Bozen-Bolzano",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"42677",title:"Optical Wave Propagation in Kerr Media",doi:"10.5772/51293",slug:"optical-wave-propagation-in-kerr-media",body:'Optical wave propagation and interaction are important effects usable in designing and implementing various photonic devices ranging from passive splitters to active switches to light amplifiers. The material aspects are crucial as strong effects are desirable for efficient and robust devices. Electronics has its silicon that is an amazing rather universal material that makes it possible to implement microelectronics chips of unthinkable performance and functionalities. Photonics does not have such a common material, and therefore one has to choose suitable material system for a given application. However, with silicon being the best technologically mastered material, attempts have been made to employ it also in the implementation of photonic functions. Examples include electro-optic modulators and, of course, high speed photodetectors.
Recently we have investigated physical effects in silicon that are usable for photonic functionalities [1]. Since silicon is a cubic material, it does not possess the classical electro-optic effect exploited in other material systems (e.g. GaAs, InP) for high-speed switching and modulation. On the other hand, as basically all materials, silicon does possess the third-order nonlinear effect, originally known as the Kerr effect, discovered by J. Kerr in 1875 [2]. This is one of the most interesting phenomena for potential exploitation. The two facts, i.e. universality of silicon and the existence of a nonlinear effect in it, led to our thorough exploration of the possibilities that Kerr effect [3] in silicon can offer in terms of potential future photonic devices [4]. As expected, the theoretical, numerical and design studies have been dominated by the optical wave propagation issues [5]. The results are general enough to apply to a wide range of materials that do not possess the classical linear electro-optic effect.
This chapter describes the original results obtained from those studies. Optical wave propagation in a nonlinear medium with a Kerr-type nonlinearity (third-order susceptibility) is analyzed theoretically. New features are found where not only waves and their polarization interactions are present as a result of the nonlinearity of the medium, but also an interplay between the optical and electrical Kerr effects contributes to the resulting functionality. Several novel wave propagation effects are discovered and discussed. They include cross-polarized wave conversion, optical multistability, nonlinear tunability of periodic structures, ultra-fast electro-optic switching, and a new photorefractive effect. Possible applications of these functionalities are addressed as well. The fine physical and mathematical details of our unified treatment are well reviewed in [6].
Electro-optic effects are reviewed [7] pertaining to cubic (e.g. silicon) and isotropic (e.g. glass) materials; therefore, the well-studied and widely exploited (e.g. lithium niobate, gallium arsenide or indium phosphide) linear electro-optic phenomenon is not discussed here.
The Franz-Keldysh effect in semiconductors alters the absorption spectrum of a material. The effect is due to field-induced tunneling between valence and conduction band states. The electric field affects the overlap of electron and hole wavefunctions, which leads to increased absorption at energies lower than the bandgap. This electro-optic effect is thus normally referred to as electro-absorption. The associated electro-refraction effect is coupled via the Kramer-Kronig relation. Both effects depend on the applied electric field, the wavelength, and the carrier density.
Electro-absorption has been used in switches and modulators in various materials including III-V semiconductors. Electro-refraction is quite weak; for example in an undoped silicon at the telecommunication wavelength of 1.55 µm, where it is caused mostly by indirect gap electro-absorption, the value of the refractive index change is [8] Δn = 1.5 x 10-6 at Vapp\n\t\t\t\t\t= 10 V/μm. The effect is polarization dependent and it is a factor of two stronger when the optical field is parallel to the applied field. It is a pure electric-field effect and as such, its speed is high (sub-picosecond range) and determined by the tunneling speed between the conduction and valence bands.
The quantum-confined Stark effect is the similar phenomenon occurring in semiconductor quantum-well structures. In quantum wells when close to the exciton resonances, absorption changes and Kramer-Kronig-related refractive index changes behave in a Kerr-like fashion while the medium response is enhanced due to the electron-hole confinement. The quantum well confinement increases the overlap of electron and hole wave-functions while the applied electric field reduces this overlap. This results in a corresponding reduction in optical absorption. The direct change in the light intensity resulting from this electro-absorption effect has been used in efficient bulk as well waveguide modulators. Waveguide modulators achieve better performance overall due to the confinement of light. Device details are beyond the scope of this chapter and can be found in literature [9].
Injection of charge carriers into an undoped material or removal of free carriers from a doped material, changes the refractive index (generally optical properties, e.g. absorption). Generally, three carrier effects are involved: free-carrier absorption, Burstein-Moss band-filling (shifting the absorption spectrum to shorter wavelengths), and Coulombic interaction of carriers with impurities (shifting the absorption spectrum to longer wavelengths).
The refractive index increases when carriers are depleted from a doped material and it decreases when they are injected into an undoped material. This is the largest effect compared to the electro-refraction and the Kerr effects (see below). It is polarization independent, but generally the slowest of all effects. In the injection case, the switch-off time is limited by minority carrier lifetime (tens of picoseconds at best due to recombination). In the depletion mode, the response time is determined by carrier sweep-out (picoseconds at best due to carrier drift over a finite distance of a sample or a device).
A change in refractive index is always accompanied by a change in absorption, therefore a trade-off is required when utilizing this effect for applications. The residual linear loss is usually negligible at the telecommunications wavelength; the two-photon absorption is normally a concern [10]. Successful devices have been implemented using this effect in combination with a Mach-Zehnder waveguide configuration, one example being a reverse-biased pn junction (silicon) [11], the other being a forward-biased pn junction (indium phosphide) [12], and the third one being a MOS capacitor (fully compatible with standard CMOS) [13]. The designs exploited the free-carrier plasma dispersion effect in efficient ways.
This effect is a pure electric field phenomenon and it is of interest in this work. It is a quadratic electro-optic effect caused by displacement of bound electrons under the influence of an external electric field. It is basically a nonlinear polarization generated in a medium, which results in changes of its refractive index. It exists in crystals, glasses, gasses, basically all materials including the isotropic ones, i.e. also in the cubic silicon and silicon nanocrystals. It is one of the several different phenomena (e.g. self-focusing, soliton generation, four-wave mixing, phase conjugation, etc.) associated with the third-order nonlinearity in a given material, usually described by the third-order susceptibility, χ(3).\n\t\t\t\t
The susceptibility χ(3) is, generally, dispersive. Depending on the frequency region, it describes the nonlinear response in a phenomenological way, which means that it includes combination of all physical effects that contribute to the response in that particular frequency range and usually on different time scales. Normally, the resonant effects are the strongest and thus may dominate the behavior and the values of χ(3). On the other hand, in a lossless medium and/or far away from any resonant frequencies (absorption lines) of a material, the dispersion of χ(3) is insignificant and the response is instantaneous; thus χ(3) can be considered dispersion-less. This was shown using the classical anharmonic oscillator model [14], whereby, basically, the electro-optic Kerr effect (DC Kerr effect) is a quasi-static limit of the optical one (AC Kerr effect).
The AC Kerr effect is responsible for what is generally known as all-optical effects (e.g. self-phase and cross-phase modulation, four-wave mixing). The corresponding refractive index change, Δn, is a linear function of light intensity, I:
where nNL is the nonlinear refractive index coefficient, nL is the linear refractive index, and Z0 is the free space impedance. The external-electric-field-controlled refractive index change is a result of the DC Kerr effect and can be described by:
The pure Kerr effect is very fast, well in the sub-picosecond range. It is polarization dependent; there is a factor of one-third involved whereby parallel optical and electrical fields display a stronger interaction. The Kerr effect makes an isotropic material behave as a uniaxial crystal once the voltage is applied, with an optical axis being in the direction of the external field. The Kerr effect depends on the bandgap energy, thus it is much stronger in, for example, semiconductors than in silica glass. At wavelengths far enough away from the band-edge the effect may be considered as a pure Kerr effect in a moreless lossless medium, although multi-photon absorption might have to be considered in some cases.
In order to avoid large absorption losses required to obtain enhanced resonant nonlinearities, it is preferable to propagate waves at around a half-gap wavelength, as successfully exploited in the past in the III-V semiconductor technology [15]. At that wavelength range in semiconductors, the nonlinear refractive index, arising from the real part of the third-order susceptibility, is still relatively large to be usable. At the same time the two-photon absorption that contributes to the imaginary part of the third-order susceptibility, is relatively low to obtain reasonable propagation lengths. The real and imaginary parts are related by causality expressed by the well-known Kramers-Kronig relation.
Since the Kerr effect is bound-electron related, it is very fast and usually dominant. The refractive index change is positive. However, for higher intensities, the nonlinear two-photon absorption will start generate more free carriers as intensities increase. The free-carrier refraction is negative and slow; therefore, it is desirable to avoid such ranges of optical intensities that may lead to large nonlinear losses of propagating waves. A strong and low-loss interaction of propagating waves is the key to designing and developing efficient and robust optoelectronic devices such as switches or modulators.
The fundamental problem with the third-order nonlinearity is that the effect is very weak in most materials. The promise of the development of new materials that fall under the umbrella of nanotechnology is quite attractive. Materials are being developed on the nanometer scale, thus promising a potential to open a new world of scalability and integration. Reducing the size of the optical material structures to a nanoscale leads to significant (orders of magnitudes) enhancements of the third-order optical susceptibility due to the confinement effect. Combined with optical waveguide enhancing effects (e.g. photonic crystals or high-contrast slot waveguides), a much stronger nonlinear interaction of propagating waves and modes is achieved. It is this promise that led us to the studies of nonlinear wave propagation in the Kerr media, with integrated optoelectronics and nanophotonics being the main area for potential applications.
The interaction of a light wave with a propagating medium and additionally with an applied external electric field is described by the nonlinear wave equation. When considering the general vector nonlinear wave equation, the polarization components are mutually coupled nonlinearly thus yielding coupled differential equations. Finding solutions to such a nonlinear system, which possess physical meaning, is a challenging problem even with today’s available powerful computing technology. In order to obtain at least an approximate analytical solution that would offer an insight into the complexity of the problem, simplifying assumptions have to be made3.
In a third-order nonlinear medium, the relationship between the nonlinear polarization and the electric field vector of an optical wave is governed by a fourth-ranked susceptibility tensor,
In the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) with z being the propagation direction, the optical wave field components solution can be written in a form:
where
The second-order correction [16] to the solutions above yields more complex field expressions that, however, provide interesting insight into the waves/components interaction:
In Eq. (2), only the transversal x-component is shown; the transversal y-component is symmetrically identical. The parameter Φ = k0\n\t\t\t\tχ(3)(Eext)2/4nL and is a determining factor in the overall propagation interaction; when Φ = 0, only all-optical effects of self-phase and cross-phase modulation remain with the waves amplitude being constant. Eq. (2) clearly indicates periodic exchange of power between both components along the propagation path, as the second multiplicative term is an amplitude rather than a phase term.
The power densities of both components, px and py, with the total power being pT, can then be found as:
The function f =Z0\n\t\t\t\t[1-cos(2Φz)]/nL(Eext)2 (Z0\n\t\t\t\t= 377 Ω) is the key variable controlling the interaction. As can be seen form Eq. (3), the power exchange is controlled by both, the optical power in the interacting waves (all-optical effect) and the applied external electric field (electrical Kerr effect). It should be pointed out that the nonlinear susceptibility of various materials is not a unique quantity as several physical effects contribute to a material response on different time scales [18]. Also, the third-order susceptibility possesses normally real and imaginary parts that correspond to the nonlinear phase and loss, respectively. A summary of nonlinear parameters of a number of materials relevant to the optical wave propagation issues is given in19.
The power exchange described by Eq. (3) represents basically cross-polarized wave conversion controlled optically as well as electrically. The optical control is obtained via the optical Kerr effect whereby the intensity of the wave changes the refractive index of the material. In silicon nanocrystal, for example, Δn = 2 x 10-6 at an intensity of 106\n\t\t\t\tW/cm2. The price paid for this all-optical control is absorption that leads to the total power loss. Linear absorption is usually negligible since it is desirable that the waves propagate in the transparent region of a given material. The nonlinear absorption however can and does play a negative role due to two-photon or even three-photon absorption. The more common two-photon absorption coefficient causes the nonlinear absorption increase with a square of the intensity thus becoming detrimental at higher wave power densities such as those in optical waveguides and optical fibers.
The electrical control is achieved via the electrical Kerr effect whereby bound electrons in the material are displaced by an electric field, which leads to changes in refractive index with the square of the voltage. In silicon nanocrystal, for example, Δn = 4.2 x 10-5 at an electric field of 10\n\t\t\t\tV/μm. The attractiveness in exploiting this electro-optic control is in its extremely high speed in the subpicosecond range. An example of electrically controlled periodic power exchange in silicon nanocrystal20 is shown in figure 1. The applied electric field values are Eext(1)\n\t\t\t\t= 0.8 V/μm, Eext(2)\n\t\t\t\t=2 V/μm, Eext(1)\n\t\t\t\t=3 V/μm, respectively. The total optical power is 0.11 W/cm2.
Electrically controlled cross-polarized wave-conversion power exchange
Waves propagating in a resonator filled with an optical Kerr medium that is also subject to an external electric field establish nonlinear behaviour characterized by hysteresis. The shape and the size of the hysteresis transfer function of such a nonlinear optical resonator [21] are controlled by the electric field as well as by the power inside the resonator. Interplay between self-modulation optical and quadratic electro-optic effects is conveniently described using the concept of an effective nonlinear refractive index [22], neff\n\t\t\t\t= nL\n\t\t\t\t+ 3 χ(3)\n\t\t\t\t(Eext)2\n\t\t\t\t+3 χ(3)\n\t\t\t\t(Eopt)2/4. The transfer function of the resonator is written as:
It is controlled by the phase parameter, γ, which is a function of the intensity, the electric field, and the wavelength. Figure 2 is an example of the nonlinear behaviour of the input-output characteristic as it depends on the external electric field. A material with χ(3)\n\t\t\t\t= -9 x 10-16\n\t\t\t\tcm2/V2 (silicon) was used and Eext 1, 2, 3, 4, 5\n\t\t\t\t= 0.5, 0.8, 7, 8, 9 V/μm, respectively.
Input-output characteristic of optical nonlinear resonator for different external electric fields
The dashed lines are the unstable optical outputs for given dc electric fields that cause the multistabilities. The electric field controls the required optical input for bistable switching as well as the corresponding output values. Some outputs, which are unstable, become stable, and vice versa, for different biases. This is a tuning property that combined with the previously discussed switching/power-exchange behavior suggests electrically controlled tunable reconfigurability. One can construct a phase diagram of all possible stable optical outputs for a given input as a function of the external electric field [23].
The analysis concludes that the dependence of the system output evolution on the external electric field exhibits a hysteresis-like character as much as with respect to the optical input/output intensity levels. For example, the value of the optical output, at a certain electric field, depends on the history of that field. Such an optically stored electric hysteresis control is a novel feature that can be potentially utilized in the future applications. For example, this hysteresis effect can be used to store an electrical signal (information) optically since the optical system remembers and stores the action of the past electrical signal behavior.
The rich dispersion properties of Bragg gratings offer many interesting wave propagation features when a nonlinear Kerr medium is incorporated into a grating structure. The key feature is the well-known dispersion property of Bragg gratings whereby their dispersive response is very strong when the operating wavelength is sufficiently close to the Bragg resonance [24] and even if the refractive index changes are very small. An electronically tunable Bragg grating can be constructed based on the third-order nonlinearity discussed here. The nonlinear wave propagation characteristics become interesting and attractive for potential applications.
A homogenous electrical field is known to control, via the Kerr quadratic electro-optic effect, the average refractive index and the birefringence [25]. An inhomogeneous (spatially profiled) electric field bias has been proposed to mediate a linear electro-optic waveguide, by which an effective electro-optic grating is induced [26]. We proposed a novel scheme in which a spatially modulated electric field is applied to a Kerr-nonlinear periodic structure [27]. It was found that several phenomena, including the modulation instability gain, the amplitude (and the width) of the gap soliton, and the band gap, can be efficiently electrically controlled, as long as a proper spatial profile of the electric field is formed.
This can be explained by noting that the electrical spatial profile needs to be designed to act as an extension of the linear perturbation of the periodic structure. An illustrative example of an electrical field bias that has a quasi square-wave shape, which is further modulated by a slow profile, was studied. It was found that, besides the functionality of the periodic part in inducing/controlling all above mentioned phenomena, the slow part of the spatial electrical bias was able to manipulate the linear and nonlinear switching parameters of the band gap. The action of this inhomogeneous electric field is facilitated via the Kerr quadratic electro-optic effect such that the structure’s coupling coefficient as well as the average refractive index are controlled.
The effective average refractive index,
It can be seen from Eq. (5) that the band gap width is electrically controlled through the effective coupling coefficient
We note that intensive optical excitations can detune themselves (totally or partially) out from a band gap of a periodic medium [28]. As the external electric field also controls the periodic structure dispersion properties, one possesses a Bragg grating band gap that has a dually controllable reflection/transmission characteristic. Using a silicon nanocrystal material [29], figure 3 shows a full simulation of a Bragg grating in a waveguide subjected to an electric field. Both the optical and electrical controls are demonstrated.
The transmitivity of 5-mm nonlinear waveguide with grating, as function of external electric field and input optical power density; waveguide filled with silicon nanocrystal
The Kerr nonlinearity is usually weak in most materials, although some new materials being developed with nanotechnologies offer promise of significantly enhanced third-order nonlinear coefficients. Silicon nanocrystals can serve as a good example of such a promising material with a stronger nonlinearity of at least one order of magnitude larger than in the bulk counterpart [19]. In order to obtain strong interaction of propagating waves, it is not only the material’s nonlinearity that is important. The interaction can be drastically enhanced when optical waves are confined to within a small interaction volume, possibly on the order of less than the wavelength of the waves. Photonic crystal structures, nanoresonators or slot optical waveguides offer such enhanced light confinement.
A combination of all nonlinear interaction enhancing approaches is demonstrated in a Kerr switch design [7] where a ring nanoresonator structure coupled with a slot waveguide filled with silicon nanocrystal is used. For a nominal design wavelength of λ = 1.55 µm and the
resonator’s length of 38 µm, the free spectral range of 15.5 nm was obtained with the linewidth of 0.043 nm. The transmission characteristics are shown in figure 4 for zero refractive index change and for a 10 dB extinction ratio, respectively.
This shift in figure 4 requires an effective index change of Δneff\n\t\t\t\t= 1.9 x 10-5, which in turn calls for the material index change of ΔnSi-nc\n\t\t\t\t= 3.8 x 10-5. Taking an experimental value for silicon nanocrystal as χ(3)\n\t\t\t\t= 2 x 10-14\n\t\t\t\tcm2/V2 (29% of Si in SiO2), the refractive index change for a voltage of 1V/100 nm is ΔnSi-nc\n\t\t\t\t= 4.2 x 10-5. The nonlinear loss coefficient is β2\n\t\t\t\t= 70 cm/GW. Taking the power inside the waveguide as 4 mW and with the cross-section being 4 x 10-10\n\t\t\t\tcm2, the nonlinear absorption per one round trip is less than 0.03 dB. This is less than in [30], where the loss is due to free carriers. The Kerr effect is as fast as sub-picoseconds. The practical speed of the switch is limited by the capacitance of the electrical contacts onto the resonator/waveguide configuration. For realistic parameters chosen7, the capacitance is approximately 0.01pF, which with 50 Ω yields a theoretical bandwidth of 300 GHz.
The spectra of Kerr switch.
Polarization dynamics of ultra-short pulses propagating in an electrically biased silicon waveguide31 showed interesting features related to wave propagation in nonlinear media. An external electric filed applied to a cubic material induces birefringence via the quadratic
electro-optic effect (DC Kerr effect). Transmitted optical pulse polarization can thus be controlled by adjusting the magnitude of the external electric field. When studying propagation of waves in semiconductor materials, the free-carrier induced susceptibility needs to be accounted for by including the free-carrier index changes and the free-carrier absorption into the analysis [31, 32]. The birefringence coefficient as it depends on the applied external electric field can be written as:
where Δβ is the material linear birefringence. Figure 5 illustrates the electrical-control effect by showing the polarization component transmission coefficient of a 6-mm long waveguide as it changes with the input optical power of a 70-fs long Gaussian pulse.
It should be pointed out that the quantities Eext1 and Eext2 are amplitudes of the electric field that has, generally, a certain profile along the propagation direction (along the waveguide). Shaping the electric field offers an additional control parameter. The temporal profile of the ultra-short pulse can be governed by a field profile properly designed [31]; an example of a profile is an exponential dependence such that:
Fig. 5: Transmission coefficient of an electrically induced birefringence waveguide; Eext1=12.5 V/μm, Eext2=0 V/μm, Δβ=2x10-5k0.
where L is the length of the electric field profiling along the propagation direction, and α is a design parameter determining the rate of decay of the exponential profile. Figure 6 illustrates the effect of a properly designed spatial profile of the control electric field for a Gaussian 70-fs pulse traveling along a 2-cm long waveguide. The azimuths of the pulse are chosen within the polarization instability regime. The field shape design parameter α = 57.5 m-1.
Transmission of Gaussian pulse through electric-field profiled nonlinear waveguide
The crystal symmetry in cubic or isotropic materials, e.g. silicon or glass, etc., can be broken via the third-order nonlinearity by applying an external electric field. This causes such materials behave as if they possessed the linear electro-optic effect. The photorefractive effect has been known since the early 1960\'s [33]; it was observed in many electro-optic crystals, including
It is therefore interesting to investigate the existence and properties of the photorefractive effect in materials without the natural linear electro-optic effect, and exploit the third-order nonlinearity to establish it [6]. The detailed and complex spatio-temporal nonlinear analysis of two contra-propagating waves, including the free carriers in a semiconductor, shows that the photorefractive effect can lead to gain or loss of one of the waves (signal or probe). The power exchange with the other wave (pump) is controlled by the polarity of the external electric field. This is electronically controlled unidirectional power transfer. It may also be considered as a parametric process.
Figure 7 shows an example of such power transfer in a silicon waveguide at λ = 1.55 μm with an effective cross-section of 0.3 μm2, linear loss of 0.57 cm-1, and an n-doping of 1019\n\t\t\t\tcm-3.
Net signal gain in electrically induced photorefractive silicon waveguide
As can be seen in the figure, the net signal gain can be achieved despite material losses. Also, as is expected in any photorefractive medium, the net signal gain increases with decreasing input signal power for a constant pump power.
If the frequency detuning, Ω, is different from zero, gain enhancement will be experienced at a certain frequency detuning, i.e. at which the amplitude of the photo-induced space charge electric field is maximized [6]. The net signal gain versus frequency detuning is exhibited in figure 8.
Net signal gain enhancement versus frequency detuning; Eext\n\t\t\t\t\t\t= 25 V/μm\n\t\t\t\t\t
This work focused on investigating optical wave propagation properties and associated potential devices functionalities in Kerr-type media with applied external electric field. The assisting external fields induce a quadratic electro-optic effect in a centro-symmetric (cubic, isotropic) third-order nonlinear materials (e.g. glass, silicon, silicon nanocrystal). If the optical field of propagating waves is sufficiently intense, the all-optical effects start to appear as well. The interplay between these two effects (the Kerr electro-optic and all-optical effects) was the main focus with the goal to demonstrate phenomena potentially useful in the design of novel photonic devices. Although the few presented numerical examples are for silicon, silicon nanocrystal or silicon nanowires, chosen due to the silicon’s attractiveness in its integreability with standard microelectronics technologies, the obtained results are applicable to a variety of other optical materials, including silica glass, GaAs bulk, CdTe bulk, GaAs and InP quantum wells, CdTe nanocrystal, CdS nanocrystal, poly (β-pinene), fullerene-containing polyurethane films, natural rubber, and many others.
Optical waves propagating in an electro-optic-Kerr-effect-induced birefringence medium were studied showing electrical and optical control of power exchange between their components. The birefringence is proportional to the square of an applied external electric field. The concept of an effective refractive index containing nonlinear optical as well as electrical dependencies was introduced to model Kerr nonlinear wave propagation behaviour when the material is subjected to external electric fields The wave properties suggest that one can exploit them in designing novel photonic devices, such as, for example, an optically controlled electro-optical switch or an electronically controlled all-optical modulator.
An optical Fabry–Pérot resonator filled with a Kerr nonlinear material and subjected to an external electric field was investigated. As expected, the optical input-output transfer function displays hysteresis that is controlled by the applied electric field. The stability analysis revealed electronically-tunable optical multi-stability of the resonator. This means that the state of the optical intensity implies a desired information for a given external electric field. Such a feature offers a new functionality whereby electrical information can be stored optically.
When a Bragg grating is made in a Kerr material, the electrically induced control of the spatial inhomogeneity is established. As a result, the modulation instability gain was found to be electrically controlled. This suggests a possible realization of an electrically controlled pulse generator. Also, the amplitude and the width of the gap soliton can be, in such a case, electrically adjustable, and thus a tunable soliton channel is possible. The external electric field having a spatial profile modulated by a slow varying profile makes it possible to control the nonlinear grating band gap electrically very efficiently compared to other known means, the reason being that by profiling the electric field one gains a direct control over the grating coupling coefficients.
Ultra-short optical pulses propagating in a nonlinear Kerr medium while an external electric field was applied, was studied. A silicon waveguide was considered. Several realistic effects were taken into account, including large linear loss, nonlinear anisotropy, two-photon absorption, and associated free carriers. It was shown that the silicon waveguide can be used as a practical platform for all-optical applications, including polarization switching and pulse shaping. A properly designed of the external electric spatial profile was shown to help achieve polarization instability regime, which is important for realizing sensitive polarization discriminating devices.
The new photorefractive effect in cubic materials (e.g. silicon nanocrystal) was established and investigated. As cubic materials do not possess the linear electro-optic effect, the photorefractive effect is not readily obtained. We demonstrated that a proper external electric field can assist in realizing the effect in such materials and structures, for example in silicon waveguides. Despite the linear and nonlinear losses, it was shown that a weak signal counter-propagating with a strong pump can experience a net gain. One may suggest that integrated photorefractive devices that are optically and electronically controlled can be designed based on this new phenomenon.
The four-wave mixing (FWM) phenomenon was not examined in this work. However, since it is a nonlinear process that takes place in a third-order nonlinear medium, resulting in the generation of a new optical wave with a new frequency (parametric process), it is realizable in the Kerr media considered here. As it is known, a readily efficient FWM process cannot be achieved because of the phase-mismatching dilemma. One way to achieve efficient FWM is to utilize a nonlinear periodic structure [35]. Based on the work presented here, a properly profiled external electric field could be employed to achieve a tunable quasi-phase matching operation. It is thus interesting to investigate the FWM phenomenon in the presence of an external electric field, as this is very important in realizing tunable devices for all-optical communications and processing.
As a conclusion, owing to its potential for integration with micro-electronics, the silicon-based technology is considered one of the most important means for photonic applications. The dual electro-optical and all-optical functionality studied here in materials of the same symmetry as silicon and its derivatives, resulting from the Kerr effect, offers a promise and a potential for realizing technologically compatible and implementation friendly electrically-controlled all-optical devices and/or optically controlled electro-optical devices that can be readily integrated onto a common material platform.
Optical wave propagation in a Kerr-type nonlinear medium has been analyzed theoretically and studied numerically. New features were found where not only waves and their polarization interactions are present as a result of the nonlinearity of the medium, but also an interplay between the optical and electrical Kerr effects contributes to the resulting functionality. Several novel wave propagation effects were discovered. They include cross-polarized wave conversion, optical multistability, nonlinear tunability of periodic structures, ultra-fast electro-optic switching, and a new photorefractive effect. Possible applications of such novel functionalities were discussed. Examples utilizing silicon as the common semiconductor material were given.
Authors acknowledge generous support for this work from the National Science and Engineering Council (NSERC), The Mathematics of Information Technology and Complex Systems (MITACS) Network of Excellence, and OZ Optics, Ltd. of Kanata, Ontario, all of Canada; and from the European Union project NANOBASE, # CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0074, of the Czech Republic.
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is an ultrafiltrate of plasma, which resides in two compartments within the central nervous system (Figure 1). The ventricular system comprises four interconnected cavities in the brain and contains a network of ependymal cells forming the choroid plexus which has been believed to be the site of production of the CSF. The ventricular system is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord (from the fourth ventricle) and allows the CSF to continuously bathe the cranium and the spine. The subarachnoid spaces form openings termed as subarachnoid cisterns which separate the arachnoid and the pia mater, thereby creating an anatomic space between the two meninges. These cisterns are filled with cerebrospinal fluid and form the second compartment where the CSF flows within the cranial cavity.
\nThe anatomy of the fluid compartments of the brain: ventricular and cisternal systems.
Adult CSF volume is estimated to be 150 ml with a distribution of 125 ml within the subarachnoid spaces and 25 ml within the ventricles. This difference in the volume of CSF between the two compartments is important to understand the function of the CSF in a unique perspective.
\nThe CSF secretion varies between individuals, usually ranging between 400 and 600 ml per day in an adult. The constant secretion of CSF contributes to a four to five times turnover per 24-h period. This turnover is of immense importance in exploring the functions of the CSF which have not yet been understood quite well. While the CSF has been considered as a source of nutrition and waste removal and a mechanically buoyant substance, cushioning the brain, the newer insights of the glymphatic pathways have demonstrated a critical role of CSF flow as a physiological buffer for brain functioning.
\nWith a closely regulated composition, the CSF is valuable in analyzing cerebral pathologies. Alterations in the regulation of localized temperatures, malformation of proteins, and impeding clearance of pathologic proteins are the pathophysiological mechanisms for onset and progress of most neurodegenerative disorders as well as secondary brain damage in the setting of trauma. It is, however, interesting to analyze how the impairment of CSF inflow or outflow through the glymphatic system might lead to the cascade of these degenerative and traumatic pathologies.
\nThe amount of CSF within the CSF compartments is a consequence of the net filtration and absorption of water through the selectively permeable capillary walls traversing through the brain tissue. This net effect is governed by the physiological or pathological conditions prevailing within these compartments. The glymphatic system branches along the course of the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and venules, forming a paravascular cast. This CSF interacts with the end feet of glia and indirectly with neurons to establish an exchange with the brain ISF (Figure 2).
\nArtistic representation that depicts the persistence of the paravascular system through the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. This indicates that just as there is a vascular cast of the brain, there is a paravascular system cast as well. Courtesy: Cherian and Beltran [1].
The AQP4 channels mediate the bidirectional transport of water in response to passive osmotic and hydraulic pressure gradients [2, 3], resulting in the CSF-ISF exchange [4]. This makes the glymphatic system extremely pressure dependent. Any increase of pressure in the glymphatic system would produce the passage of fluid toward the interstitial space until the pressure in both compartments is equalized. This exchange drives the removal of exogenous molecules from the interstitial spaces of the brain [5, 6] (Figure 3).
\nThe anatomy of the Virchow Robin spaces forming an extensive network of communication within the glymphatic pathway. Courtesy: Orešković and Klarica [7].
The dependence of AQP4 to pressure gradients in both senses might be the underlying mechanism leading to the recently described “shift edema” following trauma [8] and also would explain the advantages of cisternostomy over craniectomy for the treatment in the short- and long-term follow-up of the patients [9]. Subsequent to subarachnoid hemorrhage, red blood cells are confined to the subarachnoid space and do not enter the VRS as pial membranes between the PVS and the SAS prevent the exchange of large molecules [10] (Figure 4).
\nSchematic representation of the mechanism of CSF-shift edema following traumatic brain injury. The AQP-4 channels on the lining of VRS allow the shift of CSF from the cisterns into the brain parenchyma leading to brain edema.
The brain can be assumed as a water-cooled system with the CSF as a medium of heat removal and the paranasal sinuses as cooling surfaces. The close contact of the PNS with the suprasellar cisterns helps create a radiation system, and the mechanical process of breathing allows the sinuses to deliver the acquired heat from the brain parenchyma which is dumped by the CSF residing in the cisterns. Evaporation at the sinus surface causes cooling effect that is transmitted to the cisterns, dissipating the heat from the CSF which is acquired from the brain parenchyma [1] (Figure 5).
\nClose communication of the paranasal sinuses with the cisterns creating a brain cooling unit. Courtesy: Cherian and Beltran [1].
This cooling unit can be hypothesized to be a fundamental thermostat, and any hindrance in CSF flow might explain the cascade of protein misfolding secondary to heat accumulation as seen in neurodegeneration. While brain cooling is a passive process that occurs throughout the day, brain cleaning is more pronounced nocturnally. It is believed that brain cleaning is regulated by AQP4 and exchanges between interstitial fluid and CSF have been demonstrated to be more active during sleep due to an expansion of the extracellular space, being increased by 60% during sleep [11], particularly in the lateral position [12]. The increased glymphatic clearance of the metabolic waste products generated by neural activity in the awake brain occurs during sleep, explaining the need to sleep for restoring alertness and activity.
\nCSF is permanently produced and absorbed in the whole CSF system as a consequence of filtration and reabsorption of water volume through the capillary walls into the surrounding brain tissue. The three- to fourfold turnover rate in CSF production allows for a rigorous cerebral buffering at physiological states which helps maintain brain function. The brain generates tremendous amount of heat throughout the day which needs to be removed essentially to prevent protein misfolding and generation of free radicals. This warrants a system to allow for heat removal in the form of cooling as well as cleaning of metabolic wastes to prevent accumulation of toxic metabolites.
\nAt a physiological state, the difference in arterial and venous hydrostatic and osmotic pressures allows a unidirectional flow of water and other molecules (soluble waste), with water leaving from the arterial end and molecules entering at the venous end. This simultaneous exchange of water and waste at two different ends can thus be regarded as a means of cleaning for the brain [5].
\nA deeper insight to this simultaneous exchange of water and waste in the blood vessels reveals the orientation of the brain vasculature, which, unlike other organs, runs in an opposite fashion, with the primary arteries lying ventral and more medially, whereas the principal veins run in a dorsal and lateral manner. Additionally, the disposition of white matter tracts creates an anisotropic field that facilitates the direction of fluid and molecules toward the main veins, which is further directed by changes in arteriovenous pressure gradients.
\nThe paravascular system therefore maintains a very intricate and evolved system through extensive branching of vessels in the brain along with its paravascular system, thus following the vascular cast of the brain. This intricate system is limited by the selectively permeable capillary walls which is only large enough for a red blood cell to permeate through and may indeed be even more intricate than the vessels, since the limiting dimension of the capillaries is 3 in diameter, which is just large enough for a red blood corpuscle to squeeze through (Figure 6).
\nSchematic representation of the Virchow Robin spaces traveling around the blood vessels from the cisterns into the brain. Courtesy: Cherian and Beltran [1].
The arteriovenous pressure difference described above can lead to the potential role of breathing on the dynamics of CSF flow within the extensive paravascular system. The close relationship of the paranasal sinuses with the basal cisterns provides an excellent radiation chamber that can help in buffering the thermal environment of the brain through continuous evaporation of the mucosa-lined sinus surfaces in contact with the external atmosphere, hence the hypothesis of breathing playing an important role in the cooling of the brain and possibly the clearance of molecules within the paravascular system.
\nAttributed to the expression and function of the AQP-4 channels, the brain cleaning mechanism is predominant during sleep. Sleep increases the expansion of the extracellular spaces by up to 60% which allows for a maximal exchange of substances to and fro the CSF and the ISF compartments [11]. This phenomenon is particularly observed in the lateral position [12]. Therefore, the restorative properties of sleep may be linked to increased glymphatic clearance of the metabolic waste products that are generated by neural activity in the awake brain. This might underpin the beneficial effects of sleep, in clearance of metabolic byproducts, the phenomenon of jetlag, and the problems with lack of sleep.
\nThe primary CSF delivery mechanism, from the subarachnoid space into the paravascular system and along the paravascular space, appears to be arterial pulsatility [6, 13], coupled with brain compliance [2] (Figure 7). Arterial pulsatility, coupled with a perivascular compliance, generates successive physical brain compression and expansion, allowing the brain to act like a sponge by virtue of the cycle-dependent systolic-diastolic circulatory movement of blood through the brain [14]. This reciprocal movement influences the flow of fluids in the brain parenchyma to initiate a “pumping” effect of CSF around the vessels. These movements are driven by physiological oscillations of arterial and venous blood during craniospinal blood circulation, which are influenced by respiration, body activity, and posture [7].
\nGraphical representation of pulsations in the artery and veins being the driving force to the CSF in the paravascular pathway.
Loss of arterial elasticity may lead to an impairment of this “pumping” effect in the paravascular system. This is classically seen in small vessel disease or as a consequence of low craniospinal compliance that impedes the expansion of the arteries, as can be seen in normal pressure hydrocephalus, gliosis [15], or post-traumatic hypertension. This would result in a decrease of CSF turnover that hinders the clearance of metabolites [16] and generates excess metabolic heat, thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of neurological diseases.
\nAging is a phenomenon that leads to a decline in the exchange efficiency between CSF in the paravascular spaces, and ISF occurs. This can be related to a reduction in the vessel wall pulsatility of intracortical arterioles and the widespread loss of perivascular AQP4 channels [17]. This “hardening” of vessel walls, as a consequence of aging, decreases the drainage of amyloid peptides, which may deposit in the paravascular pathways as cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). These deposits further impede the drainage of ISF along the paravascular spaces, resulting in loss of homeostasis of the neuronal environment that may contribute to neuronal malfunction [15, 18]. The concurrent loss of localized thermal regulation by the paravascular pathway may add to the cascade of damage by modification of proteinaceous components, which are very sensitive to subtle changes in temperature. These structural changes in molecular geometries might disturb solubility and thus the drainage of this metabolic waste, giving rise to a vicious circle.
\nThe functional impairment of the paravascular system appears to be an underlying condition of the aging human brain [19], which has also been related to various CNS disorders, such as neurodegenerative disorders that are brought on by the accumulation of misfolded, prion-like proteins (e.g., Alzheimer’s or amyloid angiopathy) [17, 20, 21], normal pressure hydrocephalus [19, 22, 23], post-traumatic encephalopathy [24, 25], or neuroinflammatory disorders, such as multiple sclerosis. Furthermore, the presence of the paravascular system would explain the advantages of cisternostomy over decompressive craniectomy, in the treatment of acute brain trauma [8, 26].
\nDecreased intracranial compliance leads to increased intraparenchymal pressure, affecting the arterial perfusion of the brain and promoting venous congestion. On the whole, the kinetics of the fluid in the paravascular spaces is impaired. Should there be a loss of AQP4 localization, as seen in reactive astrogliosis and the aging brain, or following trauma or ischemia, or if the CSF outflow is reduced as a consequence of either CSF flow obstruction, cerebral artery pulsatility inefficiency, cerebrospinal venous insufficiency, or lymphatic disorders [27], the localized perivascular CSF recirculation may be impaired.
\nThe corresponding author serendipitously uncovered the fact that opening cisterns in severe head trauma had the effect of abating severe brain swelling while drastically reducing the requirement for decompressive hemicraniectomies [24, 28]. His decade-long work on this led him to believe that CSF was ingressing to the brain through the Virchow Robin spaces, producing a condition which has been recently termed as CSF shift edema. Experimental studies on the glymphatic system by Iliff et al. categorically proved the communication of the CSF with the brain through the Virchow Robin spaces, or paravascular spaces, and that this pathway was critical for clearing the brain of metabolites [5, 6]. Perhaps the biggest clinical implication of this finding is the microsurgical opening of the cisterns: cisternostomy, in cases of moderate to severe head injury in order to reverse CSF shift edema, which is the mainstay of the cascade of the TBI damage. This procedure has been discussed in detail in previous publications and prevents progression to diffuse axonal damage or cortical stretch as otherwise seen in decompressive procedures. The phenomenal prognosis in the patients undergoing cisternostomy led the author to investigate the paravascular system in further depth, as well as CSF shifts, and subsequently the likely functionality of the paravascular system (Figure 8).
\n(a) Raised cisternal pressure due to the traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage shifts cerebrospinal fluid into the brain, causing raised intracerebral pressure. (b) Opening of the cisterns reverses the cisternal pressure gradient, causing cerebrospinal fluid to flow back into the cisterns, thus decreasing the brain pressure. (c) Decompressive hemicraniectomy allows extracalvarial herniation, leading to further deterioration due to axonal stretch and altered blood flow dynamics. Courtesy: Cherian et al. [24].
Today, cisternostomy has shown to be efficacious as a primary surgical intervention in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. While following the principles of reversal of CSF shift edema, cisternostomy has proven to help in the prognosis by decreasing the rates of morbidities and mortalities [22]. It is now being practiced in many neurosurgical centers around the world [25] and has also been accepted as one of the options of surgical intervention in the ongoing Global Neurotrauma Outcomes Study [29].
\nThe paravascular system, its cleaning and cooling properties, and the consequent pathophysiological conditions secondary to the impedance of this system as well as potential treatment measures have not yet been investigated in detail. Reports of an experiment where a bacteriophage is being introduced into the olfactory system of a mouse resulted in the reversal of Alzheimer’s symptoms. This could be due to the clearance of the obstructed paravascular system as the phage traveled into the cisterns through the perineural space of the olfactory. This observation opens doors for a paradigm shift in the management of neurodegenerative diseases and warrants extensive research. Further experimental work in this area will include the injection of paramagnetic nanoparticles into the suprasellar cisterns of mice, porcine, or baboon models, where the movement of these nanoparticles may be observed with a T1 W3T MRI.
\nThe paravascular system is a branching structure that extensively connects the cells and vessels within the brain. The intricacy of the system and the challenges in performing studies have been a hurdle in exploring this system. However, an in-depth analysis of brain fluid dynamics and its relationship to the cardiopulmonary mechanisms can provide a game changing pathway to the preventive and therapeutic measures of various pathophysiological brain disorders.
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