IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1904",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Automation",title:"Automation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This is how Dr. Kongoli views the role of Automation in the modern world: \nAutomation is closely related to the modern need for sustainable development in the 21st century. One of the principles of sustainability is "Doing More with Less" which in other words, is also one of the goals of automation. By replacing the routine part of human labor with the use of machines, automation not only increases productivity and the quality of products beyond what can be achieved by humans but also frees space, time and energy for humans to deal with the new, non-routine challenge of developing innovative and more advanced technologies. This magnificent cycle in which established developments are automated and the free resources achieved by this automation are used to develop newer technologies that are subsequently automated is one of the most successful recipes for the human race towards the goal of sustainable development.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0685-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6220-9",doi:"10.5772/2327",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"automation",numberOfPages:562,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5c36455d273d4c06b17a2ff1f239b9b9",bookSignature:"Florian Kongoli",publishedDate:"July 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1904.jpg",numberOfDownloads:87226,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:59,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:172,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109973",title:"Dr.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Kongoli",slug:"florian-kongoli",fullName:"Florian Kongoli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109973/images/2145_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Florian Kongoli – Short Biography\n\nDr. Florian Kongoli, [BSc (Honors), MScA (Canada), PhD (Japan)/ MTMS, MGDMB, MCIM, MSME, MAIST,MISIJ, MSigmaXi, MIFAC, MACS, MASM, MMRS, MACerS, MECS] is CEO of FLOGEN Technologies Inc. (www.flogen.com), a high-tech technology company independently incorporated in Canada and USA, specializing among others in process control, optimization and automation as well as the development of new sustainable technologies for metallurgical, chemical and environmental industries in both non-ferrous (Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, Fe-Ni, Fe-Cr, PGMs, etc.) extraction and processing as well as in iron and steel making and processing. \n \nHe has about 20 years of industrial research and development and academic (lecturer) experience spread across many invited engagements in Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and South America. He has a rich background in both industrial projects and pure scientific ones dealing with control, optimization and automation of processes and flowsheets; physical and thermochemical modeling; physicochemical properties mattes, slags, metals, gases, oxysulfides etc. He has worked and successfully carried out many industrial projects for more than 47 well-known metallurgical and chemical companies such as Mitsubishi Materials Corporation and Sumitomo Metal Mining (Japan), Falconbridge (now Xstrata-Canada), Western Mining Corporation (now BHP Billiton-Australia), to mention just a few. In his work he has cooperated with several well-known universities around the world such as Tohoku University (Japan), Curtin University (Australia) and University of Montreal (Canada), amongst others . \n\nDr. Kongoli has published/edited 31 books and about 90 scientific articles in the last 5 years in peer review journals and other publications dealing with process control, optimization and automation, development of novel sustainable technologies, modeling of various properties of industrial mattes, slags, metals, effect of minor components, fluxing strategies, etc. He has delivered in 20 countries around the world about 130 plenary, keynote and invited presentations as well as articles, technical reports and research presentations. The results of his work and FLOGEN’s control and automation systems have been used by several companies around the world. He has also taught several continuing education courses including 'Sulfide Smelting: Principles, Technologies and Environmental Considerations” held in San Diego, CA, 2003 and 'Modern Technologies in Non-Ferrous Smelting & Recycling: Efficiency, Control, Energy and Environmental Issues”, held in Cancun, Mexico, November 27th to December 1st 2011. \n\nHe has served in many leadership positions in national and international organizations. He has been and actually is Chair/Vice-Chair/member of about 20 professional society committees and has been a chair of about 25 technical sessions. He is Editorial/Scientific Board member of several Professional Journals including: The Minerals and Metallurgical Processing Journal (USA), Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy (UK/Australia), Erzmetall (Germany), European Journal of Mineral Processing and Environmental Protection (Turkey/Europe), Journal of Metallurgy (USA/Egypt), Journal of International Environmental Application & Science (Turkey/Europe), Journal of Mining and Metallurgy (Serbia/Europe), Journal of Industrial Engineering (USA/Egypt, InTech (Croatia/Europe and Shanghai/China). He is also a peer reviewer in various professional journals. He has been member of Organizing Committees or Scientific Committees of about 50 Professional International conferences in all continents. \n\nHe is also chairman of FLOGEN STAR OUTREACH (www.flogen.org), a non-profit international organization dedicated to giving STAR power to scientists, technologists and engineers and their supporters who help them towards realizing the goal of a sustainable future . In this framework he has successfully organized and chaired several record-bearing International Symposiums dedicated to famous personalities in science and technology. Among those are: \n \nYazawa International Symposium on Metallurgical and Materials Processing: Principles and Technologies (www.flogen.org/conferences.php?spage=3) held in San Diego California, USA, March 2003 with 31 sessions and more than 3000 pages of publications from authors from 36 countries around the world - the biggest International Symposium at the time in its class.\n\nSohn International Symposium on Advanced Processing of Metals and Materials: Principles, Technologies and Industrial Practice (www.flogen.org/conferences.php?spage=2), held in San Diego California, USA, in August 2006, a new record in its class over passing the magnitude of the previous symposium with about 500 papers from authors from 80 countries and about 6000 pages of publications. \n\nFray International Symposium on Metals and Materials Processing in a Clean Environment (www.flogen.org/conferences.php?spage=1), held in Cancun, Mexico, in November-December, 2011, another record symposium in many aspects in its class with about 500 abstracts from authors from 85 countries around the world, 230 sponsoring societies and organizations worldwide, 10 Major Industrial Corporations and 3 governments financial sponsors and 7 volumes of Publications of more than 4000 pages\n\nHe was also organized and chaired other theme-based International Symposium such as 'Process Control and Optimization in Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Industry” held in Chicago, Illinois, USA in November 2003 (www.flogen.com/ControlSymposium) as well as the American Automatic Control Council/IFAC symposium of Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metals to be held in San Diego, California in 2013\n\nHe has excellent business management and organizations skills which have been instrumental in steering his company toward new ground breaking technologies.",institutionString:"FLOGEN",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"715",title:"Automotive Technology and Engineering",slug:"automotive-technology-and-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"37986",title:"Optimization of IPV6 over 802.16e WiMAX Network Using Policy Based Routing Protocol",doi:"10.5772/50592",slug:"optimization-of-ipv6-over-802-16e-wimax-network-using-policy-based-routing-protocol",totalDownloads:2254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"David Oluwashola 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1. Introduction
Preterm birth is defined as delivery before 37 weeks of gestation, starting with fetal viability, which is around 23–25 weeks. It is known that prematurity is a great villain among pregnancy diseases due to its extremely high cost. Currently, the technological resources necessary to offer life support to preterm babies in neonatal ICUs cause expenditures of around 2500–5000 American dollars per day of hospitalization. Some preterm babies close to the limit of viability (23–25 weeks) can be hospitalized 100 days, that is, a single preterm baby can cause costs of 250,000–500,000 American dollars to the health system; considering that 10% of deliveries are preterm, we can comprehend that we are dealing with excessively high Figures [1].
Preterm birth may cause a great impact in the life of the affected. Severe complications can be mentioned: death, cerebral palsy, intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), sepsis, retinopathy of prematurity, behavioral deficits (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder—ADHD) or learning deficits, respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), increase need for mechanical ventilation/CPAP, pulmonary dysplasia, and necrotizing enterocolitis [2].
Twin pregnancy is responsible for 2% of all pregnancies, but 15% of extreme preterm birth (≤32 weeks) occurs in twins. Therefore, measures for preterm delivery prevention are of vital importance in health systems management worldwide [3].
Twin pregnancy for itself is a condition associated with prematurity due to uterine over distension, and usually twins are born before the 37th week of pregnancy. The average time of twin pregnancy in a group not selected by the cervix was 35.83 ± 8.7 weeks, and in 50% of the newborns, delivery was prior to 37 weeks [4].
However, twin pregnancy does not occur frequently in the population in general; it accounts for approximately 1–2% of the deliveries. With the couples decision to postpone pregnancy, which has happened in the last 20 years, giving priority to women’s presence in the labor market, the necessity of recurring to assisted reproduction techniques has increased, and the twin pregnancy rates, in their turn, have been increasing [5].
It is important to notice that the association of risk factors may be of extreme importance in multiple pregnancy: smoking, infections, vaginal discharge and association with Mullerian malformations, cervix amputation surgeries, the presence of the previous preterm delivery, or identification of short cervix may be catastrophic if associated with twin pregnancy [6]. Hence, in twin pregnancy anamnesis and physical examination have a more important role in detecting risk patients, and more rigorous observation of the uterine cervix may be considered in cases of duplicated risk factors.
In essence, if during prenatal examinations in the period between the 18th and 24th weeks the presence of short cervix is identified, the patient will receive the indication of the use of vaginal progesterone [7], and cervical pessary will be indicated that besides presenting a low index of collateral effects, promotes an important benefit in extending twin pregnancy and, mainly, significantly improving the condition of delivery of the newborn to the cares of the neonatal ICU in situations of preterm birth. The group of preterm birth treated only with progesterone is generally more severe than preterm birth in association with pessary and progesterone; in our present series of cases, we obtained a mean gain of 34 days in singleton pregnancy, and in twins probably similar gain is obtained, as our data will show below.
We can attempt to modify its incidence prior to the occurrence of any modification to the maternal organism. This prevention is called primary prevention. It is known that smoking is an important cause of preterm birth. So, tobacco should be avoided even before pregnancy, although stopping smoking in due time is also a recommended practice [8].
Another example of primary prevention is the preeclampsia, which causes placental insufficiency and frequently culminates in preterm delivery (spontaneous or iatrogenic). Today, we know that the acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) can modify placentation if started in the 12th week of pregnancy and dramatically reduces the incidence of premature preeclampsia, thus reducing prematurity caused by this process [9].
It is known that the previous spontaneous preterm birth (SPB) is one of the main risk factors for a second spontaneous preterm delivery, and any interventions which are developed or studied with the intention of interfering in this event, modifying its natural course and increasing the final gestation time, will be characterized as primary prevention.
Furthermore, we can prevent prematurity after the beginning of the first signs of maternal modification; however, still prior to preterm birth labor being installed, it is called secondary prevention.
In twin gestation, one of the first signs of maternal modification, which may culminate in preterm delivery, is premature cervical shortening. Therefore, interference in the process of cervix modification can be considered secondary prevention of prematurity. Currently, some aspects in cervix evaluation may increase its risk in case of being detected in concomitance with short cervix (≤25 mm) [10], as the presence of funneling and the presence of intra-amniotic sludge [11].
Thus, interventions which interfere in these aspects of cervix modification, are characterized as secondary prevention. It may be stated that the example of progesterone, which modifies the endocervical glandular echo (EGE) and the speed of cervix diminishing; the cervical pessary, which modifies the uterocervical angle (UCA), may reduce funneling and sustain the uterus upon the perineal striated muscles; cervical cerclage in cases of isthmus-cervical incompetence to maintain uterine cervix closed; or, furthermore, the use of antibiotics in the treatment of intra-amniotic “sludge,” which may interfere in cervix inflammation and modify its shortening.
The tertiary prevention of preterm birth consists of interventions when labor has already started and tocolysis, i.e. inhibition of premature labor by drugs, is a good example of it, and normally is preconized between 23-24 and 34 weeks of gestation.
So far, there is no evidence that tocolysis is able to indefinitely extend gestation; however, the therapy is efficient to delay delivery between 48 hours and 7 days, time enough for carrying out and for the effectiveness of corticosteroid application. These drugs, in their term, have the function of effectively acting in fetal pulmonary maturation, reducing the perinatal respiratory complications and also intestinal ones (necrotizing enterocolitis), and of the central nervous system, as, for instance, intraventricular hemorrhage.
Some recent studies reveal that the use of corticoid in gestations with high risk of preterm delivery is of great importance; however, its repetition in multiple doses is not advisable. Its usage is to be restricted to no more than two courses, and the second one is to be carried out only if the fetus effectively and irrevocably is going to be born prematurely.
Repetitive corticoid cycles are banned as evidence in tests with animals and studies in human beings have revealed that neuronal migration and neuronal apoptosis are modified in fetuses exposed to high doses of this drug. Recent studies have revealed that even perinatal mortality increases (RR 1.12) in pregnant women using this medication, single cycle, for protection against complications caused by prematurity [12].
Also is considered another form of tertiary prevention of preterm birth the use of magnesium sulfate for fetal neuroprotection during labor or previous to delivery, in gestations below 32th week, administered between 12 and 24 hours prior to delivery.
2. Prevention of preterm birth
According to the WHO, preterm birth is today the main cause of death in the first 5 years of life in the world. Thus, prevention of prematurity is of extreme importance to minimize the morbidity/mortality perinatal and the high costs involved with this disease.
Primary prevention begins with a good detection index of the problem. The previous preterm birth is undoubtedly a significant predictor of prematurity, and this is also valid for twin pregnancies [6]. The more premature the previous delivery was, the higher the risk of recurrence. In addition, other factors can contribute to increase preterm birth rates in multiple pregnancies, as race, schooling, smoking, and short cervix.
Some studies showed higher prematurity rates in black, younger, and low-schooling level pregnant women [13]. Smoking and primiparity seem to be related to shorter gestational age at birth too in twin pregnancy [8].
In secondary prevention of preterm birth, cervix evaluation is an important strategy, once uterine overdistension in multiple pregnancy can perhaps contribute to higher rates of short cervix and, therefore, higher rates of prematurity. So, many efforts were made to improve the prediction and prevention of preterm birth in twin pregnancy, in order to enhance the newborn prognosis, and cervix evaluation is one of them [14].
Transvaginal ultrasound for uterine cervix evaluation is currently the main tracking method for this severe disease [15], and second trimester ultrasound, between 18 and 24 weeks, is considered the best period to make the cervical transvaginal ultrasound.
A retrospective cohort study in twin pregnancy concludes that cervical shortening between 18 and 25 weeks of gestation was a good predictor of SPB [16].
In twins, the association of preterm birth frequently caused by uterine overdistension is largely aggravated by the presence of short cervix, and this association is more evidenced because of high indexes of preterm birth incompatible with extrauterine life.
It is true that a small performance improvement in this association of problems may completely change the prognostics of the newborn. Therefore, the recommendation of carrying out transvaginal ultrasound of the uterine cervix is of vital importance for diminishing preterm delivery in twin gestation.
In twin pregnancy, with the previous spontaneous preterm birth or late miscarriage but with atypical history of cervical insufficiency, strict follow-up of the uterine cervix is necessary from the 16th week of gestation, with transvaginal sonographic evaluation weekly, until the 24th week. If short cervical length (≤25 mm) is detected, a mechanical treatment (cerclage or cervical pessary) should be performed until 48 hours after diagnosis [7].
In the uterine cervix analysis, the evaluation of the cervical length ≤25 mm is considered the main predictor of preterm birth risk [10]. Also, other factors can be considered as preterm birth predictors, for instance, the presence of funneling signal [17], the presence of intra-amniotic sludge [11], the absence of endocervical glandular echo (EGE) [18], and the presence of uterocervical angle >105° [19], as well as progressive diminishing of the cervix of more than 2 mm/week [15], must be considered also in twin pregnancy (Video https://mts.intechopen.com/download/index/process/279/authkey/236271ca370424655923c0bb7a7179a0).
2.1. Fetal fibronectin (fFN)
The fFN test consists of detection of this cervicovaginal glycoprotein, collected between 24 and 34 weeks and 6 days. In normal conditions, fFN should not be present at high concentrations (cutoff is 50 ng/mL) after 20 weeks, and the objective of this test is to predict spontaneous preterm birth within 7:10 days [20]. False-positive results can occur in the sample contaminated with blood and within 24 hours after intercourse or cervical examination (as transvaginal ultrasound or vaginal examination), and it should not be performed in cases of premature rupture of membranes and cervical dilatation ≤3 cm
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) [7] does not recommend its use in asymptomatic women with multiple pregnancy as routine, and some reviews have failed finding enough evidence to support fFN screening [21], once perinatal outcome was not affected by this intervention, although lower incidence of preterm birth before 37 weeks was reached.
However, in symptomatic women, this test can be useful to decide the best moment to administer antenatal corticosteroids in order to promote fetal pulmonary maturation. Published studies in multiple gestation that evaluated fFN test and cervical changes presented high sensitivity and high negative predictive value in predicting preterm birth [22, 23]. Probably, the association of these factors can enhance the approach of twin pregnancies and should be seriously considered in prevention of prematurity.
2.2. Progesterone
The use of progesterone is the main prophylaxis for preterm birth in singleton pregnancies; however, in twin pregnancies its performance does not seem to be that good. Currently, the most recent study with the highest series of cases—a meta-analysis of individual data—concludes that the utilization of progesterone for twin pregnancies presents favorable evidence when used in twins with short cervix (≤25 mm) as it presents a high number of cases by case studies and different clinical tests participated in this meta-analysis. However, a more detailed case-by-case study shows that 70% of the sample was taken from one clinical study only [24] favorable to utilization and another five studies with lower casuistry (30% of the sample) evidence that the medication does not present benefits in twin pregnancy [25].
A randomized clinical trial published in 2015 [4] with casuistry of about 200 twin pregnancies, not selected by cervix, compared the use of progesterone and expectant management in twin pregnancies and did not find differences between the groups. In another multicenter trial (STOPPIT), 500 twin pregnancies, not selected by cervix also, were randomized, and their perinatal outcomes were statistically not different for none of the evaluated perinatal outcomes [26].
Therefore, according to this author’s opinion, we can affirm up to the present moment that isolated progesterone is not efficient in the prevention of preterm birth in not selected twin pregnancies; however, in association with short cervix, it can be considered.
2.3. Cerclage
Prophylactic cervical cerclage in multiple pregnancies is controversial, since the systematic review of randomized trials was not convincing in proving its efficacy in reducing perinatal death and neonatal morbidity. Even ultrasound-indicated cerclage (i.e., in short cervix) does not seem to show benefit in twin gestations. However, care must be taken in this analysis, once there are few trials and the number of patients included was not so impressive [27]. On the other hand, one author suggested improvement in perinatal outcome when cervical cerclage is indicated in asymptomatic twin pregnant women that present cervical dilatation (physical examination-indicated cerclage) at 16–24 weeks [28].
ACOG does not recommend cerclage in the incidental short cervix [7], but there is some evidence of benefit of this procedure when short cervix occurs in suspicious but not typical history of cervical insufficiency. The diagnosis can be performed by weekly transvaginal ultrasound since the 16th week. So, cerclage could be performed after shortening of the cervix in these cases, except in exposed membranes, chorioamnionitis, sepsis, and when there is no cervical length measurable [16].
2.4. Cervical pessary
Therefore, the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP) has opted for treating the selected cases of preterm birth risk by short cervix, associated to the above-stated risk factors or previous preterm delivery. The standard treatment would be naturally micronized progesterone in the dosage of 200 mg/day, vaginally, or the combination of this therapy associated to cervical pessary AM-Ingamed. As of 2014, all the cases have been treated with pessary plus progesterone in the Department of Screening of Preterm Delivery of the UNIFESP.
This conduct was based on the studies of ProTwin and PECEP-Twins, which identified that twins with short cervix could benefit from the usage of the cervical pessary [29, 30].
Since January 2014 we have obtained 30 cases of dichorionic twin gestations with short cervix (≤25 mm). The gestational age of diagnosis varied between 18 and 27 weeks and 6 days (mean age of 24 weeks and 3 days ± 2.8 weeks). The mean cervical length of these gestations at the time of the pessary placement was 14.9 ± 6.8 mm, which reveals an extremely high risk.
In our series of cases, the mean gestational age of delivery was 34.59 ± 2.72 weeks, and in a group of 32 cases of dichorionic twin gestation, not selected by cervix, the mean delivery time was 35.83 ± 8.7 weeks. It shall be pointed out that between the time of delivery of the group with cervical pessary and the group not selected by cervix there was a small difference of 1.24 weeks—despite a big difference among the groups regarding the risk due to the cervix—with statistically no significant difference between the groups (P = 0.11). The mean interval of permanence with cervical pessary was 10.18 ± 3.6 weeks.
The result was 79% of the preterm deliveries below 37 weeks, 42% of premature newborns below 34 weeks, 17% below 32 weeks, and 4% below 28 weeks; in comparison, the study published by Fox et al. (2016) with similar case studies (cervix 11.9 ± 4.5 mm with 25.9 ± 2.1 weeks) obtained 44.4% of prematurity below 34 weeks and 28.6% below 32 weeks in patients treated with vaginal progesterone, only [31]. In the group of twins not selected by cervix, preterm birth below 37 weeks is obtained in 50% of the cases, preterm birth below 34 weeks in 19%, below 32 weeks in 9%, and no preterm delivery was registered below 28 weeks, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Comparison of cervical length, mean gestational age of delivery, and percentage of deliveries according to the gestational age between different groups of treatment: pessary plus progesterone in short cervix twin pregnancy, only progesterone in short cervix twin pregnancy, no selected by cervix, and no treated twin pregnancy.
It is important to notice that before 32 weeks (very high risk for adverse neonatal outcome) the group treated by pessary plus progesterone had a better performance if compared to the group treated only by progesterone, regarding cervical length in this group which was 3.0 mm lower.
A recent randomized clinical trial from Egypt (El-refaie’s study), compared to the use of progesterone versus expectant management in twin pregnancies with short cervix. The number of SPB was considerably lower in progesterone group below 34 and 32 weeks, respectively, 53% (expectant) versus 35% (progesterone) and 30% (expectant) versus 12% (progesterone group); the mean cervical length was very similar between groups, close to 22 mm [32].
These data from El-refaie’s trial are similar to data of twin pregnancy from UNIFESP. In this study pessary plus progesterone group (mean cervical length 14.3 ± 7.1 mm) presents a better performance when compared to El-refaie controls (with short cervix) and also to progesterone group (with short cervix) below 37, 34, 32, and 28 weeks. It is importantly emphasized that UNIFESP controls are not selected by cervix and its performance is better because this group presents lower risk when compared with all other groups. Another important issue is regarding the mean of cervical length which is lower in UNIFESP pessary plus progesterone group than El-refaie’s groups, which cause higher risk to SPB to pessary group; so but the performance is better for pessary, despite high risk mentioned (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Comparison of percentage of SPB per gestational age between twin pregnancy from El-refaie’s trial with short cervix (expectant and progesterone group) and UNIFESP twin pregnancy treated by pessary plus progesterone for short cervix and UNIFESP controls without selection by cervix.
Considering the birthweight of twins not selected by cervix (n = 32), the mean weight of the biggest twin was 2.492 ± 643 g, and of the smallest twin, it was 2.195 ± 665 g; in comparison, in the twin group with short cervix treated by pessary plus progesterone (n = 24), the weight of the biggest one was 2.148 ± 434 g (p = 0.028), and of the smallest twin, it was 2.037 ± 425 g (p = 0.327), presenting a statistically significant difference between the groups for the biggest newborn, but no statistic difference for the smallest one. This result allows the conclusion that for the most vulnerable newborn (smallest one), the use of the cervical pessary was sufficient to modify the statistic difference expected, by cervical length difference, and in accordance with the difference registered between taller twins.
Furthermore, the use of the cervical pessary did not influence the weight difference between the fetuses. For the group not selected by cervix, the mean difference was 12 ± 6%; for the group of twins with short cervix, the difference was 11 ± 2% (p = 0.375).
This small difference demonstrates clear similarity between treated high-risk cases and cases of habitual twin pregnancy without involvement or diagnosis of complication factors in the prenatal routine (Table 2).
Table 2.
Comparison of birthweight and discordance of weight between groups with short cervix/treated by pessary plus progesterone twin pregnancy versus not selected/not treated twin pregnancy.
This study is according to a prospective, multicenter, randomized clinical trial conducted in Spain (PECEP-Twin). The primary outcome was SPB before 34 weeks of gestation. Neonatal morbidity and mortality were also evaluated. Cervical length was measured in 2287 women.
Pregnant women (n = 137) with a sonographic cervical length (≤25 mm) were randomly selected to receive an Arabin cervical pessary (Figure 2) or expectant management (1:1 ratio). SPB < 34 weeks of pregnancy was significantly less frequent in the pessary group than in the expectant group (16.2% vs. 39.4%); relative risk, 0.41. No significant differences were observed in composite neonatal morbidity outcome (5.9% vs. 9.1%); relative risk, 0.64. No serious adverse effects associated with the use of a cervical pessary were observed or neonatal mortality (none) between the groups.
Figure 2.
Comparison between the Arabin cervical pessary (blue) and the AM-Ingamed cervical pessary (yellow): They are similar regarding design, size, and texture. The dimensions (largest lower diameter × smallest upper diameter x height) of the most frequently used Arabin pessary are 70 × 32 × 25 mm, and of the Ingamed cervical pessary the dimensions are 70 × 30 × 25 mm.
So, the insertion of a cervical pessary was associated with a significant reduction in the SPB rate. They propose the use of a cervical pessary for preventing preterm birth in twin pregnancies with short cervix [30], corroborating our data.
3. Tocolysis in multiple gestation
When an acute preterm labor is detected, it is possible to use tocolytic drugs to reduce uterine activity, and this is considered part of tertiary prevention. However, the diagnosis of preterm labor is not always simple, being generally defined as painful and regular contractions leading to cervical changes after the 20th week and before the 37th week of pregnancy.
The main goal of tocolysis is not to prevent preterm delivery, once the effectiveness for it is not proven [33]. However, tocolytic drugs can postpone delivery in 48 hours to 7 days, which is essential to manage antenatal corticosteroids to accelerate fetal pulmonary maturation and to transfer the patients to a tertiary care center when necessary [34, 35].
Tocolytic drugs should be administered when there is a clear benefit to the newborn, once the majority of these drugs has side effects to the mother and, sometimes, also to the fetus. So, it can be used from viability (23–24 weeks of pregnancy) until the 34th week, as most guideline recommendations propose. In special cases, they can also be used before viability, for example, in patients after an intra-abdominal surgery, when the cause of preterm labor is self-limited [34, 36, 37].
Contraindications for tocolytics include lethal fetal anomaly, preterm premature rupture of membranes, chorioamnionitis, severe preeclampsia and eclampsia, maternal hemorrhage with hemodynamic instability, suspected placental abruption, intrauterine fetal demise, and compromised fetal status [34].
Nowadays, the main drugs used in tocolysis are beta-agonists (as terbutaline), calcium channel blockers (as nifedipine), cyclooxygenase inhibitors (as indomethacin), and oxytocin receptor antagonist (as atosiban), as exposed in Table 3.
Table 3.
Principal drugs used nowadays in tocolysis, with recommended regimen dose and important characteristics of them.
The ACOG recommends as first-line treatment in acute preterm labor in multiple pregnancy calcium channel blockers and cyclooxygenase inhibitors due to fewer side effects of these drugs [7]. In UNIFESP, the preference is for calcium channel blockers and oxytocin receptor antagonists.
3.1. Calcium channel blockers
The main drug of this class used in preterm birth inhibition is nifedipine, and many dosing regimens were proposed. Among tocolytics, nifedipine was the only drug that seems to statistically reduce neonatal morbidity and to increase gestational age at birth [38, 39].
In addition to being inexpensive, nifedipine is also administered orally and has less adverse maternal effects when compared to beta-agonists. When present, hypotension, flush, and headaches usually are not severe [37, 39].
The recommendation in UNIFESP is an initial dose of 10 mg orally every 20 minutes (maximum of 30 mg in 1 hour) until inhibition is reached, followed by 20 mg orally every 8 hours for up to 48 hours [40].
3.2. Oxytocin receptor antagonists
Atosiban is an oxytocin receptor antagonist and presents minimum side effects to both mother and fetus in inhibition of preterm labor. This is a positive aspect, since it leads to a better acceptance and compliance to treatment [39].
Meanwhile, this medication has a high cost and is administered intravenously. In the United States, atosiban is not available, because the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) refused to approve it as a tocolytic due to the results of one trial, which questioned safety of this drug in pregnancies before 28 weeks. Perhaps, these findings can be explained by the concentration of oxytocin receptors that increases as more advanced the pregnancy is [41].
In UNIFESP, as in Europe, this tocolytic class is considered an interesting choice, and its administration begins with a bolus of 6.75 mg followed by a 300 mcg/min infusion for 3 hours and then 100 mcg/min for up to 45 hours [40].
3.3. Beta-agonists
The beta2-agonists cause relaxation of the myometrium, and the most studied drugs of this tocolytic class were terbutaline and ritodrine, which is no more commercialized in the United States.
Although efficient in postpone preterm labor, terbutaline is also known by many side effects to the mother (as tachycardia, tremor, palpitations, dyspnea, hyperglycemia and pulmonary edema) and to the fetus (tachycardia and neonatal hypoglycemia) [41, 42]. So, if possible, in multiple pregnancy, beta-agonists should be avoided to inhibit preterm labor.
In UNIFESP, when necessary, for example, in the absence of calcium channel blockers and atosiban, terbutaline is used by continuous intravenous infusion. The starting dose is 2.5–5 mcg/min, increasing 2.5–5 mcg/min every 20–30 minutes until inhibition has been reached (maximum dose is 25 mcg/min), and maintain this dose for 12 hours. Then, the infusion can be decreased 2.5–5 mcg/min every 20–30 minutes, and the minimum dose of terbutaline is maintained for more 12 hours [40].
3.4. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors
Indomethacin is considered a first-line drug for acute preterm labor in multiple pregnancy by the ACOG [7], once it is known its efficacy in postpone delivery by at least 48 hours after initiated the treatment.
However, it is important to be aware of adverse effects related to indomethacin. During treatment period, the mother is at higher risk of gastritis, esophageal reflux, and platelet dysfunction. And, the major risk is the premature constriction of the ductus arteriosus of the fetus and oligohydramnios due to reduction of fetal renal blood flow [43, 44].
If necessary, indomethacin can be administered for a maximum period of 48 hours and should be avoided after 32 weeks of gestation; when these complications are more common, it is important to notice that before 32 weeks the risk decreases, but is not zero [37, 41].
Loading dose recommended is 100 mg per rectum and then 25 mg orally every 6 hours up to 48 hours [40].
3.5. Prophylactic tocolysis
There is no evidence of benefit in using prophylactic and long-term tocolytic drugs to avoid preterm birth in multifetal pregnancy. Besides, the prolonged use of these medications leads to increase maternal side effects, including death [7].
4. Corticosteroids
Antenatal glucocorticoid treatment with corticosteroids is routinely used in women at risk of preterm delivery under 34 weeks of gestation [45]. Corticosteroids promote fetal lung development between the 24th and 34th week of gestation [46] and reduce mortality of the preterm infant after delivery [47]. An important consequence of lung immaturity in preterm birth is the respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), and it is the great responsibility for the early neonatal mortality and the high cost of neonatal intensive care [47]. Preterm babies present higher risk of neurological impairment [48], which is the reason why the strategies for reduction of the risk of neonatal RDS and IVH in preterm delivery have received considerable attention [49].
A single course of corticosteroids reduces the risk of RDS from 40 to 21% in babies born before 32 weeks of gestation [46]. In recent publication (2017) of Cochrane Reviews, it was observed that treatment with antenatal corticosteroids was associated with an overall average reduction in IVH of 45%, average reduction in RDS of 34%, moderate to severe RDS was reduced to 41% compared with no exposure to antenatal corticosteroids, with less need for neonatal respiratory support, with a reduction in the need for mechanical ventilation/CPAP, fewer infants receiving corticosteroids needed surfactant, and was associated with a reduction in the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis, as shown in Table 4 [2].
Table 4.
Correlation between complications of SPB and use of corticosteroids (Cochrane Review, 2017 [2]).
However, an experimental study in Wistar rats in UNIFESP [50] evidenced that the groups presented different numbers of apoptotic neurons in the hippocampus, more precisely on the region named cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) and dentate gyrus (DG) after a single course of corticosteroids. The number of apoptotic neurons in the DG region was increased after corticosteroid use (by directly receptor activation), which caused, probably, the decrease in cell death in the CA1, as a compensatory reaction.
The increased apoptosis in DG and reduced cell death in the CA1 region can indicate the existence of an indirect compensatory pattern (statistically significant difference). A new balance was obtained in different areas of the hippocampus. There is no evidence in literature that the decrease in the number of apoptotic cells in CA1 is due to direct action of betamethasone, but the results suggest that this minor mortality is a compensation of a previous lesion in DG [50]. It is possible that inconclusive data referred to neurodevelopmental latency after corticosteroids (RR 0.64) described in Cochrane Review (Table 4), can be justified by abnormal neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus.
Another important finding was described in a multicenter, cluster-randomized trial, within six countries (Argentina, Zambia, India, Kenya, Pakistan, and Guatemala) to standard care or an multifaceted intervention with teaching pregnant women how and when to use corticosteroids, including facilitation of the antenatal corticosteroid use with distribution of a kit with drug, material, and knowledge for application. The primary outcome was 28-day neonatal mortality among infants less than the 5th percentile for birthweight.
Fifty control clusters with 50,743 livebirths (2258 less than 5th percentile for birthweight [4%]) and 51 intervention clusters with 47,394 livebirths (2520 less than 5th percentile [5%]) completed follow-up. About 45% (1052/2327) of women in intervention clusters who delivered less-than-5th-percentile infants received antenatal corticosteroids compared with 10% (215/2062) in control clusters (p < 0·0001).
Among the less-than-5th-percentile infants, 28-day neonatal mortality was 225 per 1000 livebirths for the intervention group and 232 per 1000 livebirths for the control group (relative risk [RR] 0·96, 95% CI 0·87–1·06, p = 0·65), and suspected maternal infection was reported in 236/2361 (10%) women in the intervention group and 133/2094 (6%) in the control group (odds ratio [OR] 1·67, 1·33–2·09, p < 0·0001).
Among the whole population, 28-day neonatal mortality was 27·4 per 1000 livebirths for the intervention group and 23·9 per 1000 livebirths for the control group (RR 1·12, 1·02–1·22, p = 0·0127), and suspected maternal infection was reported in 1207/48219 (3%) women in the intervention group and 867/51523 (2%) in the control group (OR 1·45, 1·33–1·58, p < 0·0001).
Despite the increased use of antenatal corticosteroids in low-birthweight infants in the intervention groups, neonatal mortality did not decrease in this group and increased in the population overall. For every 1000 women exposed to this strategy, an excess of 3·5 neonatal deaths occurred, and the risk of maternal infection seems to have been increased [12].
4.1. When and how to use corticosteroids for lung maturation
The treatment consists in betamethasone administration intramuscularly two 12 mg doses 24 hours apart or dexamethasone intramuscularly four 6 mg doses every 12 hours.
A single course of corticosteroids must be considered in twin pregnancy between 24th and 33rd week that have high risk of preterm delivery within 7 days, including for those with ruptured membranes and if the first course was administered previously more than 14 days. It also may be considered for pregnant women starting at 23 0/7 weeks of gestation who are at risk of preterm delivery within 7 days, based on a family’s decision regarding resuscitation. A rescue course of corticosteroids can be considered before 7 days from the first dose if there is some clinical indication for that [51].
A new recommendation from the ACOG suggests that in pregnancy during the 34–37th week, the use of corticosteroids could be beneficial, even during this late period of pregnancy, regardless of the number of fetuses [7, 52].
Administration of corticosteroids can be considered in twin pregnancy between the 34th and 37th week which are in risk of preterm birth within 7 days and which have not received the previous course of betamethasone [52].
Unfortunately, according to the WHO, in Brazil only 30% of preterm birth received antenatal corticosteroids to lung maturation between 2010 and 2011 [53], whereas several pregnancies received unnecessary corticosteroids, without real indication for that [54].
5. Neuroprotection: the use of magnesium sulfate
In 1995, it was suggested that magnesium sulfate was a neuroprotector, decreasing the prevalence of cerebral palsy in very-low-birthweight newborns [55]. Since then, several studies have been conducted to elucidate this aspect.
Despite clinical trials have failed proving reduction of infant death, the use of antenatal magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection statistically diminished the risk of cerebral palsy in the survivors [56, 57]. Therefore, its use is recommended in cases of high risk of imminent preterm birth, in single and multiple pregnancies, in gestations <32nd week, and after viability [7, 34].
Many mechanisms were proposed to explain the neuroprotective effect of magnesium sulfate, but the exact one is actually unknown. Other questions about magnesium sulfate that are not yet clarified are best dose regimen, treatment duration, and risks or benefits of retreatment. An interesting point that were recently approached is that the exposure to magnesium proximal to delivery (<12 hours) seems to be related to more significant reduction of cerebral palsy when compared to the last infusion of this drug more than 12 hours before delivery [58].
In UNIFESP, this drug is administered intravenously, with a loading dose of 4 g in 20 minutes, followed by 1 g/h for up to 24 hours or until delivery [40]. Monitoring these pregnant women (by continuous evaluation of patellar reflex, respiratory frequency, urine output) is essential to prevent magnesium toxicity. Myasthenia gravis and myocardial compromise are contraindications for the use of magnesium sulfate, and adjusted dose should be used in patients with renal insufficiency [59].
6. Conclusion
The evaluation of the clinical history of the previous preterm birth and the presence of short cervix (≤25 mm) are the best predictors of preterm delivery in twin pregnancy. Transvaginal ultrasonography for evaluation of the uterine cervix between the 18th and 24th week should be indicated for its cost-effectiveness.
The use of isolated vaginal progesterone in multiple pregnancies with short cervix presents evidence that justifies its use; however, this evidence is to be confirmed by other clinical tests due to the potential bias of the most recent meta-analysis.
Most guidelines do not recommend the use of prophylactic cerclage in patients with short cervix; however, in selected cases of extreme severity, it can be considered.
The use of a cervical pessary does not present solid evidence; however, some studies point out, although with a low level of evidence, that it may be beneficial.
As the low index of complications and the absence of highly efficient intervention in twins justify the utilization of the association of progesterone and cervical pessary, for this author it seems to be better than observing the evolution of the clinical condition.
The use of corticosteroids, between 24th–25th and 34th week, must be indicated in pregnancy in the imminence of delivery or with a high risk of preterm birth and must be avoided in pregnancy with intermediate or low risk, as there are studies which point out undesired effects of this treatment in the short and medium term.
Tocolytics is to be used under the 34th week in order to gain time for carrying out corticosteroids. The first-option drugs in twin pregnancy are the calcium channel blockers.
The use of magnesium sulfate in deliveries under the 32nd week is recommended by the main scientific societies, for the purpose of neuroprotection in twin pregnancy.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Ingamed® and Dr. Carlos Gilberto Almodin for developing, manufacturing, and offering without cost the cervical pessaries used in this study. We also thank Mr. Rudolf Wiedemann for his help with the English language version of this article.
\n',keywords:"twin pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, preterm birth, cervical pessary, progesterone, tocolysis, corticosteroids, magnesium sulfate, neuroprotection",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64795.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64795.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64795",totalDownloads:1115,totalViews:377,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:58,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 28th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 8th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 14th 2018",datePublished:"January 30th 2019",dateFinished:"December 14th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Multiple pregnancy differs from singleton pregnancy in several aspects, including increased risk of preeclampsia, fetal malformation, maternal morbidity, and mortality. However, certainly, prematurity is a fundamental concern when twin gestation is approached, due to the frequency of this disease and also to the severity of preterm birth, which unfortunately can also occur near to the fetal viability limit. Labor in twin pregnancy generally occurs before singleton pregnancy. Nevertheless, another factor can contribute to raise even more preterm birth rates in this already high-risk gestation: the short cervix. Although only 1–2% of twin pregnancy present short cervix at transvaginal ultrasound, this association increases the chance of unfavorable outcome for the newborn, frequently causing death of one or both twins. So, many strategies were proposed to minimize this catastrophic situation: follow-up of cervical length to prevent preterm birth, pessary use, progesterone, tocolysis to postpone birth in 48 hours to 7 days in order to use corticosteroids in fetal pulmonary maturation, and magnesium sulfate use to neuroprotection.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64795",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64795",book:{id:"7173",slug:"multiple-pregnancy-new-challenges"},signatures:"Marcelo Santucci Franca, Tatiana E. N. K. Hamamoto and Antônio\nFernandes Moron",authors:[{id:"35330",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Moron",fullName:"Antonio Moron",slug:"antonio-moron",email:"antonio_moron@uol.com.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"278444",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:"Santucci",surname:"Santucci Franca",fullName:"Marcelo Santucci Franca",slug:"marcelo-santucci-franca",email:"marcelosantucci.franca@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"278446",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Emy",middleName:null,surname:"Kawanami Hamamoto",fullName:"Tatiana Emy Kawanami Hamamoto",slug:"tatiana-emy-kawanami-hamamoto",email:"tatikawanami@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Prevention of preterm birth",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Fetal fibronectin (fFN)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Progesterone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Cerclage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Cervical pessary",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Tocolysis in multiple gestation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Calcium channel blockers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Oxytocin receptor antagonists",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3. Beta-agonists",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.5. Prophylactic tocolysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Corticosteroids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1. When and how to use corticosteroids for lung maturation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Neuroprotection: the use of magnesium sulfate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. 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DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181d4ffa5'},{id:"B57",body:'Doyle LW, Crowther CA, Middleton P, Marret S. Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for neuroprotection of the fetus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2007;(3):CD004661. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004661.pub2. Review. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(1): CD004661'},{id:"B58",body:'Turitz AL, Too GT, Gyamfi-Bannerman C. Proximity of magnesium exposure to delivery and neonatal outcomes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2016;215(4):508.e1-508.e6. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.05.004. Epub 2016 May 10'},{id:"B59",body:'Simhan HN, Himes KP. Neuroprotective Effects of in Utero Exposure to Magnesium Sulfate. Post TW, ed. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. Available from: http://www.uptodate.com [Accessed: 15-09-2018]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Marcelo Santucci Franca",address:"marcelosantucci.franca@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Discipline of Fetal Medicine, Obstetrics Department, Federal University of São Paulo—UNIFESP, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Tatiana E. N. K. Hamamoto",address:null,affiliation:'
Discipline of Fetal Medicine, Obstetrics Department, Federal University of São Paulo—UNIFESP, Brazil
Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7173",type:"book",title:"Multiple Pregnancy",subtitle:"New Challenges",fullTitle:"Multiple Pregnancy - New Challenges",slug:"multiple-pregnancy-new-challenges",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",bookSignature:"Julio Elito Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7173.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-080-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-079-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-764-0",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"35132",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Elito Jr.",slug:"julio-elito-jr.",fullName:"Julio Elito Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1067"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"62717",type:"chapter",title:"Historical 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1. Introduction
From the end of the twentieth century, digital technologies are actively penetrating into all spheres of society. Scientists and researchers started talking about the transition to a new model of functioning based on digital technologies - Society 5.0 and Industry 4.0 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. At the same time, the influence of digital transformation is felt by many countries, as well as all sectors and industries of the economy and types of enterprises.
The impact of digital technologies has also been experienced by the key process of technological business development - the innovation process [6, 7, 8]. The use of modern supercomputers, robotic complexes, VR technologies, etc. in science, research, and production has led to significant changes in the system of organization of innovation activities. Digital technologies accelerate the flow of information, reduce the cost of obtaining and exchanging information, and provide a basis for applying the open innovation model. And in turn, innovations also affect the digital economy [9].
For the sustainable implementation of innovations, and their successful and effective participation in global transformation processes, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the main trends that take place in the economy and society. Including the widespread dissemination of the concept of sustainable development. The first attempts to analyze the relationship between industry 4.0, society 5.0, and sustainable development goals are made in the modern scientific literature [10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
However, the rapid development of digital technologies comes into conflict with the applied models and methods of innovation management. Moreover, a contradiction between the level of development of digital infrastructure and the effectiveness of innovation management methods already exists in a number of countries and regions. This requires a revision of a number of conceptual approaches.
The presented work is aimed at reducing the gap in the theoretical literature on the analysis of the evolution of innovation models, identifying modern factors of innovation activity, identifying promising areas and types of innovation, and assessing the complex role of innovation in the economy and society.
The structure of the work is formed in accordance with the goal and the objectives of the research.
Section 2 contains a bibliographic description of the available literature, concepts, and theories on the relationship between innovation models and the information and digital technological basis for innovation, as well as a list of the main factors influencing innovation. Section 3 contains a description of the methodological approaches to the research and the basic limitations of the study. The main results of the study are reflected in Section 4. This section also contains some controversial issues and research results that require further discussion and empirical verification. In conclusion, the main conclusions and further directions of research are presented.
The discussion of the hypothesis will make it possible to identify and evaluate new factors of innovation activity in the conditions of digitalization of the economy and create a theoretical basis for the formation of a new approach to innovation management that corresponds (adequate) to modern trends in the development of society.
2. Theoretical
2.1 Models of innovation in innovation theories
Schumpeter is rightfully considered to be the founder of innovation theory [15]. The mechanisms of creating new knowledge and innovations always influenced human life, especially during critical moments of economic development [16, 17, 18, 19]. At the same time, innovations and the innovation process have the function of ensuring the competitiveness of the company by creating new products, new technologies for manufacturing new products, or new methods of organizing activities. Success in the competitive struggle is ensured by legal protection of innovations, which gave an advantage over other companies by providing a monopoly right to produce a specific product or possess a specific production technology, organization of activities, provision of services, etc.
At the same time, strict legal regulation of monopoly rights to innovation (discovery, new product, new technology, etc.) was the basis for a special approach to the organization of innovation activity, called the concept of “closed” innovation. We will not dwell on the characteristics of the closed innovation model in detail. But we would like to pay attention to only 2 points that are directly related to the topic of this study.
The first concerns the main characteristics and factors of innovation. On the basis of previous studies, the following success factors for innovation activity can be identified in the model of “closed” innovations [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. They are:
internal R&D and technological capabilities (investment in research and development, acquisition of capital assets, etc.),
close cooperation with universities, research centers,
availability of strong public funding,
specific industry and production characteristics of the company, including such as energy intensity, material intensity, human capital, the absorption capacity of the industry market to adopt a new product, the size of the company, etc.,
technical norms and standards defining the characteristics of a new product or new technology,
the level and strength of competition in international markets,
cooperation with other private firms (private co-financing of individual research projects)
access to external knowledge (primarily in terms of checking innovation for patent protection), etc.
The main results of various studies show that internal R&D, acquisition of fixed assets, and technical regulations, are the main drivers of “closed” innovation. Large firms were more successful in introducing various innovations, including radical ones.
The second is the main information technology basis of innovation, which made it possible to achieve success. Computers, including supercomputers, were the information-technological and technical basis for the implementation of innovations within the framework of this model, the presence of which ensured advantage (winning) in research activities and competition [30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
However, it was the development of the information technology and technical basis for innovation that simultaneously became the reason for changing the innovation model, the basis for the transition to the open innovation model. Changes in the level of implementation of information and communication technologies in various processes of society’s life became the key points of transition from one model to another. Digital transformation has had a big impact on innovation.
The transition from the closed innovation model to the open innovation model is provoked by the massive introduction of information and computer technologies into the communication environment of society and business management. Computers became not only a powerful means of processing large amounts of data but also a means of everyday communication for ordinary people, as well as a tool for promoting products in markets [35, 36, 37, 38]. At the same time, strict legal support of monopoly rights to innovation was partially preserved in the open innovation model but led to certain transformations in the system of innovation diffusion and transfer.
As for the main factors for the success of innovation in the model of “open” innovations, the factors listed above are added to such factors as the active development of network interaction between companies and the regional community, other subjects of society, the emergence and accounting for side effects from other innovations, taking into account external effects from own innovations, more active consideration of environmental norms and standards, the emergence of requirements for social responsibility, ethics and morality [39, 40, 41, 42]. Also, in the model of “open” innovation, the role and importance of the factor of access to external knowledge have significantly increased, (external knowledge became the main source of information for scientific and research activities), as well as the role of interaction with other companies, including private ones [43].
The next major step in changing the applied model of organizing innovation activity is the emergence of an innovation ecosystem and a model that describes it. The transition to the innovation ecosystem model is based on the strengthening of the processes of digitalization of society and the economy, which began with the mass digitization of various elements, data, and processes [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. As a result, such characteristics of the information and communication environment as the openness of information, the speed and ability to transfer information in the external environment, the social effect, and significance of information have become the most important factors in the management of innovation activity.
Thus, there is a clear and direct connection between the information and digital technological basis for the implementation of innovation activities and the innovation model used by companies. Digital technologies become the technological basis of the modern model of the innovation ecosystem.
However, the emergence and formation of a modern innovation management system, built on the basis of the innovation ecosystem model, is also under the influence of another global trend - the increasing application (in society and economy) of the requirements of sustainable development and climate safety of human activities.
2.2 Sustainable development as a global factor in the transformation of innovation models
The second global trend in the development of modern society, which is influenced by the transformation of the innovation model, is the concept of sustainable development and climate security of society [51, 52, 53]. The widespread adoption of the provisions of this concept and its implementation in the practice of state regulation and corporate governance changed the role and importance of companies in modern business and economy and led to the formation of an environmental assessment of innovations [54, 55, 56]. To assess the socio-environmental consequences of business activities, more and more diverse social and environmental indicators are used, and the quality of innovation activity is assessed through the statistics of “green” innovations of all types and through the concept of sustainable innovation [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. Moreover, in recent years, the provisions of the concept and ESG regulation and the assessment of ESG factors in the framework of business processes and innovation activities have been widely applied.
Without dwelling in detail on the characteristics of each of the types of innovations used today in the practical activities of various companies and organizations [62], it is important to highlight the changes in emphasis on the characteristics of innovations implemented in the innovation ecosystem model. These are, first of all, environmental or “green” innovations that ensure the achievement of sustainable development goals, elimination of climate consequences, and ensuring environmental safety [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. In turn, the development of green innovations involves the formation of a new system of innovation management. The main factors of the innovation model are also changing. In the system of “green” innovations and in the innovation ecosystem model, new factors of influence appeared, such as the applied business model and value proposition as part of the company’s innovation policy, consideration and use of ESG factors in innovation activities, and the application of ESG regulation, more comprehensive consideration of the long-term consequences of innovation for nature and society, the focus of innovation on meeting environmental norms and standards, social responsibility, ethics and morality in the framework of innovation [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. The importance of such factors as the openness of information, the speed and possibilities of information transfer in the external environment, the social effect, and the significance of information, which appeared in the open innovation model, increased also.
So, an analysis of global trends occurring in the society of the XXI century showed that in modern conditions digitalization and sustainability became the two inextricably linked trends and fundamental factors that have a significant impact on innovation. It is these two trends that underlie the formation and development of the modern model of innovation.
In this regard, an important theoretical and practical question that arises is the problem of identifying and assessing the significance of new factors influencing the implementation of innovation activities within the framework of a new innovation model that corresponds (adequately) to modern trends in the development of society.
Within the framework of this scientific problem, the following hypothesis was formulated.
Hypothesis 1:digitalization of the economy and the implementation of sustainable development goals make changes to the innovation management model, leading to the emergence of new factors influencing innovation.
The results of the study will expand scientific knowledge about the factors and models of innovation in modern conditions, supplementing the theoretical base with an analysis of the evolutionary development of innovation models. Also, the results of the study will add literature on the impact of digitalization on specific processes in the economy and society - innovation and on the mutual influence of digitalization processes, sustainable development, and innovation.
3. Methodological note
The presented work is conceptual in nature and is based on the integration of concepts and theories previously developed by world science [80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85]. The study is based on a thorough review of the literature on the evolution of innovation models, on other conceptual ideas in the field of the development of innovation theory, on the integration of various points of view and analysis, which were combined to develop a conceptual framework and build an analytical model [3, 86, 87, 88, 89].
The bibliographic base of the study is Web of Science, Scopus, Springer, and Google Scholar. The search was conducted on the following keywords: the AND model AND of “closed” innovations; innovation AND eco-system; the “open” innovation AND model; digital AND transformation AND of AND innovation AND activity; innovations AND in AND industry AND 4.0.; sustainable AND innovation; green AND innovation; sustainable innovation AND digital platforms.
The selection was carried out according to the following criteria: TITLE-ABS-KEY. An extended set of criteria was used, since checking only by the TITLE criterion did not give the required result in a number of cases. For example, checking by the search criteria “TITLE-ABS-KEY (digital AND transformation AND of AND innovation AND activity) AND PUBYEAR > 2009” in the Scopus system returned 470 articles, while checking only by TITLE (digital AND transformation AND of AND innovation AND activity) AND PUBYEAR >2009″ published only 1 article.
Similarly, checking with the search criteria “TITLE-ABS-KEY (innovations AND in AND industry AND 4.0) AND PUBYEAR > 2009” in the Scopus system returned 470 articles, while checking only with TITLE (innovations AND in AND industry AND 4.0) AND PUBYEAR >2009″ showed no publications with that title at all.
The literature review has a clear goal - to identify the main changes taking place in the implementation of innovative activities under the influence of digitalization processes and the implementation of sustainable development goals and to identify new factors influencing innovative activities in modern conditions.
For this purpose, scientific articles and books on the following topics were collected and analyzed: (1) the model of “closed” innovations; (2) the “open” innovation model; (3) the innovation ecosystem; (4) sustainable innovation; (5) green innovation; (6) factors of innovative activity; (7) digitalization and digital transformation of innovation activity; (8) innovations in Industry 4.0.
In total, 1659 different publications for the period 2010–2021 and January–February 2022 were studied.
Bibliographic analysis made it possible to develop a factorial model for the evolution of innovative systems based on their digital transformation. This work is strictly conceptual and does not involve the collection of empirical data. Future empirical studies carried out will make it possible to verify the reliability and accuracy of the proposed theoretical model. Also, in the process of future verification of the proposed theoretical model, it is possible to determine the quantitative values of the strength of influence of individual factors and their groups.
At the same time, in order to preserve the freedom of choice of scientific papers used for analysis, it was decided not to conduct a systematic review of the literature, similar to reviews in other conceptual studies, for example, describing Digital Platform Ecosystems for Sustainable Innovation [90, 91, 92].
4. Research results
4.1 Factor model of the innovation ecosystem
Currently, in the theory of innovation, there are three integrated models which characterize the organization of the innovation process in different information and communication basis and principles. Such as the closed innovation model (CIM); open innovation model (OIM) and the innovation ecosystem model (IEM).
Over the past two decades, these models have been affected by two global trends: digitalization and the expansion of the scope of the sustainable development goals. The influence of these two global trends on the peculiarities of innovation activity at the present stage of development is manifested in turn through a set of factors underlying innovation management and the applied model of innovation activity [93, 94, 95, 96]. Table 1 demonstrates a list of factors affecting innovation activity in general, divided into 3 main innovation models: the closed innovation model (CIM); the open innovation model (OIM) and the innovation ecosystem model (IEM).
Influencing factors
CIM
OIM
IEM
Innovation Resources
Internal R&D and technological capabilities (investment in research and development, acquisition of capital assets)
+++
++
++
Cooperation with government organizations (state funding)
+++
+++
++
Cooperation with private organizations (private co-financing)
++
+++
+++
Access to external knowledge
+
++
+++
Network interaction (with universities, scientific centers, other subjects of society, etc.)
+
++
+++
Side effects from other innovations
—
++
+++
Industrial and market conditions
Specific characteristics of the firm, including such as energy intensity, material intensity, human capital, absorptive capacity, industry affiliation, firm size, etc.
+++
++
++
Technical norms and standards
++
+++
+++
The level and strength of competition in international markets
++
+++
++
Environmental regulations and standards
+
++
+++
Applicable business model and value proposition
—
—
+++
ESG factors and ESG regulation
—
—
+++
Social and public factors
Presence of external effects from own innovations
—
++
+++
Social responsibility, ethics, and morality
—
++
+++
Long-term consequences of innovation
—
+
++
Information and communication environment
The speed and possibilities of information transfer in the external environment
—
+
+++
Openness of information
—
+
+++
Social effect and significance of information
—
+
+++
Table 1.
The main factors of innovation activity in different innovation models.
Source: compiled by the authors.
Abbreviations: CIM - closed innovation model; OIM - open innovation model; IEM - the innovation ecosystem model.
The list of factors and the author’s assessment of their significance is compiled using the method of bibliographic analysis of scientific literature devoted to the study of factors of construction and implementation of innovative activities, as well as the method of comparative analysis of innovative models of various types [7, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102]. Modern factors (factors of the innovation ecosystem) are identified by the authors independently in the process of studying the issues of the formation of the digital economy and the creation of national innovation ecosystems [34, 103, 104, 105, 106]. Also, to identify these factors, the results and conclusions of scientific research on the transformation of the open innovation model in the conditions of creating Society 5.0 were used [3, 107, 108, 109].
The factors are divided into 4 groups depending on their participation in innovation activities and depending on environmental conditions.
The order of factors in groups is given based on their importance in the closed innovation model - the list of factors is built as their importance decreases in this model. This order is chosen from the point of view of the historical context of the analysis since it is the first historical model of closed innovations and the analysis of the order of model construction and their transformation begins from the consideration of these factors. At the same time, it allows you to trace the change in the importance of particular factors in social development, as well as the transition of society to the new operating model based on digital technology – Society 5.0 and Industry 4.0.
Not going into detail on the features of the transformation of the model of closed innovation to the open innovation model, let us pay attention to the creation and development of innovation ecosystems, which mostly reflects the trends, requirements, and features of digital transformation.
Table 1 makes it possible to come to the conclusion that in the innovation ecosystem model, the influence and impact on the effectiveness of innovation activities are increased from all factors except the factor of internal R&D. However, this decrease is rather nominal and reflects not the absolute decrease in the value of the factor, but its relative importance compared to other factors, especially new ones.
Moreover, several factors have appeared in the innovation ecosystem model that is not typical of traditional models of closed and open innovations. The emergence of these factors was caused by the influence of digital technologies and modern computer and information and communication technologies, which radically changed approaches to understanding the fundamentals of the functioning of society, business, and innovation.
Further, we would like to focus in more detail on the characteristics of each specific factor in order to understand their role in the process of digital transformation of innovation activity.
Analyzing the directions and power of changes in the role and influence of factors, first of all, it is necessary to assess the impact of such a group of factors as “Innovative resources”. These traditionally include investments in research and development (R&D), cooperation with public and private organizations, acquisition of capital assets and external knowledge. We also include such factors as side effects from other innovations and networking in this group, since a side effect from another innovation can become a source (resource) of basic knowledge and ideas for new developments, and networking is the basis and a powerful resource for search and innovation activities. At the same time, it should be noted that the last two factors appeared only at the stage of the open innovation model and were developed and recognized in the innovation ecosystem model.
The first of these factors is a complex and multi-element factor of the level of development and scale of the company’s internal R&D and its technological capabilities [110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115]. This complex factor is described by such indicators as investments in research and development (their volume, structure, sources), acquisition volumes, acquisition of capital assets, and qualitative indicators of R&D directions and structures. In the conditions of the closed innovation model, this factor was key to the effectiveness of the company’s innovation activity. However, in the models of open innovation and innovation ecosystem, its role is decreasing, since now companies can attract R&D resources and technological capabilities of other companies based on the formation of external links within one or more innovative projects or within the framework of long-term scientific and technical cooperation with various private firms, science-based and market-based partners [116, 117, 118, 119]. Such opportunities for external interaction have expanded especially strongly in the process of digital transformation.
The analysis of changes in the influence of the factor of cooperation with state organizations on public financing issues shows that under the conditions of applying the innovation ecosystem model, this factor acquires a specific orientation [120, 121, 122, 123, 124]. Thus, the directions of state support for research in the EU countries are currently focused on solving environmental problems and are largely associated with “green” innovations. Financing of non-"green” innovations has moved to the sphere of cooperation between private firms.
At the same time, the high importance of factors of internal investment in research activities, specialized equipment purchase, access to external knowledge, the development of cooperation with suppliers and universities was noted both in earlier studies in this area and in modern works devoted to stimulating various kinds of innovations and above all “green” innovations. Modern researchers have noted that these factors are more important for enterprises in the implementation of environmental innovation than other innovations [68, 125, 126, 127].
The following three factors of the given group (Access to external knowledge, Networking (with educational institutions, etc.), and the Side effects of other innovations) had no importance and influence in the framework of the model of closed innovation.
In the closed innovation model, access to external knowledge is of some importance, but it refers, first of all, to the analysis of patent information and data on scientific and technological research conducted by competitors concerning the development of new products and technologies, as well as their improvement. Innovations obtained by corporate research centers and laboratories are actively protected by means of patent law, and the dissemination of innovations to the external environment is carried out on the basis of licenses, patents, franchisees and other instruments for the transfer of property rights [112, 128].
In the open innovation model, based on the exchange of knowledge between different firms and their involvement in solving a single complex task, the role of the factor of access to external knowledge increased significantly [129, 130, 131].
As for the innovation ecosystem model, its functioning is impossible without broad and free access to external knowledge.
The factor of network interaction between various subjects of society in the model of the innovation ecosystem has acquired a special scope and significance [56, 116, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136]. If in the closed innovation model such interaction existed mainly between manufacturing firms and research centers and universities, then as the open innovation model and the innovation ecosystem model expanded, such networks began to cover an increasing number of economic entities and society as a whole, including not only business partners but competitors also. Modern research proved that companies involved in innovative cooperation with other firms of their industry affiliation and industry market are more actively developing and implementing “green” innovations.
Finally, as for the impact of side effects from other innovations, as can be seen from Table 1 in the closed innovation model, this factor did not matter, since innovation activity had an internal basis and an internal orientation. In the open innovation model and the innovation ecosystem model, this influence appeared and intensified due to the openness of both models and the inevitable dependence on external phenomena and processes [119, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141].
The group of factors “Industry and market conditions” is also quite important and traditional for all models. Within the framework of the innovation ecosystem model, it includes six factors, four of which strongly influenced upon innovation activity in the closed innovation model and continue to play an important role in modern conditions.
As in the group of innovative resources, the first of the factors of the group “Industry and market conditions” is complex and multi-element. These are specific characteristics of the company, including such as energy intensity, material intensity, human capital, absorption capacity, industry affiliation, size of the company, etc. [142, 143, 144]. In the closed innovation model, all these characteristics were crucial for choosing the object of innovation activity, the mechanism of its implementation, directions of development, etc. In the models of open innovation and innovation ecosystem, these characteristics begin to lose their significance, as the transition of innovations between industries and activities becomes easier, more active, and broader. Nevertheless, the industry affiliation of companies, as well as the structure and national jurisdiction of capital are significant factors in the innovation ecosystem model in terms of the types of innovations being implemented. Thus, modern research proved that in the case of networking based on innovative cooperation within the same industry and market, the greatest effect is obtained when interacting between foreign companies. However, the positive effect of cooperation with competitors in the field of innovation is achieved by organizing a network between local firms, as well as between competing companies in the service sector.
The second traditional factor of this group – “technological norms and standards” has become increasingly important recently [9, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149]. This is determined by the fact that increasing the uniformity of products in accordance with international norms and standards makes it possible to ensure sales on global markets without additional adaptation of technical documentation and products to the national legislation of various countries. At the same time, technological norms and standards play a more important role in open innovation and ecosystem models than in closed innovation models, when the focus was primarily on internal corporate and national norms and technical standards.
Similarly, the influence of the third factor of this group (“the level and strength of competition in international markets”) is also manifested. It becomes the most significant in the open innovation model. However, in the conditions of digitalization of production and the “erasing” national borders of many production processes, this factor loses part of its influence on innovation activity [150, 151, 152].
The factor “Applied business model and value proposition” is new in relation to the models of closed and open innovations [50, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160]. The transformation of many classical business models in all spheres of activity, which occurred under the influence of the widespread use of digital technologies and the general digitalization of production and business, means a reorientation of business to a value model of supply. Innovation activity, as one of the key business processes of the company, starts to focus on the value model of supply. At the same time, the influence of the factor of the applied business model within the framework of the innovation ecosystem model will be more pronounced in relation to local companies. This is determined by the fact that it is local firms that are more focused on creating value propositions for a specific end-user of a specific region (territory, city). Modern digital technologies make it possible to take into account the interests of the local community more specifically and to develop and promote new values more specifically, especially within the framework of product and process innovations.
Two more factors from the “Industry and market conditions” group - the factors “Environmental norms and standards” and “ESG factors and ESG regulation” are closely interrelated and are also the result of current trends [161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166]. At the same time, digitalization of all processes of environmental control, monitoring of the environmental situation, the possibility of rapid response to various events in society and nature, increasing the openness and transparency of corporate governance based on information and communication technologies, provide a technical and technological basis for the influence of these factors, which will increase over time.
The next group of factors “Social and public factors” concerns the assessment of the social consequences of innovation, the manifestation of externalities from innovation [138, 167, 168]. At the same time, the external effects factor includes only that part of the external effects that create our own innovations (external effects from other people’s innovations are taken into account in the group of “innovative resources”, which was already noted earlier). It is the presence of external effects and their significance for society as a whole that is becoming an increasingly important indicator of the social expediency of innovation. And in the model of the innovation ecosystem, this becomes a key factor in the implementation of a particular innovation. At the same time, the digital environment creates particularly favorable conditions for the widespread scaling of these effects (both positive and negative). This, accordingly, increases the importance of ethics, morality, and social responsibility of business for innovation [96, 169, 170].
In this group of factors, the factor of long-term consequences of innovations is also singled out as an independent one [140, 168]. In the digital society and the digital economy, the importance of this factor is increasing.
As for the last group of factors “Information and communication environment”, it is also new and specific primarily for the stage of digital transformation of activities. The widespread use of digital technologies has significantly increased the role and status of information and knowledge in the innovation system [101, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175]. At the same time, it is necessary to clearly distinguish the concept and factor of “external knowledge” and “information in general”. In this case, external knowledge includes specialized scientific and technical knowledge (information) related to the specific activities of the company. This factor was singled out as an independent one in the group of “innovative resources” and analyzed in sufficient detail in this paper. The development of external knowledge and information is closely related to the innovation decision-making system.
As for information in general, as well as its characteristics such as openness of information, speed, and possibilities of information transmission in the external environment, various types of effects from the dissemination of information (economic, social, socio-political, etc.) in Society 5.0, in Industry 4.0, in the model of the innovation ecosystem become more significant. At the same time, it should be noted that in both cases, the information and communication environment and the level of digitalization of society and the economy are the key basis for increasing the importance of these factors [176, 177, 178].
4.2 Difficulties in the development of innovation models based on digital transformation
The emergence and wide distribution of innovation ecosystems at various levels confirm the conclusion that the digital environment is an important development factor and a condition that affects innovation.
However, the active introduction of the innovation ecosystem into the business model and its further development faces a number of fundamental issues related to the role of innovation as a competitive tool.
However, with the development and improvement of computer and digital technologies, the key factors of innovation activity are also changing, including the procedure for determining the copyright holder of innovation and the mechanism of protecting property rights. Thus, participation in the creation of an innovation and its practical application “erodes” the individual nature of rights, making legal protection and protection of rights more difficult and complex. Moreover, in recent years, there has been a broad discussion in the scientific community and society about who is the creator and copyright holder of the intellectual property rights in the case of participation in the creation of artificial intelligence. This is closely related to addressing the ethical issues of intellectual property protection [179, 180].
Artificial intelligence – a supercomputer with the help of which new knowledge is obtained - is beginning to be interpreted as a special subject of scientific and research activity, and not as a tool for obtaining new information and data about phenomena and processes. In the twentieth century, computers and computing technologies are perceived as a tool /technical means by which scientific research is facilitated, scientific results are obtained more accurately and quickly. However, with the development of digital technologies and the creation of self-learning and self-developing systems, ideas about protecting the intellectual property rights of a robot/artificial intelligence as an equal creator of intellectual property with human researchers began to spread. This can lead to a significant transformation of such an element of innovation activity as the mechanism for determining the right holder of innovation and the mechanism for protecting property rights, and, accordingly, change the model of innovation activity itself.
Based on different studies in the field of forecasting the directions of development of information and digital technologies, it can be assumed that a new model of innovation will be formed in the future, which will be based on robots, artificial intelligence, and self-developing computer systems [181, 182, 183, 184, 185]. Conventionally, such a new model of innovation can be called a model of “self-developing” innovation.
The stages of transformation of models of innovation activity, including a new model, the characteristics of the information and digital basis of their existence, as well as their relationship are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Evolution of innovation models and their information and digital basis. Source: Compiled by the authors.
The diagram of the evolution of innovation models presented in Figure 1 is the author’s development and requires further research both of a theoretical nature and empirical verification in order to clarify the basic parameters of the model.
5. Conclusions
In general, summing up the characteristics of the process of evolution of innovation activity models under the influence of digital transformation, the following can be distinguished.
Digitalization has had a significant impact on the process of creating innovations and implementing innovative activities and has also led to the transformation of the innovation model. To date, the evolution of innovation activity models has gone through three stages - from the closed innovation model through the open innovation model to the innovation ecosystem model. However, it should be noted that all three models continue to be actively used in business, and the choice of model primarily depends on the specifics of the products (including market features), the industry specifics of the company, its size, capital structure, form of ownership, etc.
The second important trend that has influenced the transformation of the innovation model is the broad implementation of the provisions of the concept of sustainable development and climate security. However, in the modern world, sustainability can be ensured only based on universal consideration of all factors that affect the life of society, and not only on the specific conditions of doing business. That is why, within the framework of the modern model of the innovation ecosystem, greening factors and ESG factors have appeared and gained significant influence, the transition to the use of which in the regulation of activities has become a necessary element of any business.
It should be noted that the use of computer technology has posed a number of unexpected questions to society regarding intellectual property rights. The process of intellectualization of labor (i.e., an increase in the share of intellectual labor in human economic and economic activity), on the one hand, and the increasing use of a modern computer, information and communication, and digital technologies, on the other hand, naturally lead to a change in the model of innovation management and organization of innovation activities on a new technological basis.
Acknowledgments
The work is carried out based on the task on fulfilment of government contractual work in the field of scientific activities as a part of base portion of the state task of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation to Perm National Research Polytechnic University (topic # FSNM-2020-0026). This research was partially supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation to Perm National Research Polytechnic University as part of the development of the Technology Transfer Center (topic # 075-15-2021-1378).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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A conceptual approach to the analysis of the evolution of innovation models based on the transformation of information and communication technologies for innovation based on the bibliographic analysis and integration of existing concepts and theories of innovation, digitalization and sustainable development is created. With the help of the factor method, the analysis of the main innovation models is carried out and a promising innovation model is determined. It is found out that digital technologies are the technological basis of the modern model of the innovation ecosystem. The result of the research is the author’s classification of modern factors of innovation activity that determine the directions and types of implemented innovations, as well as the role of innovation in society. The peculiarity of the study is that it has a conceptual nature, does not use the collection of empirical data, but is based on the integration of previously developed concepts and theories.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81958",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81958",signatures:"Zhanna Mingaleva and Vladimir Postnikov",book:{id:"11198",type:"book",title:"Digital Transformation",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Digital Transformation",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Antonella Petrillo, Prof. Fabio De Felice, Prof. Monica Violeta Achim and Dr. Nawazish Mirza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11198.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-763-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-762-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-764-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Models of innovation in innovation theories",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Sustainable development as a global factor in the transformation of innovation models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Methodological note",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Research results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Factor model of the innovation ecosystem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Difficulties in the development of innovation models based on digital transformation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bordeleau F-E, Mosconi E, de Santa-Eulalia LA. Business intelligence and analytics value creation in industry 4.0: A multiple case study in manufacturing medium enterprises. Production Planning & Control. 2020;31(2-3):173-185. 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Please complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
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2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
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After approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
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4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
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If the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
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We will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
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At this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
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5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
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Additionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
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6. INVOICE PAYMENT
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The invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
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Credit Card
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PayPal
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Bank Transfer
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IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
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7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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IntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
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If you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"49054",doi:"10.5772/60952",title:"Anion Exchange Resins as Effective Sorbents for Removal of Acid, Reactive, and Direct Dyes from Textile Wastewaters",slug:"anion-exchange-resins-as-effective-sorbents-for-removal-of-acid-reactive-and-direct-dyes-from-textil",totalDownloads:3168,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"Coloured wastewaters are a consequence of batch processes in both dye-manufacturing and dye-consuming industries. Dyes are widely used in a number of industries, such as textile and leather dyeing, food, cosmetics, paper printing, gasoline, with the textile industry as the largest consumer. Dyeing as a fundamental operation during textile fibre processing causes the production of more or less coloured wastewaters, depending on the degree of fixation of dyes on substrates, which varies with the nature of substances, desired intensity of coloration, and application method. Dye bearing effluents are considered to be a very complex and inconsistent mixture of many pollutants ranging from dyes, dressing substances, alkalis, oils, detergents, salts of organic and inorganic acids to heavy metals.Thus after dyeing wastewaters are characterized not only by intensive and difficult for removal colour but also by high pH, suspended and dissolved solids, chemical and biochemical oxygen demands. Ion exchange is a very versatile and effective tool for treatment of aqueous hazardous wastes including dyes. The role of ion exchange in dye effluents treatment is to reduce the magnitude of hazardous load by converting them into a form in which they can be reused, leaving behind less toxic substances in their places or to facilitate ultimate disposal by reducing the hydraulic flow of the stream bearing toxic substances. Another significant feature of the ion exchange process is that it has the ability to separate as well as to concentrate pollutants. Taking into account high capacity and selectivity of ion exchange resins for different dyes, they seem to be proper materials for dyes sorption from textile effluents. The aim of the paper is to study the removal of the acid, reactive and direct textile dyes such as C.I. Acid Orange 7, C.I. Reactive Black 5 and C.I. Direct Blue 71 on the commercially available anion exchangers (Lewatit MonoPlus MP 62, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 64, Lewatit MonoPlus MP 500, Lewatit MonoPlus M 500, Amberlite IRA 67, Amberlite IRA 478RF, Amberlite IRA 458 and Amberlite IRA 958) differing not only in basicity of the functional groups but also in composition and structure of the matrix. Comparison of the sorption parameters obtained by the batch method taking into account influence of phase contact time, dyes initial concentration and solution pH were discussed in detail. Desorption conditions depending on the dyes sorption mechanism were also presented. Influence of the auxiliaries typically present in textile effluents such as inorganic electrolytes and different surfactants on the amounts of dyes retained by the anion exchangers was presented. The adsorption behaviour of the polyacrylic Amberlite IRA 958 demonstrates that it can be a promising adsorbent for the textile wastewater treatment. The results obtained with raw textile wastewaters purification confirmed this statement.",book:{id:"4599",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",title:"Ion Exchange",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange - Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz and Zbigniew Hubicki",authors:[{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"},{id:"173310",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Wawrzkiewicz",slug:"monika-wawrzkiewicz",fullName:"Monika Wawrzkiewicz"}]},{id:"25422",doi:"10.5772/28293",title:"Electrochemical Polymerization of Aniline",slug:"electrochemical-polymerization-of-aniline",totalDownloads:11451,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"607",slug:"electropolymerization",title:"Electropolymerization",fullTitle:"Electropolymerization"},signatures:"Milica M. Gvozdenović, Branimir Z. Jugović, Jasmina S. Stevanović, Tomislav Lj. Trišović and Branimir N. Grgur",authors:[{id:"73400",title:"Dr.",name:"Milica",middleName:null,surname:"Gvozdenović",slug:"milica-gvozdenovic",fullName:"Milica Gvozdenović"},{id:"78801",title:"Dr.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Jugović",slug:"branimir-jugovic",fullName:"Branimir Jugović"},{id:"78807",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Stevanović",slug:"jasmina-stevanovic",fullName:"Jasmina Stevanović"},{id:"120374",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",middleName:null,surname:"Trišović",slug:"tomislav-trisovic",fullName:"Tomislav Trišović"},{id:"120376",title:"Prof.",name:"Branimir",middleName:null,surname:"Grgur",slug:"branimir-grgur",fullName:"Branimir Grgur"}]},{id:"52110",doi:"10.5772/64935",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3473,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52110",title:"Electrodeposition from Deep Eutectic Solvents",slug:"electrodeposition-from-deep-eutectic-solvents",totalDownloads:3469,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Deep eutectic solvents constitute a class of compounds sharing many similarities with properly named ionic liquids. The accepted definition of ionic liquid is a fluid (liquid for T<100 °C) consisting of ions, while DES are eutectic mixtures of Lewis or Brønsted acids and bases. Their most attractive properties are the wide potential windows and the chemical properties largely different from aqueous solutions. In the last few decades, the possibility to electrodeposit decorative and functional coatings employing deep eutectic solvents as electrolytes has been widely investigated. A large number of the deposition procedures described in literature, however, cannot find application in the industrial practice due to competition with existing processes, cost or difficult scalability. From one side, there is the real potential to replace existing plating protocols and to find niche applications for high added-value productions; to the other one, this paves the path towards the electrodeposition of metals and alloys thermodynamically impossible to be obtained via usual aqueous solution processes. The main aim of this chapter is therefore the critical discussion of the applicability of deep eutectic solvents to the electrodeposition of metals and alloys, with a particular attention to the industrial and applicative point of view.",book:{id:"5381",slug:"progress-and-developments-in-ionic-liquids",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Progress and Developments in Ionic Liquids"},signatures:"R. Bernasconi, G. Panzeri, A. Accogli, F. Liberale, L. Nobili and L.\nMagagnin",authors:[{id:"188210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Magagnin",slug:"luca-magagnin",fullName:"Luca Magagnin"},{id:"194387",title:"MSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bernasconi",slug:"roberto-bernasconi",fullName:"Roberto Bernasconi"},{id:"194388",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Panzeri",slug:"gabriele-panzeri",fullName:"Gabriele Panzeri"},{id:"194389",title:"MSc.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Accogli",slug:"alessandra-accogli",fullName:"Alessandra Accogli"},{id:"194390",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Liberale",slug:"francesco-liberale",fullName:"Francesco Liberale"},{id:"194391",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Nobili",slug:"luca-nobili",fullName:"Luca Nobili"}]},{id:"74147",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS): A Review Study of Basic Aspects of the Corrosion Mechanism Applied to Steels",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy-eis-a-review-study-of-basic-aspects-of-the-corrosion-mechanis",totalDownloads:2526,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"AC impedance measurements have been applied for over twenty years in electrochemistry and physics to investigate the electrical properties of conductive materials and their interfaces using an external electrical impulse (VOLTAGE, V or CURRENT, I) as driving force. Furthermore, its application has recently appeared to be destined in the Biotechnology field as an effective tool for rapid microbiologic diagnosis of living organism in situ. However, there is no doubt that the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is still one of the most useful techniques around the world for metal corrosion control and its monitoring. Corrosion has long been recognized as one of the most expensive stumbling blocks that concern many industries and government agencies, because it is a steel destructive phenomenon that occurs due to the chemical interaction with aqueous environments and takes place at the interface between metal and electrolyte producing an electrical charge transfer or ion diffusion process. Consequently, it is experimentally possible to determine through the EIS technique the mechanism and control that kinectics of corrosion reactions encounter. First, EIS data is collected through a potentiostat/galvanostat apparatus. After, it is fitted to a mathematical model (i.e. an equivalent electrical circuit, EEC) for its interpretation and analysis, fundamentally seeking a meaningful physical interpretation. Finally, this review reports some basic aspects of the corrosion mechanism applied to steels through the experimental EIS response using Nyquist or Bode plots. Examples are given for different applied electrochemical impedance cases in which steel is under study intentionally exposed to a corrosive aqueous solution by applying a sinusoidal potential at various test conditions.",book:{id:"10054",slug:"electrochemical-impedance-spectroscopy",title:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Héctor Herrera Hernández, Adriana M. Ruiz Reynoso, Juan C. Trinidad González, Carlos O. González Morán, José G. Miranda Hernández, Araceli Mandujano Ruiz, Jorge Morales Hernández and Ricardo Orozco Cruz",authors:[{id:"114381",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Hernandez",slug:"jorge-morales-hernandez",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Hernandez"},{id:"215540",title:"Dr.",name:"Araceli",middleName:null,surname:"Mandujano Ruiz",slug:"araceli-mandujano-ruiz",fullName:"Araceli Mandujano Ruiz"},{id:"268773",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera Hernandez",slug:"hector-herrera-hernandez",fullName:"Hector Herrera Hernandez"},{id:"268774",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos O.",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Moran",slug:"carlos-o.-gonzalez-moran",fullName:"Carlos O. Gonzalez Moran"},{id:"314695",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Mercedes",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz Reynoso",slug:"adriana-mercedes-ruiz-reynoso",fullName:"Adriana Mercedes Ruiz Reynoso"}]},{id:"62242",title:"Oxygen Reduction Reaction",slug:"oxygen-reduction-reaction",totalDownloads:3993,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"In this chapter, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which is one of the most important reactions in energy conversion systems such as fuel cells, including its reaction kinetics, is presented. Recent developments in electrocatalysts for ORR in fuel cells, including low and non-Pt electrocatalysts, metal oxides, transition metal macrocycles and chalgogenides, are discussed. Understanding of the interdependence of size, shape and activity of the electrocatalysts is evaluated. The recent development of ORR electrocatalysts with novel nanostructures is also reported. The mechanism catalysed by these electrocatalysts is presented. Finally, the perspectives of future trends for ORR are discussed.",book:{id:"6778",slug:"electrocatalysts-for-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-evolution-theory-to-design",title:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution",fullTitle:"Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Evolution - Theory to Design"},signatures:"Lindiwe Khotseng",authors:[{id:"236596",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindiwe Eudora",middleName:null,surname:"Khotseng",slug:"lindiwe-eudora-khotseng",fullName:"Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"}]},{id:"40709",title:"The Role of Ion Exchange Chromatography in Purification and Characterization of Molecules",slug:"the-role-of-ion-exchange-chromatography-in-purification-and-characterization-of-molecules",totalDownloads:12930,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Hidayat Ullah Khan",authors:[{id:"140538",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"hidayat-khan",fullName:"Hidayat Khan"}]},{id:"49055",title:"Ion Exchange Method for Removal and Separation of Noble Metal Ions",slug:"ion-exchange-method-for-removal-and-separation-of-noble-metal-ions",totalDownloads:3004,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Ion exchange has been widely applied in technology of chemical separation of noble metal ions. This is associated with dissemination of methods using various ion exchange resins which are indispensable in many fields of chemical industry. Due to small amounts of noble elements in nature and constant impoverishment of their natural raw materials, of particular importance are physicochemical methods of their recovery from the second sources e.g. worn out converters of exhausted gases, chemical catalysts, dental alloys, anodic sludges from cooper and nickiel electrorefining as well as waste waters and running off waters from refineries containing trace amount of noble metals. It should be stated that these waste materials are usually pyro- and hydrometallurgically processed. Recovery of noble metals, from such raw materials requires individual approach to each material and application of selective methods for their removal. Moreover, separation of noble metals, particularly platinum metals and gold from geological samples, industrial products, synthetic mixtures along with other elements is a problem of significant importance nowadays. In the paper the research on the applicability of different types of ion exchangers for the separation of noble metals will be presented. The effect of the different parameters on their separation will be also discussed. The examples of the removal of noble metals chlorocomplexes will also be presented in detail.",book:{id:"4599",slug:"ion-exchange-studies-and-applications",title:"Ion Exchange",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange - Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki, Monika Wawrzkiewicz, Grzegorz Wójcik, Dorota\nKołodyńska and Anna Wołowicz",authors:[{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"},{id:"173610",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"505",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81502",title:"Investigation of Synthesis Methods for Improved Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles Supported on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrocatalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells",slug:"investigation-of-synthesis-methods-for-improved-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-supported-on-multi-",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104541",abstract:"This book chapter reports on various catalyst synthesis methods (impregnation, polyol, modified polyol, and microwave-assisted modified polyol methods) to determine which method would result in the most electrochemically active platinum-ruthenium (PtRu) electrocatalyst supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for methanol oxidation reaction in an acidic medium. Different techniques were used to characterize the synthesized catalysts, including the high-resolution transmission electron microscope used for morphology and calculating particle sizes, and X-ray diffraction for determining crystalline sizes. The electroactive catalyst surface area, ECSA of the electrocatalysts was determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the electroactivity, electron kinetics, and stability of the electrocatalysts towards methanol oxidation were evaluated using CV, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronoamperometry, respectively. The microwave-assisted modified polyol method produced the PtRu/MWCNT electrocatalyst with the most enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to other PtRu/MWCNT catalysts produced by the impregnation, polyol, and modified polyol methods.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Adebare Nurudeen Adewunmi, Sabejeje Akindeji Jerome, Su Huaneng and Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"},{id:"79547",title:"Nickel Foam Electrode with Low Catalyst Loading and High Performance for Alkaline Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells",slug:"nickel-foam-electrode-with-low-catalyst-loading-and-high-performance-for-alkaline-direct-alcohol-fue",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100287",abstract:"Nickel foam has a unique three-dimensional (3-D) network structure that helps to effectively utilize catalysts and is often used as an electrode support material for alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells. In this chapter, first, the effect of nickel foam thickness on cell performance is explored. The results show that the thickness affects both mass transfer and electron conduction, and there is an optimal thickness. The thinner the nickel foam is, the better the conductivity is. However, the corresponding three-dimensional space becomes narrower, which results in a partial agglomeration of the catalyst and the hindrance of mass transfer. The cell performance of 0.6 mm nickel foam electrode is better than that of 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Secondly, to fully exert the catalytic function of the catalyst even at a lower loading, a mixed acid-etched nickel foam electrode with lower Pd loading (0.35 mg cm−2) is prepared then by a spontaneous deposition method. The maximum power density of the single alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC) can reach 30 mW cm−2, which is twice the performance of the hydrochloric acid treated nickel foam electrode. The performance improvement is attributed to the micro-holes produced by mixed acids etching, which enhances the roughness of the skeleton and improves the catalyst electrochemical active surface area.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Qian Xu, Jiajia Zhang and Chunzhen Yang"},{id:"77862",title:"Characterization, Photoelectric Properties, Electrochemical Performances and Photocatalytic Activity of the Fe2O3/TiO2 Heteronanostructure",slug:"characterization-photoelectric-properties-electrochemical-performances-and-photocatalytic-activity-o",totalDownloads:108,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98759",abstract:"The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized on FTO subtract via hydrothermal method. The crystal structure, morphology, band structure of the heterojunction, behaviors of charge carriers and the redox ability were characterized by XRD, HR-TEM, absorption spectra, PL, cyclic voltammetry and transient photocurrent spectra. The as-prepared Fe2O3/TiO2 photocatalysts with distinctive structure and great stability was characterized and investigated for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye in aqueous solution. The ability of the photocatalyst for generating reactive oxygen species, including O2− and.OH was investigated. It was revealed that the combination of the two oxides (Fe2O3 and TiO2) nano-heterojunction could enhance the visible response and separate photogenerated charge carriers effectively. Therefore, the remarkable photocatalytic activity of Fe2O3/TiO2 nanostructures for MB degradation was ascribed to the enhanced visible light absorption and efficient interfacial transfer of photogenerated electrons from to Fe2O3 to TiO2 due to the lower energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 hybrid heterojunctions as evidenced by the UV–Vis and photoluminescence studies. The decrease of the energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 resulted in the inhibition of electron–hole pair recombination for effective spatial charge separation, thus enhancing the photocatalytic reactions. Based on the obtained results, a possible mechanism for the improved photocatalytic performance associated with Fe2O3/TiO2 was proposed. The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite has a specific capacity of 82 F.g−1 and shows a higher capacitance than Fe2O3.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Salah Kouass, Hassouna Dhaouadi, Abdelhak Othmani and Fathi Touati"},{id:"76150",title:"Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for CO2 Reduction to Value Added Products",slug:"heterogeneous-electrocatalysts-for-co-sub-2-sub-reduction-to-value-added-products",totalDownloads:222,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97274",abstract:"The CO2 that comes from the use of fossil fuels accounts for about 65% of the global greenhouse gas emission, and it plays a critical role in global climate changes. Among the different strategies that have been considered to address the storage and reutilization of CO2, the transformation of CO2 into chemicals and fuels with a high added-value has been considered a winning approach. This transformation is able to reduce the carbon emission and induce a “fuel switching” that exploits renewable energy sources. The aim of this chapter is to categorize different heterogeneous electrocatalysts which are being used for CO2 reduction, based on the desired products of the above mentioned reactions: from formic acid and carbon monoxide to methanol and ethanol and other possible by products. Moreover, a brief description of the kinetic and mechanism of the CO2 reduction reaction) and pathways toward different products have been discussed.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"M. Amin Farkhondehfal and Juqin Zeng"},{id:"74671",title:"C-H Activation/Functionalization via Metalla-Electrocatalysis",slug:"c-h-activation-functionalization-via-metalla-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:222,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95517",abstract:"In conventional methods, C−H activations are largely involved in the use of stoichiometric amounts of toxic and expensive metal & chemical oxidants, conceding the overall sustainable nature. Meanwhile, undesired byproducts are generated, that is problematic in the scale up process. However, electrochemical C−H activation via catalyst control strategy using metals as mediators (instead electrochemical substrate control strategy) has been identified as a more efficient strategy toward selective functionalizations. Thus, indirect electrolysis makes the potential range more pleasant, and less side reactions can occur. Herein, we summarize the metalla-electrocatalysis process for activations of inert C−H bonds and functionalization. These Metalla-electrocatalyzed C−H bond functionalizations are presented in term of C−C and C−X (X = O, N, P and halogens) bonds formation. The electrooxidative C−H transformations in the presence of metal catalysts are described by better chemoselectivities with broad tolerance of sensitive functionalities. Moreover, in the future to enhance sustainability and green chemistry concerns, integration of metalla-electrocatalysis with flow and photochemistry will enable safe and efficient scale-up and may even improve reaction times, kinetics and yields.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme M. Martins, Najoua Sbei, Geórgia C. Zimmer and Nisar Ahmed"},{id:"74780",title:"Recent Trends in Development of Metal Nitride Nanocatalysts for Water Electrolysis Application",slug:"recent-trends-in-development-of-metal-nitride-nanocatalysts-for-water-electrolysis-application",totalDownloads:252,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95748",abstract:"Nanocatalysts for sustainable water electrolysis is strongly desirable to promote the commercialization of H2 as the alternate clean energy source for the future. The goal is cheaper hydrogen production from sea and low grade water by minimizing the energy consumption and using low cost cell components & non-noble metal catalysts. The conductivity of metal nitrides and their ability to carry out Hydrogen Evolution Reaction and Oxygen Evolution Reaction at relatively low overpotential render these one of the frontline candidates to be potentially utilized as the catalyst for low cost H2 production via electrolysis. In this chapter, the potential of metal nitride catalyst towards fulfilling the above objective is discussed. The synthesis of various metal nitride catalysts, their efficiency towards electrode half reactions and the effectiveness of these class of nanocatalyst for electrolysis of sea water is elaborated. A review of recent literature with special reference to the catalyst systems based on non-noble metals will be provided to assess the likelihood of these nanocatalyst to serve as a commercial grade electrode material for sea water electrolysis.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Akhoury Sudhir Kumar Sinha and Umaprasana Ojha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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