\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"713",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Irrigation Systems and Practices in Challenging Environments",title:"Irrigation Systems and Practices in Challenging Environments",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book Irrigation Systems and Practices in Challenging Environments is divided into two interesting sections, with the first section titled Agricultural Water Productivity in Stressed Environments, which consists of nine chapters technically crafted by experts in their own right in their fields of expertise. Topics range from effects of irrigation on the physiology of plants, deficit irrigation practices and the genetic manipulation, to creating drought tolerant variety and a host of interesting topics to cater for the those interested in the plant water soil atmosphere relationships and agronomic practices relevant in many challenging environments, more so with the onslaught of global warming, climate change and the accompanying agro-meteorological impacts. 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He holds a BSc in Agricultural Engineering (Water Resources Engineering) from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, a MSc in Irrigation and Drainage Engineering from Utah State University, United States of America, and a PhD in Structural Engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia. Upon graduating, he worked as an assistant engineer with the then Water & Soil Division of the Ministry of Works and Development, Christchurch, New Zealand, for a year, involved with the irrigation schemes of the Canterbury Plains. Dr Lee is a member of the Board of Engineers Malaysia (2009-2012) and Board of Quantity Surveyors Malaysia (2011-2013), and is also the Honorary Secretary of the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (2010-2012). 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Adequate planning can be accomplished using the various technologies that are available to us today, and it is important to remember that any alteration to position in relationship to the prosthesis used during planning can compromise the final result with alteration of occlusion, esthetics and biomechanics resulting. In order to accurately plan, a thorough clinical evaluation will be necessary and should include assessment of smile line, gingival morphology, the inter-arch relationship, condition and gingival margin positions of adjacent teeth, as well as supporting tissue conditions [4-6].
If the presenting conditions are deemed unfavorable, it is important that corrections be made via reconstruction of soft tissue, bone, and tooth positioning. An adequate amount of bone is important because a deficiency can jeopardize stability and lead to recession, loss of papilla and inadequate positioning; an inadequate amount of soft tissue will lead to a poor esthetic outcome [7-9]. Therefore, when bone quality and quantity are not sufficient, you must use regeneration techniques during the initial phase of treatment such as guided bone regeneration, orthodontics, and/or grafting. Other important things to be considered for immediate loading include the implant having primary stability [10,11]. Things that would contraindicate immediate loading include lack of primary stability, parafunction, pathology in the region of implant placement, and systemic alterations such as severe periodontal disease, poor oral hygiene, and smoking. Careful evaluation must be completed before immediate placement and loading be considered.
Ever since dental implants were first successfully employed in restoring completely edentulous mandibles in 1951, implant supported dental rehabilitations of various designs and complexity have been shown to be a reliable and predictable treatment option for both partially and fully edentulous patients [12-14]. The original Branemark protocol dictated that the initial phase of implant integration be at least 4 to 6 months before any restoration was placed [15]. “Conventional loading”, as it is now known, is a reliable, safe, predictable, and accepted treatment modality that has been used as a point of comparison for other dental implant loading protocols.
Within the last decade, clinicians have increasingly begun to explore the possibilities of decreasing treatment time by early placement of the implant-supported restoration, or by placing implants in extraction sockets at the time of extraction [16-18]. Investigators are now increasingly reporting protocols designed to promote shortened treatment periods for implant-supported prostheses.
The concept of implant immediate loading includes all of the advantages of a one stage surgical approach. Also, during the osseointegration process, the patient does not have to use a removable denture, which increases function, speech, stability, comfort and improves certain psychological factors [19]. Splinted implants can decrease the risk of overload to each implant because of the greater surface area and improved biomechanical distribution [20,21].
The primary goal for immediate loading is establishment of direct bone implant contact. The terminology when it comes to immediate loading can sometimes be ambiguous and there many classifications in the literature, so it is important to understand the different techniques that can be used [22]:
The concept of an immediate restoration includes a nonsubmerged first stage surgery and also implies that the occlusal surfaces and implants are loaded with a provisional of definitive restoration [23-25]. A delayed or staged loading refers to an implant prosthesis with occlusal load after more than 3 months (mandible) or 6 months (maxilla) post-implant insertion. Using a delayed approach allows you to use a 2 stage surgical procedure that covers implants with tissue or one stage approach that exposes a portion of the implant at the initial surgery.
Some of the variables that can impact your ability to immediately load include surgical trauma, bone loading trauma, and treatment plans related to implant number. Alveolar and residual bone has a cortical and trabecular component that can be modified by modeling and remodeling. Remodeling allows the bone to respond to its local environment or allows bone repair after traumatic situation [26]. The bone is generally lamellar bone but woven bone might occur during the repair process. Typically, lamellar bone and woven bone are the primary bone tissue types observed around a dental implant. Lamellar bone and woven bone are the primary bone tissue types found around a dental implant. Lamellar bone is organized, highly mineralized and is the strongest bone type. Woven bone is unorganized, less mature, less mineralized and has lower strength and is more flexible [26]. Woven bone can form at a rate of 60μm (micrometers) per day, whereas lamellar bone forms at a rate of up to 10μm per day.
The rationale behind immediate loading is not only to reduce the risk of fibrous tissue formation but also to promote lamellar bone maturation to sustain a continued occlusal load. So when compared to the 2 stage approach, the repair of the implant is separated from the early loading response by 3-6 months. The process of osteotomy preparation and implant insertion causes a regional acceleratory phenomenon of bone repair around the implant interface [26]. Therefore, the organized lamellar bone in the preparation site becomes woven and unorganized next to the implant and at 4 months the bone is still only 60% mineralized lamellar bone- this is sufficient in most bone types and situation for implant loading.
The concept of immediate loading challenges the conventional load-free healing time of 3-6 months before the insertion of restoration. The bone in the thread design is stronger on the day of implant placement as opposed to 3 months later as more mature lamellar bone exists in the implant threads. However, the cellular connection between the implant surface and bone cells does not exist yet [26,27]. On the day of implant placement, there is residual cortical and trabecular bone around the implant and the implant has some contact with this prepared bone. Surgical trauma triggers early cellular repair and increased vascularization to stimulate repair process to injured bone [26,27]. Woven bone formation by appositional growth may start to form as early as the second week after implant placement at a rate of 30-50μm per day. Approximately 3-5 weeks after implant placement, the implant bone interface is weakest and at highest risk of overload since the implant-bone interface is least mineralized and unorganized during this time.
It has been found that immediate loaded failure occurred between 3-5weeks post-operative from mobility without infection [28-29]. The risk of immediate occlusal overload can be decreased by utilizing some techniques such as having more vital bone in contact with the implant interface, minimizing the surgical trauma at implant placement, including thermal injury and mechanical trauma that may result in microfracture of bone during implant placement. In addition, the microfracture of bone may lead to osteonecrosis and possible fibrous and granulation tissue encapsulation around the implant. Death of osteoblasts has been reported to occur at 40 °C [30-31].
Sharawy et al. [32], reported that heat generated in bone next to implant drills depends on design and revolutions of the drill. It was found that the drill rpm of 2500 generated less heat than 2000 rpm and 1250 rpm caused the highest heat and the longest recovery period regardless of drill design. Some other factors that need to be entertained to keep heat minimum may include the drill sharpness, the depth of the osteotomy, the amount of bone prepared, the variation in cortical thickness and the temperature and solution chemistry of the irrigant.
When the implant is substantially compressed against the bone, the interface between implant and bone has a greater area of repair. Self-tapping via implant itself, meaning the implant cuts the bone during placement, can result in greater bone remodeling/woven bone around the implant in initial healing compared to bone tapping before implant placement. The implant should not have any mobility on insertion; excess strain within the bone from torque and space filling may also increase risk of microdamage at the interface [33-35].
The recommended protocol for immediate load is to insert the implant with a torque of 45-60 Ncm [36-37]. This stability helps to ensure that the implant has a relatively rigid fixation in good quality bone. Additional torque may result in pressure necrosis and increase the strain magnitude at the interface and increase amount of damage and remodeling which could decrease strength of bone implant interface.
An alternate approach is to use a reverse torque test of 20Ncm to evaluate the quality of the bone and the interface at initial fixation for evaluating delayed healing. If the implant does not unthread at 20Ncm the resistance indicates that the bone is sufficient density to consider immediate loading.
Once the bone begins to receive occlusal loads by the implant restoration, the interface begins to remodel again. However, the trigger is strain transfer from occlusal function rather than trauma of implant placement.
The ideal microstrain level for bone is the
Localized overload and possible implant failure might be possible due to excess stresses along the implant interface. However, immediate loading does not cause excessive stresses necessarily [26]. Initial response of bone at the implant interface has been evaluated on immediately loaded implants: direct bone-implant-contact with favorable bone quality around the implant has been reported. Brunski showed that a direct bone-implant interface may develop as long as the implant moves less than 100 μm and micromotion beyond 150 resulted in fibrous tissue encapsulation instead of a osseointegration [38]. Studies have shown that immediate loading of an implant interface did not increase risk of fibrous tissue formation. Long term results suggest that loaded implants have less marrow spaces and more compact bone. Greater direct bone contact was noted at the interface, suggesting that early occlusal loading may enhance bone remodeling and further increase bone density compared with unloaded implants [38].
Canullo et al., reported that the extension of bone remodeling was less extensive in cases of immediate placement (1.7mm) rather than delayed placement (3.0mm) [39]. Despite this limit in the healing zone, it has been shown that bone can fill osseous defects around implants if they are 3-walled in nature and <1.5-2.0mm wide. Other interventions such as autogenous bone grafts have been shown to be more osteogenic when used in conjunction with immediately placed implants. However, immediate placement does present some disadvantages. These can include unpredictable site morphology, a potentially limited amount of soft tissue, and risk of failure due to residual periosteal infection. Despite these potential disadvantages, immediate implant placement and immediate implant loading have shown to be favorable in maintaining or increasing bone heights around implants [1-4].
Any treatment plans involving immediate loading should have the goal to minimize the occlusal overload risk and its resultant increase in the remodeling rate of bone. The regional acceleratory phenomenon may replace the bone interface without the additional risk of biomechanical overload. The lower the stress applied to the bone, the lower the microstrain in the bone [26]. This provides conditions that increase the functional surface area to the implant bone interface. The surface area of load may be increased by variables including implant number, implant size, implant design, and body surface conditions. Force applied to the implant bone interface is related to the strain observed and some other factors such as patient conditions, implant position and direction of occlusal load.
Two approaches for immediate occlusal loading with edentulous patient include: over-engineering by placing more implants than the usual treatment plan for the conventional healing period; using selected implants around the arch (3+) to immediately restore with a transitional fixed prosthesis. In this approach, enough number of implants, which are needed to support a fixed prosthesis, are left submerged for the healing period. So, even if all immediately loaded implants fail, a fixed restoration can still be provided to the patient. If any immediately loaded implants survive, then they are also used in the final restoration [40]. This technique can be used where moderate to abundant bone is present in the posterior and anterior to the mental foramen. A study by Scortecci, involved loading all implants initially and splinting all for increased area of load transfer which could decrease stresses along the developing multiple interfaces and increases the stability, retention, and strength of transitional prosthesis during initial healing phase [41]. This technique allows you to use additional implants.
The functional surface area of occlusal load transfer along implant interface may be increased by increasing the implant number, especially when the devices are splinted through bridgework. The biomechanical approach loads additional implants when immediate loading is planned. The lowest percentage of survival for a full arch restoration corresponded to a fewer number of loaded implants.
A rule in traditional prosthetics is that 3 pontics in the posterior of the mouth are contraindicated for a fixed prosthesis because of the amount of force and the flexibility and fatigue strength of the restoration [27]. When only 3 are used to support an immediate restoration there are often 3-4 pontics cantilevered. It has been suggested that additional implants should be placed with the staged healing approach in case one or more fails during the initial loading period. They can then be used in the final restoration to decrease the number of pontics and increase retention of final restoration
An increased number of implants reduces the risk of overload due to the increased implant surface area but also increases the retention of the restoration and decreases the number of pontics [27]. If fracture to a prosthesis or partially unretained restorations occur, the portion that is retained may act as a lever and overload the implants. The increased retention minimizes the occurrence of partially unretained restorations during healing which would be another source of overload to the implants supporting the restoration [27]. Decreases in pontic number also reduce the risk of fracture of the transitional restoration that could be a source of additional load to the remaining implants supporting the prosthesis. As a general rule, more implants should be inserted in maxilla to compensate for less dense bone and increased directions of force often found in the upper arch [27].
The most common number of implants used for a mandibular overdenture is 4-6 splinted in anterior mandible [5,24,42]. In a partially edentulous patient missing multiple teeth, ideally 1 implant should be placed for each missing tooth. For missing single teeth, the implant size, design or surface may be more important. Load may be reduced by reducing occlusal the contact and having a nonfunctional scheme.
The greater the benefit:risk ratio or the lower the risk, the more immediate loading should be considered. For example, a completely edentulous mandible restored with an overdenture supported by 4+ implants is a very low risk condition. If the patient can not tolerate a mandibular denture and does not wear it, the immediate load protocol would be a high benefit. An example of a high risk for immediate load would be posterior single tooth implant- the implant number can not be increased and you can not engage cortical bone; this would be of low benefit when out of the esthetic zone. Additional studies to evaluate risks especially in maxilla are expected [43].
The area of load may also be increased by considering implant size, design, and surface. You can decrease stress by decreasing force applied to the prosthesis. These forces are influenced by patient factors, implant position, cantilever forces, occlusal load direction, occlusal contact positions, and diet.
Implant diameter and length are often emphasized in reports as these values give insight into the bone-to-implant surface area that an implant will provide. Avila et al., described that larger implants provided greater bone-to-implant contact and less susceptibility to cantilever forces following restoration [44]. More importantly, thread design and dimensions dictate the functional bone-to-implant surface area that will resist forces when a given implant is loaded along a given functional axis. Tapered implants offer a conical shape that is consistent with a natural root form but have less surface area which in turn results in increased crestal bone stresses and less primary stability.
For each 3mm increase in length beyond 10mm, you can increase the surface area by more than 20% for a cylinder implant design. Most stresses to an implant bone interface are concentrated at crestal bone. Therefore, increased implant length does little to decrease stress that occurs at the transosteal region around implant. But because immediately restored implant loads the interface before the establishment of a cellular connection, the implant length is more relevant especially in softer bone.
Benefits of increased length are found in the initial stability of the bone implant interface. Remodeling of the interface does not occur uniformly around implant- one region of interface remodels and other remains stable. Added length may allow remodeling in one region while other can stabilize implant. Added length can also allow implant to engage opposing cortical plate which can increase initial stability. Cortical bone has a lower remodeling rate and ensures stable condition during early loading. When trying to evaluate what length implant should be placed, it is important to consider that the survival rate of 10mm or less implants drops to less than 85% in traditional healing; Schnitman et al., found a 50% failure rate in immediately loaded implants with length of 10mm or less [45]. However, recent literature suggests that a high degree of survivability can be reproduced with implants that are at least 3mm in diameter and 8mm in length when splinted with other implants [46,47]. These findings, along with the innovations in implant design, suggest that these values should be revisited.
The functional surface area of each implant support system is related to the width and shape of the implant. Wider root form implants of the same length provide greater bone contact than narrower implants. Occlusal stresses are greatest in concentration at the crest of the ridge after the implant has integrated, so the width may be more important to the length of the implant to decrease the risk of crestal bone overload. Overload can cause early crestal bone loss in immediately loaded implants. The diameter of the implant increases in the molar area for immediate loading, especially when the density is less or the forces are greater. Increasing the width of the implant in molar sites or adding additional implants to increase the surface area in the posterior region can help alleviate overload that may result in crestal bone loss.
The implant body design needs to be more specific for immediate load because maximum stability is needed at the time of placement. After placement, bone has not had time to grow into the recesses or undercuts in the implant body or attach to the conditioned surface before occlusal load is applied. A threaded implant body and insertion process provides a better chance of stabilization. The implant design has a greater impact on the functional surface area than the implant size. The functional surface area is greater during immediate load, and a threaded implant presents many advantages over a pressfit type of implant for immediate load because the design features do not require integration to resist loads and have a greater surface area to resist occlusal forces [48].
The number, spacing, and orientation of the threads affect the amount of area available to resist the forces during immediate loading [49,50]. A greater number of threads means a greater functional surface area at the time of immediate load. The smaller the distance between threads, the greater the thread number corresponds to the surface area. Thread depth is also a variable to consider. Greater depth means a greater functional surf area for immediate load application. Functional surface area is more important when the number of implants cannot increase (less than 4 adjacent teeth are being replaced).
Thread geometry can affect the strength of early osseointegration and bone implant interface. A V- shaped thread design withstands a 10x greater shear force applied to bone compared to a square thread shape. Bone is strongest in compression and weakest in shear loading. Compressive force transfer would decrease microstrain to bone as compared to shear force. Therefore, a square thread design may provide a benefit in immediate load protocols.
The higher the remodeling rate of a loaded interface creates a higher woven bone ratio and weaker bone interface. A square threaded implant design with deeper threads has a 10x reduction in resorption rate. When considering a tapered implant design for immediate load, consider that this type of design allows for a less overall surface area compared to a straight design of the same length, width, and thread number. A tapered design will also have less thread depth near the apical portion of the implant, which reduces the surface area but decreases initial fixation. Thread depth and a tapered body can combine to improve initial stability, and may be a good option in lower density bone when less than 4 teeth are replaced and implant position and number can not be manipulated. Implant number, position and patient factors are more relevant to success and there have been few trials that compare immediate load with different implant thread designs and tapered implant bodies in the edentulous patient [50,51].
When the implant surface is modified with a roughened texture, this increases the bone to implant contact [52,53]. The shear strength of an implant with a roughened texture has been shown to be 5x greater than implants with smooth surface. The surface condition also affects the rate and percentage of bone contact, and lamellar bone formation. Surface coatings and conditions of the implant have been shown to be most beneficial during the initial healing and early loading conditions. For immediate loading, the most desirable surface is one that will allow the greatest percent of bone formation, has the highest bone-implant contact percentage with the highest mineralization rate, and the fastest lamellar bone formation.
A rough surface will initially increase stability; a machined surface is less successful to do so, especially in low density bone. A hydroxyapatite (HA) coating has been shown to decrease resorption rates during occlusal loading, which can increase the percentage of lamellar bone formation at the interface. If the bone is not an ideal density for immediate loading, the surface condition of the implant body may decrease the risk of occlusal overload. In summary, a rough surface provides a better condition than a machine surface; and in good quality bone, the types of surface condition is less relative to the overall implant survival [54].
Strain placed on the bone is influenced by the stress directed to the implant interface [26]. Ways that stress can be reduced include increasing the surface area that supports the occlusal load or by decreasing the force that is applied to the prosthesis. It has been recommended to not remove the prosthesis once it is delivered within first 2 weeks, and that resorbable sutures may be beneficial.
Patient factors such as bruxism and clenching parafunction are forces that are high in magnitude, extensive in duration, and generate primarily horizontal forces to the implant. Parafunction presents a considerable risk and potential contraindication for immediate load due to this resulting in the poorest implant survival data [55]. There is an increased risk of abutment screw loosening, unretained prostheses, fracture of the transitional restoration used in immediate loading when a lever forms and increasing the risk of occlusal overload.
Implant position is an important factor for the edentulous patient. In the partially edentulous patient it is important to eliminate cantilevers on two implants supporting 3 teeth rather than position the implants next to each other with a cantilever. There will be less stress directed towards the implant interface when implants are not in a straight line in an edentulous site [24,36]. Cross-arch splinting is a very effective way to reduce stress within the entire implant support system, especially when there is an antero-posterior (AP) distance between the splinted implants. The splinted arch concept for the completely edentulous patient is advantageous for the immediate load transitional restoration. A line is drawn from the distal of each posterior implant. The distance from this line to the center of the most anterior implant is called the
A-P spread and length of cantilever for framework (a) and final restoration (b).
A square arch form involves smaller A-P spreads between splinted implants and should have shorter-length cantilevers. A tapered arch form has the largest distance between anterior and posterior implants and may have the longest cantilever design [27].
The mandible should be divided into three sections when planning for implant placement: canine to canine; bilateral posterior. This is different from the maxilla, which needs more implant support because the bone is less dense and the direction of force is outside of the arch in all excursive movements; here you must consider the maxilla in at least 4 sections depending on the magnitude of force and the shape of the arch. These sections include the bilateral canine area and the bilateral posterior areas; at least 1 implant should be inserted into each section and splinted during immediate load for the completely edentulous patient.
Concerns about medial mandibular flexure with cross-arch splinting suggests that the final restoration should be fabricated in at least 2 sections when implants are placed in both posterior quadrants and fewer than 3 adjacent pontics are present [56]. The following photos show the restoration of an mandible with a 2-piece implant-supported fixed restoration.
Panoramic radiograph of patient before treatment.
Scanning of tissue surface of mandibular wax pattern by using CAD/CAM.
Final design of mandibular framework.
Clinical fit of mandibular framework verified after it was sectioned in two pieces.
Implant-supported screw-retained fixed dental prosthesis, in two pieces, was fabricated in the laboratory.
Occlusal view of mandibular implant- supported screw-retained fixed dental prosthesis at delivery.
Intra-oral view after inserting mandibular restoration.
Panoramic radiograph at delivery.
Intra-oral view after inserting interim maxillary removable partial denture.
Cantilevers increase moment loads to implant bone interface and can increase the amount of crestal bone loss observed, increase abutment screw loosening, increased implant body fracture, and increase the risk of implant failure. The immediate load transitional should not have a posterior cantilever -not in esthetic zone- and bite forces are greater posteriorly; especially in the partially edentulous patients without a cross-arch support system. Partially uncemented restorations may result in a cantilever along the remaining implants; considering a definitive cement for transitional restoration to decrease the risk of partially retained restorations can be considered.
An occusal load direction along the implant interface may affect the resorption rate. Axial load has been shown to maintain the lamellar bone and has a lower resorption rate. The crown height can also serve as a vertical cantilever when angled forces or cantilevers placed. Flat occlusal planes in the posterior decrease risk of angled loads. The amount of force can be decreased by modifying the occlusal contacts so as to decrease or eliminate contact on the restoration. In the completely edentulous patient, parafunction may be eliminated by restoring with an immediate load overdenture and having the patient remove it at night. Having a stress relief attachment to implants can decrease the force transferred while the prosthesis is in function.
The patient’s diet should also be a factor to consider and can lead to the fracture or loosening of the transitional due to overload. The patient should be instructed to eat only soft foods during the immediate loading period. The mechanical properties of bone should be considered as a less dense bone type has a lower strength. The bone-implant contact decreases for less dense bone, and the strength of the bone is directly related to its density, with the less dense bone type being weaker. The rate of resorption of dense cortical bone is slower than trabecular resorption rates; cortical bone is more likely to remain lamellar during the immediate load process than trabecular bone.
In summary, the greater number of implants, the greater length and width of implants, rough surfaces that provide greater surface area; placement of implants to maximize antero-posterior spread and decrease cantilevers should be considered in lower density bone types when planning for immediate load. The bone in the anterior is cortical bone at the crestal and apical areas; root forms implants should be placed to engage the opposing cortical plate when immediate load is contemplated to maximize primary stability and optimize mechanical conditions.
The posterior maxilla has a thin sinus floor and the mandibular canal location does not always allow engagement of the opposing cortex; the posterior maxilla is the area that caries the highest risk of implant failure when a 2 stage healing approach is used [57,58]. The implant number, width, and design are methods to decrease stresses to the interface in these regions. Use of conventional healing for type 3 or 4 bone quality when less than 10mm height exists. Bone grafting depends on many factors to be predictable: blood supply and lack of micromovement [57-60]. Developing woven bone is at more risk of overload, and grafting is more predictable when soft tissue covers the graft and membranes are used. Immediately loaded implants should be placed in an existing bone volume that is adequate for both early load and that has the proper prosthetic design. Bone grafting before implant placement and then implant insertion and immediate loading after graft maturation is suggested when inadequate bone volume is present for proper reconstructive procedures.
Implant rehabilitation should always be prosthodontically driven [6]. This philosophy promotes a reduction in implant micromovement through appropriately positioned and loaded restorations. If restorations are inappropriately designed, a loss of osseointegration and/or prosthetic failure is more likely to occur. Axial implant loading is a desirable treatment goal since lateral forces greater than 30Ncm have been shown to produce micromotions greater than 100μm. Non-axial loading can also contribute to the loosening of abutment screws, a major cause of prosthodontic failure. Nordin et al., described that a high precision and passively fitting prosthesis reduced stresses and strains that could be detrimental to a healing implant [61]. In their study, they utilized the “Cresco Precision Method” to allow a high precision passive fit, intended to reduce stress and strain on the implant-bone interface during prosthetic fixation. Some researchers have implemented splinting and cross-arch stabilization on implants that are not loaded along their long axis. In an effort to avoid the maxillary sinus, Bevilacqua et al., placed distal implants in an angulated manner [62]. This technique has shown bone loss around the distal implants that is similar to more conventionally placed implants. Others have demonstrated 100% survivability using a similar concept called V-II-V, where 6 implants are placed into the maxilla at 30-45 degree angulations to the occlusal plane in the posterior maxilla to avoid the maxillary sinus.
Some researchers have reported that a similar prognosis could be expected whether or not the splinting of implants was utilized [63,64]. Especially when evaluating implant treatment in the maxilla, it is more common to find reports supporting reductions in micromovement and increases in overall survivability and success when splinting and cross-arch stabilization are used. Various combinations of prosthodontic materials are available, including: all-resin, metal reinforced resins and ceramics and all-ceramics. Literature describing the ability of each type of restoration to adequately splint immediately loaded implants to permit osseointegration suggests that stability, rather than the material used, is the critical factor. However, Collaert and De Bruyn reported resin fractures leading to prosthodontic failure and they subsequently altered their protocol to utilize metal reinforced fixed prostheses [65]. Nordin et al., reported failures of distal implants supporting all resin full-arch prostheses [61]. This failure is consistent with both Ibanez et al. [66], who reported that stability from splinting is the primary concern for success rather than other factors such as implant length, and Bergkvist et al.[67], who described impaired healing of implants under a removable prosthesis. Nordin et al., subsequently cited material thinness as the likely cause of inadequate rigidity, suggesting that if adequately thick, an all-resin fixed prosthesis would provide adequate splinting and cross-arch stabilization. Since implants are susceptible to overload with excessive micromotion and since they do not possess a periodontal ligament, pathologic bone strain and fibrotic healing are more likely to occur with poor occlusal management. An occlusal scheme that is perpendicular to the long axis of the implant, has freedom in centric relation, avoids cantilever forces, does not have interferences during excursive or protrusive movements and is in group function where possible also reduces non-axial forces on the implant and screw fixation components.
The more current reports suggest that the prevalence of implant survivability has increased and that previous recommendations may not reflect the survivability that current treatment planning and delivery options afford. Careful surgical preparation and performance, considerations in restoration design and maintenance, a regular recall regimen and good oral hygiene can predictably and consistently yield successful results. This has been proven continuously in the literature for the mandible. Although the maxilla has yet to prove itself in long term evidence based studies, the interim results of various investigations suggests that by carefully following guidelines and respecting the biology of the “softer” maxillary alveolar bone and the anatomic limitations of the upper jaw, clinicians may achieve long term success rates similar to those consistently realized in the mandible.
Food security is a basic human requirement that is being jeopardized by a rapidly booming demography, unsustainable agricultural practices, and a changing global environment. This puzzling divergence is drastically reducing agricultural productivity and is exacerbated by abiotic stresses, contributing to more than 70% global food loses [1, 2]. Nonetheless, the implications of the Green Revolution which intensified the use of high yielding varieties, synthetic pesticides, inorganic fertilizers and mechanization (eg., irrigation), significantly contributed to the reduction in microbial diversity within arable farmlands; and this phenomenon had a negative bearing on overall soil health [3, 4].
Abiotic stresses (including, high and low temperatures, salinity, flooding, drought, nutrient limitation, toxic metals and organic contaminants) contribute to unsustainable agriculture [5, 6, 7]. The potential costs of these abiotic stresses are significant, implying the need for sound, economical, and ecologically friendly measures to reduce their negative effects on plant growth and development [1].
Plants, unlike animals, cannot use avoidance and escape as stress-relieving tactics and as a survival strategy, their evolution has been defined by development of very advantageous relationships with their more mobile companions, microorganisms. Some of these relationships entail complex symbioses that provide stress tolerance, such as mycorrhizae and rhizobia, which aid in alleviation of nutritional and water deficiency [6, 8, 9, 10]. Beneficial microorganisms are increasingly being used in agriculture, with several research programs assessing microbial strains for their capacity to provide protection against a specific stress (eg., nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency) as well as cross-protection against numerous stresses [11, 12, 13]. Understanding the underlying physiological mechanisms by which the beneficial microbial taxa mediate stress tolerance is crucial to ensuring sustainable agricultural production under the current and predicted climatic conditions.
Plant growth and soil fertility are all aided by the beneficial microbes-interactions [14, 15, 16]. It has been now commonly recognized that certain unique and efficient microbial strains, known as plant growth promoting (PGP) microorganisms, improve plant growth, fitness, guard against pathogenic organisms, and aid to maintain soil health under diverse environmental conditions [4, 17, 18]. In addition, some microbial taxa are known to contribute to the biological processes of the soil formation [11, 19]. For instance, rhizosphere microorganisms contribute to the biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S) [10, 17, 20]. For the past 3 decades, knowledge on beneficial microorganism has dramatically increased and in some cases, PGP microbes were used as inoculants for enhancement of sustainable crop productivity [13, 21, 22, 23]. In this chapter, we provide a synthesis on the rhizospheric microbiome interactions; the influence of abiotic stresses on plant-microbe associations; as well as, describe roles performed by PGP bacteria in aiding plant adaptation to abiotic stresses.
Plant-microbe interaction is a complex, dynamic, and ongoing process that dates back to Earth’s first plant colonization. Plants and bacteria have been associated for millions of years, resulting in an assemblage of host and non-host species forming a holobiont [24, 25, 26]. A metagenomic study by Xu et al. [20] revealed over-representation of KEGG Orthology (KOs) involved in known plant–microbe and microbe–microbe interactions, such as bacterial secretion systems, flagella assembly, bacterial chemotaxis, bacterial toxins, bacterial motility, two-component system and biofilm formation. These KOs were responsible for transporting plant-derived nutrients such as; amino acids, peptides, urea, oligosaccharides and monosaccharides, into microbial cells [11, 13, 20].
Plants are regularly approached by both the beneficial and the harmful microorganisms (especially, fungi and bacteria) in both, the natural and cultivated lands. The phenomenon results in formation of beneficial partnerships between the plants and the microbes. These partnerships enhance both direct and indirect stimulation mechanisms. Indirect stimulation mechanisms such as those performed by mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia, results in optimal availability of mineral nutrients and fixed nitrogen to plants [8, 27, 28]. The direct stimulation mechanims can be attained through phytohormones, antagonism towards pathogenic microorganisms and mitigation of stresses [4, 11, 29]. On contrary, the harmful interactions have detrimental effects on plant growth and development [12, 30]. Therefore, understanding the beneficial plant microbial interactions can recognize both positive and negative impacts of microbes on plants.
Beneficial microbial communities correlated with plant ecosystems can be classified as follows; phyllospheric, endophytic and rhizospheric [10, 31, 32]. Phyllospheric (above ground) microorganisms are known to significantly contribute to nitrogen fixation as well as phytoremediation [7, 24]. Most of the phyllospheric microbes have been encountered on plant surfaces in moss forests and were shown to tolerate abiotic stresses due to UV radiation and high temperature (35–50°C) [33]. Phyllospheric microbes belongs to different species of diverse genera including,
Endophytic microbiomes characterize another useful plant growth microbes that infiltrate vertically or horizontally into the internal plant tissue (eg., root, stem, flower, fruits and seeds) [4, 25]. As for bacteria, they are from a diversity of taxa that include;
Above all, the most superior plant-microbe interaction is of soil microbes with the root ecosystems (i.e., rhizophere microbiome) (
Summary of putative PGP roles of the genomes reconstructed from
In establishment of the plant-microbe partnerships, both plants and microbe communicate through signals, such as volatile chemical chemicals, hormones and hormone mimics, as well as carbohydrate and protein-based signals [12, 40, 44]. For example, microbe and/or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs or PAMPs) are carbohydrate-based and protein-based signals that are required for microbial survival [2, 30, 31].
Abiotic stress conditions are one of the most critical limiting factors for agricultural crops worldwide ([45], Figure 2). These harsh conditions include, low water availability due to salinity or drought, flooding, high or low temperatures, high or low soil pH, soil nutrient deficiency, and exposure to harmful chemicals including, toxic metals and organic pollutants [1, 4, 15, 26, 40, 47]. Impact of these stresses on food security is being studied more and more around the world and its effects were observed to be more on the disruption of metabolic homeostasis and pathways of the plant [5]. The habitats affected by these stresses may potentially generate a plethora of adapted PGP microbial strains that might be used as inoculants to alleviate the stress conditions [45].
Protective mechanism of plant microbial interactions under different levels of abiotic stress conditions. Exopolysaccharides (EPS), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ice-nucleating activity (INA+). Sourced from Sangiorgio et al. [
For example, when exposed to abiotic stresses (e.g., heat stress), plant accumulate high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in their tissues [9]. The ROS include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radicals (OH*−), singlet oxygen (1O2) and superoxide radicles (O2−), and these interact with the plant cell proteins, DNA as well as lipids, posing oxidative damage and cell malfunctioning [3, 48]. In addition, drought-induced moisture stress in the rhizosphere induces an increased plant respiration and carbon alterations assimilation [3, 47], which results in decreased ATP synthesis and an increase in ROS production; which have serious consequences on cellular metabolism [9, 12, 26, 49]. Under these circumstances, beneficial microorganisms can respond through synthesizing antioxidants and osmoprotectants [2, 19, 35].
Arid and semi-arid regions of the globe are more prone to salinity and drought stress conditions. Arid conditions are responsible for higher reductions of; crop productivity as well as arable land, especially in areas where sea levels are arising into agricultural lands [19, 29, 48, 50]. Plant growth is harmed by salinity in different ways [19]. From cereals to horticultural species, salinity can affect germination, plant vigor and crop productivity [21, 51, 52]. Nevertheless, it can lower nodulation, nitrogen fixation and total nitrogen content in legumes, which has a negative impact on biological nitrogen fixation [1, 6, 9, 53]. Previous studies highlighted the sensitivity of symbiotic nitrogen fixation with global impact of salinity and drought stress, which occurs during both the development of symbiotic nodules and the succeeding period of nitrogen fixation and plant nitrogen intake [15, 29, 54].
In addition, presence of large levels of Na+ and Cl− on the roots modifies the functioning of uptake systems and changes the competitive interactions between ions for binding and transport into root cells thus limiting nutrient and water uptake [1, 45, 47]. In terms of nutrient uptake deficiency, this can be induced by saline conditions as Na and P uptake and accumulation is inhibited due to the formation of calcium phosphate precipitates which deter beneficial microbes away from its interaction with the plant roots [21, 51, 55]. Nonetheless, the performance of soil microbial enzymes such as nitrogenase, ureases or phosphatases can be inhibited, thus in turn, lowering biogeochemical cycling process [17, 53]. Also, non-calcareous soils of tropics were reported to harbor less beneficial bacterial taxa compared to neutral and calcareous soils of the deserts [45, 48]. A denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis profiling study of 16S rRNA by de Los Rios et al. [56] ascertained high microbial activity in desert conditions with high ability to survive hypersaline conditions. However, in general, abiotic stressors contribute to the visual appearance of sterile environment for the plant and microbial association [19, 40].
The principal factors that influence agricultural production by disrupting rhizosphere functioning are environmental pressures and their unpredictability [3, 20, 57]. A healthy plant rhizosphere not only aids in the provision of nutrients and water to plants, but it also gives long-term advantages to microbial diversity, which in turn aids plant health [22, 50]. The composition of root exudates, which account for microbial recruitment in the rhizosphere is mostly determined by plant genotypes [6, 29, 31]. These exudates, promote the multiplication of beneficial microbes of the plants at nanomolar concentration. Rhizobacteria, mycorrhizal fungi and other microbes are among the beneficial microbial diversity associated with the root zones that contribute to increased plant growth [4, 24, 48]. These beneficial microbes interact symbiotically or asymbiotically in promoting plant and soil health through a myriad of techniques including pathogen control, secondary metabolite synthesis and increased stress resistance [43, 45, 56, 58]. Also, many commercial products based on beneficial microorganisms or microbial consortiums, such as Subtilexfi (BeckerUnderWood, Inc., Ames, IA, USA), Kodiakfi (Gustafson, Inc., Plano, TX, USA), Biota Maxfi (CustomBio, Inc., Deerfield Beach, FL, USA), Trianum-Pfi (Koppert, Srl, Verona, Italy), express multiple functions and synergistic and additive effects on plant growth and development [46]. The various mechanisms in-with beneficial microorganism promote sustainable agriculture are detailed below.
Many of the nutrients required by plants are present in soil, but they are in insoluble precipitates or are bonded to inorganic and/or organic soil elements, making them unavailable to plants [7, 36]. Nutrient deficiency in plants is not only stressful, but can also increase the impact of other abiotic stresses. With the aid of plant-microbe associations, plant growth and development can be enhanced to sustain food production [6, 11]. Nutrient uptake activities facilitate this phenomenon [18, 59]. For instance, mycorrhizae interactions with plant roots increase the root surface area thus in turn improving efficient water and nutrient absorption form the bulk soil [9, 12, 57]. More than 80% of plant species form associations with glomeromycotan fungi which penetrate the root cortex and grow intercellularly before forming arbuscules [1, 45, 48].
Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are the main source for N, P and other mineral exchange (e.g., K, Mg, Cu, Zn and Fe) as initiated by the fungal hyphae in the soil [9, 15, 40, 60]. They enhance growth activities through symbiotic interaction with the host plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae, ectendomycorrhizae, arbutoid mycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae, monotropoid mycorrhizae, and orchid mycorrhizae are the main mycorrhizal classes studied which form symbiotic relationships with plants [6, 12, 33, 36, 43, 61, 62]. Their symbiotic relationship makes the host plants supply fixed C to AMF where in turn, greater nutrient uptake, drought and salinity tolerance, metal stress alleviation as well as resistance to pathogens and biotic stresses can be enhanced [45, 48, 57, 60, 61]. AMF such as
Symbiotic microbes (e.g., rhizobia bacteria) migrate to the end of the absorbent hairs of the roots where they will attach, aggregate and respond to flavonoid signals excreted by the host root plant
Studies ascertained that about 60% copper (Cu), 25% nitrogen (N), 25% Zinc (Zn), and 10% potassium (K), were converted by microorganisms from their insoluble and/or organic forms into soluble and/or inorganic forms, available for plant uptake [1, 47]. The free-living nitrogen fixing PGP bacteria of the following genera;
The intracellular PGP microbes (iPGP) form several nodule structures to improve N2 fixation. For example, the endophytes like
Globally, more than 90% of P in soil is unavailable for plant uptake [39, 70]. On contrary, P is being depleted in soils in spite of high chemical fertilizer uses [71]. The impact is brought by high weathering, prolonged warm and moist climatic conditions which deplete P sources, forming complexes with geochemical sinks like Calcium (Ca2+), Aluminum (Al3+) and iron (Fe2+) ([60, 72, 73]. This immobilized P is metabolized by plants and microbial communities through the secretion of enzymes with high biological relevance, which are still almost exclusively recovered from cultured organisms [26, 56, 71]. More specifically, phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSMs) release phosphatase enzymes and organic acids and these activate innumerable biogeochemical processes which contribute to lowering of soil pH and in increasing chelation activities with additional P adsorption sites [74, 75]. Phosphatase enzymes are the central to the processing and stabilization of nutrients as well as P nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems [57, 70]. They dephosphorylate phosphoester or phosphoanhydride bonds of both phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and organic matter [75, 76], thus producing soluble phosphate (mainly, PO43−, HPO42−, and H2PO4−) which can be taken up by the plants and microbes. Increased activity of phosphatases occurs in response to P deficiency as part of P starvation responses [39, 77, 78]. PSMs belong to various bacterial genera such as;
Apart from N and P, PGP microbes interact beneficially with plants in making K, Fe, Zn and sulfur (S) available for plant uptake. Studies revealed that more than 90% of K in the soil exists in insoluble forms (i.e., micas, illite, and orthoclases) [13, 79].
As for iron (Fe), soil pH changes towards alkaline conditions contributes to the conversion of Fe++ to Fe+++, thus making it difficult for the plant uptake [11, 15, 18]. Plant-microbe associations that initiate efficient siderophore molecule synthesis for Fe chelation include
In terms of Zn nutrient availability and its uptake,
Yadav [25] and Song et al. [68] revealed that extremophilic bacteria (e.g., psychrotrophiles and thermophiles) are linked to crop growth in harsh agro-ecosystems. For example, beneficial microbes that interacts with roots of calcareous and/or non-calcareous-growing plants were identified and these include;
Hormones like auxins, cytokinins (CK) and gibberellic acid (GA3) have a pivotal role in plant microbial signaling and plant growth [48, 68, 88]. These hormones contribute to BNF of rhizobia-plant interaction. For instance, cytokinins facilitate nodule organogenesis which has been exploited in diverse legume crops [14, 89]. In previous studies, exogenous cytokinin successfully stimulated amyloplast accumulation, cortical cell division and expression of early nodulation markers [4, 86].
Auxin producing PGP microbes like
Nevertheless, increased quantities of endogenous GA3 in PGPR
Cohen et al. [92] investigated the effects of
Similar to IAA, bacterial 1-aminocycloprapane (ACC) deaminase aids in the relief of drought stress and the development of drought tolerance in plants [45]. The hormone lowers ethylene production levels which has negative effects on plant metabolic activities [88]. ACC deaminase enzymes cleave plant ethylene precursor thus promoting adaptability of plants to both biotic and abiotic environmental stresses [45, 47, 48]. Rice rhizobacteria which were found to harbor ACC deaminase were also found to be efficient in increasing salt tolerance and, as a result, promoting the growth and development of rice plants under salt stress [97]. ACC deaminase-producing rhizosphere-colonizing bacteria like
Furthermore, using exopolysaccharides (EPS)-rich
The use of biocontrol agents in management of phytopathogens can contribute to an increased food yield and quality [44, 103]. These phytopathogens include nematodes, insects, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses [41]. Some of the studied PGPR genera which act as biocontrol agents include;
Nevertheless, there are essential volatile and non-volatile organic compounds which have antagonistic effects against pests and pathogens [105, 107]. The volatile compounds include hydrogen cyanide, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones and sulfides whilst non-volatile ones have polyketides such as diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) and mupirocin [4, 8]. In addition, there are heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds such as phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN) and hydroxy phenazines; all these compounds contribute to sustainable biotic stress management [4]. As previously highlighted, the EPS-producing
In other studies, potential of enzymes produced by PGP microbes with antagonistic mechanisms was assessed [24, 31]. Some studies showed that synthesis of enzymes guard against phytopathogens
Kamle et al. [109] reported the effect of induced systemic resistance (ISR) and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) on stress management by plants. These mechanisms can be initiated by microorganisms or chemical stimulants. For instance, lipopolysaccharides (LPS), siderophores, cyclic lipopeptides, DAPG, homoserine lactones and volatiles such as acetoin and 2, 3-butanediol, are some of the chemical elicitors produced by PGPR strains to trigger ISR and SAR [52, 107]. Bacterial species including;
Presently, more than 30% of arable land has been projected to be degraded by the year 2025 [49]. This is widely attributed to the negative effects of the Green Revolution [50]. The puzzling divergence of decreased fertile soil in relation to booming demography, pollution and perturbation of natural resources contribute to the drastic narrow range of soil microbial diversity and its activity [110]. EPS-producing microbes highlighted by Sandhya and Ali [16] and Ghosh et al. [96] were also reported to have contributed significantly to phytoremediation and/or land restoration. For example, these microbes react with cations like Na+, and due to the quorum sensing technique, rapid multiplication of EPS producing microbes occurs within the rhizosphere with the ability to decrease Na + availability [3]. This reaction was based on high sensitivity, tolerance, and the sequestration ability of the microbes against pollutants, as well as biotic and abiotic stress conditions [4]. With reference to Mishra and Arora [41], heavy metal pollutants in soils, with concentrations ranging from 1 to 100,000 mg/kg can be eliminated mostly
Climate challenges like increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere, rising global temperatures and drought have had a global impact on plant and microbial ecology and physiology [90]. Since plants transfer some of the assimilated carbon to feed related microbial populations, a disruption in the C assimilation pathway as a result of climate change would have a significant impact on plant microbial interactions [45, 46]. Climate change has impacted on the interactions and dynamics of the plant-microbe responses, as well as, on the microbial communities associated with plants, thereby affecting their establishment and performance in regulating soil N and C dynamics [9, 29].
Under rising and/or elevated temperatures, species are migrating to higher elevations (altitudes) and latitudes [110]. As a result, early leafing and flowering time in the growing season have been discovered to modify the reproductive physiology of the host plant under the warming effect; thus altering plant phonological trait performances as well as multiple properties of the ecosystem [90, 110]. In terms of elevated CO2 concentration, maximum biomass accumulated on both C3 (45%) and C4 (12%) plants has been observed as influenced by the changing climatic conditions, which initiate variations in C partitioning and distribution [29]. The differences in biomass accumulation levels reported between C3 and C4 plants could be attributed to the host’s connection with beneficial microorganisms, especially arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) fungi [94].
To profit from AMF, C4 plants transfer more C to these fungi, and hence the selection force favors AM fungal growth over biomass accumulation by C3 species in the case of C4 plants [90, 113]. In another study, drought conditions impacted on plant growth and development such that photoassimilates partitioning were more biased towards rhizospheric microbes and AMF in the soil [110].
The relative abundances and diversity of microbial communities in soil can be used to infer the direct impact of climate change on microbial activities, response mechanisms and functional profiles [46, 110]. Furthermore, the disparity in behavior could be attributed by their differing growth rates and temperature sensitivity. As evidenced by microbial respiration, decomposition processes and C release from the soil, the influx of carbon to the soil has an impact on the activity and dynamics of microbial communities [90]. Explicitly, enhanced decomposition would produce a substantial amount of greenhouse gasses (GHGs), resulting in increased CO2 efflux in the atmosphere and dissolved organic C export via the hydrologic leaching process as well as other physiological characteristics [114].
Climate change impacts on plant-microbe, microbe-microbe interactions, as well as ecosystem functions are still poorly understood. One of the key limitations in this context is that the impact of global climate change has not been exploited further in plant-microbe interactions, yet this knowledge is key for harnessing beneficial plant-microbe interactions in promotion of crop productivity under climate change-induced abiotic stresses. For instance, understanding of cycles and doses of radiation exposure may impact the range of gene functional strategies viable in the soil. The functional potential of the electromagnetic radiation which could be strongly related to soil pH, total nitrogen, and organic matter can explain the effects of radiation on the phenological and genetic diversity of microbial populations as well as its interaction mechanisms (e.g., co-occurrence networks).
Climate change is expected to continue posing abiotic stresses globally, and if current trends continue, many parts of the planet will become hostile to agriculture. Investments in exploring and harnessing beneficial plant-microbial interactions for enhanced plant production under abiotic stresses as well as efficient agricultural production systems are required to ensure future food and nutrition security in the face of climate change. Stable and/or well adapting soil microbes and their mechanisms can thrive in challenging situations. This is associated to plant-microbial interactions ability which can contribute positively to root-zone soil nutrient availability as it can withstand climate-induced abiotic stresses. Also, plant-microbial interactions towards phyto-hormone production as a stress-adaptation mechanism as well as bio-control and phytoremediation soil renovations attributes can counterbalance any climate-related challenges. Therefore, plant-associated microorganisms have a principal important role in aiding productivity of plants under abiotically-constrained environments. For sustainable agriculture, developing microbial tools and technologies to exploit the beneficial plant-microbe-soil interactions is paramount.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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