Safety comparison of some of the most commonly used NSAIDs.\n*\n\n
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3565",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"International Conference on Applied Life Sciences",title:"International Conference on Applied Life Sciences",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The International Society for Applied Life Sciences (ISALS) is a worldwide Organization that aims to help scientists and researchers, publish recent findings in its scientific journals, and conferences as well as consultancy services it may provide. The society is being run by a team of highly professionals all around the world. 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Nejadkoorki, PhD. (Environmental Science from University of East Anglia), is an associate professor and director of International & Scientific Cooperation Office (ISCO) at the Yazd University. 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This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. 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Despite new developments in medications and technology, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioids are among the most widely prescribed medications in the world [1, 2]. In addition to NSAIDs and opioids, adjunctive pharmacologic agents to include antidepressants, cannabinoids and ketamine have increased in popularity. This chapter aims to review commonly prescribed pain medications with a focus on their classification categories, mechanisms of action, and major side effect profiles.
\nNonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were first introduced in the 1960s and are the most prescribed medication class in the world. The United States issues more than 100 million prescriptions annually [3] with approximately 20% of its citizens using NSAIDs on a frequent monthly basis at some point during their lifetime [4].
\nNSAIDs are a diverse group of compounds with varying chemical structures that possess anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic properties [5]. They represent a class of drugs with a primary mechanism of action that involves inhibition of the pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. This includes both non-selective COX inhibitors (COX-1 and COX-2) including aspirin, indomethacin, and ibuprofen as well as the newer selective COX-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib. NSAIDs have an established short-term efficacy in the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) and associated chronic low back pain as well as an opioid sparing effect when combined with most chronic pain management regimens [6, 7]. Despite the well-documented efficacy of NSAIDs, there are serious side effects associated with routine use that include gastrointestinal irritation (gastritis and ulceration of the stomach and small intestine), cardiovascular events (myocardial infarction, hypertension exacerbation) and renal toxicity (acute renal failure, electrolyte and fluid abnormalities).
\nProstaglandins are lipid compounds that are physiologically active and have a diverse range of homeostatic and inflammatory effects in the human body that modulate fever and pain. They are the primary mediators of inflammatory cascades resulting in peripheral sensitization, hyperalgesia and chronic pain. Prostaglandin H2 (PGH2) is a common precursor for prostaglandins (PGE2, PGI2, and PGF2) and thromboxane. It is synthesized from arachidonic acid via the rate limiting enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) (Figure 1). By inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, NSAIDs are able to produce their analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. COX exists in two isoforms, COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is expressed throughout the body and is a normal component of most cells. It is a necessary in the production of protective gastric mucosal secretions and regulation of gastric acid, promotion of platelet aggregation and the maintenance of renal blood flow [9]. COX-2, however, is minimally expressed and tightly regulated under normal conditions but is induced with the pro-inflammatory stimuli seen with cellular injury (IL-1, TNF-alpha tumor necrosis factor–alpha, and cytokines) [10]. Given some of the beneficial aspects of COX-1 and the specific pro-inflammatory aspect of COX-2, newer NSAIDs are directly targeted at selective inhibition of COX-2 and are collectively referred to as coxibs. NSAIDs are otherwise non-selective in their inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 although with varying affinity (Table 1).
\nProduction and actions of prostaglandins and thromboxane (adapted from [
NSAID | \nCOX-2 selectivity\n•\n\n | \nGastrointestinal risk | \nCardiovascular risk | \nClinical use | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Aspirin | \nLow | \nModerate | \nLow | \nPrevention of cardiovascular events, mild pain, and inflammation | \n
Ibuprofen | \nModerate | \nLow | \nModerate to high | \nOsteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, fever, dysmenorrhea, mild to moderate pain, headache, migraine, myalgia | \n
Diclofenac | \nHigh | \nModerate | \nHigh | \nOsteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, fever, dysmenorrhea, mild to moderate pain, migraine | \n
Indomethacin | \nLow | \nModerate to high | \nModerate to high | \nOsteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, bursitis, tendinitis, mild to moderate pain, or severe pain | \n
Naproxen | \nLow | \nModerate to high | \nLow | \nGouty arthritis, mild to moderate pain, tendonitis, fever, rheumatoid disorders, osteoarthritis, dysmenorrhea, migraine prevention | \n
Meloxicam | \nHigh | \nLow | \nModerate to high | \nOsteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis | \n
Celecoxib | \nHigh | \nLow | \nModerate to high | \nOsteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, dysmenorrhea | \n
Safety comparison of some of the most commonly used NSAIDs.\n*\n\n
Only generic names provided. List not all inclusive. Keep in mind NSAIDs carry varying risks of rare liver toxicity and renal failure.
Selectivity is based on in vitro assay studies and should be interpreted with caution as different assay methods give different results. No assay method can predict what will happen when the drug is given to patients. Clinical studies are the best way to determine the effects of NSAIDs in patients.
Adapted from [11].
The same mechanism of action that provides the therapeutic effect of NSAIDs is also most commonly responsible for the side effects associated with chronic use. By inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, NSAIDs increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding [12, 13, 14, 15, 16], thrombosis [17], and myocardial infarction [18]. COX-1 mediated synthesis of PGE2 is responsible for gastric mucosa integrity. Inhibiting PGE2production with traditional non-selective NSAIDs results in gastric mucosal impairment and injury. Gastroduodenal ulcers are commonly identified with endoscopy after chronic non-selective NSAID use with double-blind trials showing incidence as high as 46% after 24 weeks of ibuprofen use [19]. Extra care must be taken with NSAID use in special populations including the elderly and those with underlying gastric irritation, stress related gastric mucosal injury (SRMD), and portal hypertensive gastropathy.
\nGiven the side effects associated with inhibition of COX-1, especially the GI toxicity noted above, selective COX-2 inhibiting NSAIDs were created with the intention of avoiding harmful GI events while continuing to retain the anti-inflammatory and analgesic benefits of COX-2 antagonism. The selective COX-2 inhibition that occurs with coxibs (celecoxib, rofecoxib) was, however, believed to be associated with increased cardiovascular (CV) events including hypertension and thrombosis. The CV side effects are attributed to the imbalance in vascular tone and clotting hemostasis that is in part regulated by arachidonic metabolites; with COX-1 mediated TXA2 being an inducer of platelet aggregation and COX-2 mediated PGI2 being an inhibitor of platelet aggregation [20]. This is highlighted with PGI2 receptor deficient mice being more prone to thrombosis then wild type mice [21]. Ultimately, large randomized controlled trials showed that celecoxib in moderate doses was non-inferior to naproxen or ibuprofen (non-selective NSAIDs) in regards to a primary outcome of cardiovascular causes of death [22].
\nOpioids have been used for the management of pain since the earliest records of human history. The Sumerians of Mesopotamia were the first to cultivate the poppy plant [23]. Further refinement paralleled the advancement of human growth with the first extraction of morphine from opium occurring in 1803 [24]. New formulations, concentrations, and routes of delivery were developed and there was a simultaneous increase in medicinal as well as recreational use. Opiate use peaked between 1999 and 2017 and was responsible for approximately 400,000 overdose related deaths [25]. This has culminated into the current state of affairs where narcotic prescription abuse has become a national crisis with strict regulations on prescribing now in place. The fine balance between proper medical uses for the treatment of acute and chronic pain versus inappropriate overprescribing is being heavily scrutinized requiring careful consideration of the appropriateness of initiating opioids and the risks and benefits of chronic use. The importance of this is demonstrated with meta-analysis showing roughly 5% of patients prescribed an opioid for pain developing iatrogenic opioid dependence or abuse [26]. One must have an intimate understanding of the various opioid medications available and take a careful and strategized approach to prescribing a chronic regimen to suitably navigate this dilemma. Nonetheless, opioids remain a mainstay in the treatment of acute and chronic cancer related pain. This is in contrast to the benefit of opioids used in chronic non-malignant pain with studies continuing to show little to no benefit in quality of life or functional capacity [27, 28].
\nThe classification of
\n | Mu (μ) | \nDelta ( | \nKappa ( | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | Mu 1: Analgesia Mu 2: Sedation, vomiting, respiratory depression, pruritus, euphoria, anorexia, urinary retention, physical dependence | \nAnalgesia, spinal analgesia | \nAnalgesia, sedation, dyspnea, psychomimetic effects, miosis, respiratory depression, euphoria, dysphoria, dyspnea | \n
Enkephalins | \nAgonist | \nAgonist | \n\n |
Beta-endorphin | \nAgonist | \nAgonist | \n\n |
Dynorphin A | \nAgonist | \n\n | Agonist | \n
Morphine | \nAgonist | \n\n | Weak agonist | \n
Codeine | \nWeak agonist | \nWeak agonist | \n\n |
Fentanyl | \nAgonist | \n\n | \n |
Meperidine | \nAgonist | \nAgonist | \n\n |
Methadone | \nAgonist | \n\n | \n |
Naloxone | \nAntagonist | \nWeak antagonist | \nAntagonist | \n
Naltrexone | \nAntagonist | \nWeak antagonist | \nAntagonist | \n
Mechanisms of opioid action in the spinal cord.
Mu receptors are largely thought of as the primary receptor responsible for analgesia with opioids; thus, the term “mu agonist” is often used to describe opioids used for the management of pain. Mu opioid receptors (MOR) are found in high density at the periaqueductal gray (PAG) of the midbrain. Agonism of MOR in this region is thought to eliminate a tonic gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) tone thus indirectly stimulating descending inhibitory pathways at the level of the spinal cord [32]. MOR receptors are also in high density on dorsal horn neurons and elicit their analgesic effect through inhibition of glutamine release decreasing the transmission of nociceptive information from A-delta and C nerve fibers.
\nThe drugs that are able to fully activate these mu receptors in a dose dependent fashion are referred to as full agonists. This is in contrast to the drugs that are either weak agonists at the mu receptor (while preventing other full agonists from binding) or are antagonists at the mu receptor while being an agonist at another receptor. These are referred to as agonist-antagonist drugs and include buprenorphine+naloxone (suboxone), nalbuphine, and pentazocine. Reversal of the effects caused by mu agonists is accomplished with competing antagonists (naloxone), which are crucial in the medical management of opioid overdoses and the associated respiratory depression. Kappa and delta receptors also contribute to analgesia and the other clinical effects seen with acute and chronic use including respiratory depression and sedation. Kappa receptors, in particular, are localized in the brain stem and spinal cord and are chiefly responsible for providing spinal analgesia [29]. Opioid receptors also bind to endogenous opioid peptides (endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins), which are important in overall pain modulation.
\nThe clinical use of opioids is dependent upon more than just the receptor specificity and relies on deep understanding of the pharmacokinetics of these drugs for optimal use. In a basic sense, opioids can be classified into either short or long acting agents although this terminology inappropriately simplifies complex pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of these drugs.
\nThe interaction between exogenous opioids and opioid receptor activation has a diverse side effect profile with variable differences seen with acute and chronic use. These side effects include constipation, nausea and vomiting, hyperalgesia, opioid induced hormonal changes, and respiratory depression. Opioid induced constipation (OIC) is one of the most commonly seen side effects with roughly one half of patients experiencing OIC with long-term use [33]. OIC can cause significant morbidity with associated adverse effects including fecal impaction with obstruction, reflux, dyspepsia, cramping/pain, and lengthened hospitalization [34]. For this reason, all chronic opioid regimens should include prophylactic laxatives. Mu opioid receptors are abundant in the respiratory rhythm generating regions of the brainstem and pons. Agonism of these receptors causes opioid induced breathing alterations including significant reduction in respiratory rate and minute ventilation with associated hypercapnia. This can ultimately lead to fatal apnea, especially with lipophilic opioids and intravenous administration that allows for quick equilibration at the effect compartment (central respiratory centers) [35]. Given the euphoria that occurs with opioids, addiction is another potential iatrogenic side effect seen with acute and chronic use. This can be associated with tolerance to opioids, which is defined as a decreased objective and subjective effect with a stable dose over time as well as requiring increasing amount of an opioid to achieve the same effect. Increasing tolerance also develops to the other effects of opioids including respiratory depression [24]. This is problematic in patients abusing opioids given the tendency for relapse back to a previous dose that will now cause profound respiratory depression due to the loss of tolerance during abstinence.
\nAntidepressants have a long established efficacy in the treatment of neuropathic predominant chronic pain disorders [36]. Neuropathic pain disorders develop from a multitude of disease processes that directly arise from lesions or other damage to the central or peripheral somatosensory nervous system [37]. Associated diseases and processes include diabetes mellitus (diabetic peripheral neuropathy), HIV (HIV polyneuropathy), herpes zoster (post-herpetic neuralgia), and medical interventions (e.g., post-mastectomy pain, chemotherapy). Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) including amitriptyline, imipramine, and nortriptyline are routinely used as first line options in the management of neuropathic pain [36, 38]. TCAs can be started and maintained at doses lower than the doses used in depression thus reducing some of the side effects commonly seen at depression doses such as dry mouth, sedation, urinary retention and orthostatic hypotension. TCAs must be used cautiously in patients taking other serotonergic drugs or in patients with a history of cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, or urinary retention given the anticholinergic side effects TCAs can produce. Of note, TCAs are beneficial to both depressed and non-depressed patients as well as having the added value of helping with depression in the depressed subpopulation [36]. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are also commonly used in the management of chronic pain with duloxetine having FDA approval for the management of fibromyalgia and venlafaxine showing superiority to placebo in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy [39, 40].
\nThe primary mechanism of action of TCAs in the treatment of neuropathic pain involves the reuptake inhibition of norepinephrine (NE) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]), which causes a blockade of the neuronal membrane ion channels and increases the activation of descending inhibitory pathways in the midbrain and spinal cord [41, 42]. SNRIs also elicit their effect through inhibition of NE and 5-HT blocking their role in descending pain pathways.
\nThe term cannabinoid is used to collectively describe all naturally occurring and synthetic compounds that are structurally similar to and elicit similar effects as the cannabinoid plants, most notably
Cannabis contains over 500 chemical compounds including over 150 phytocannabinoids with the most studied being Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is the chief psychotropic compound of
Ketamine is a dissociative analgesic and amnestic medication that acts as a non-competitive antagonist of the N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor in the central nervous system [51]. It has been used since the 1960s as an anesthetic agent and continues to be studied and adapted for novel psychiatric and anesthetic purposes. Ketamine has multiple sites of drug action but its principal nociceptive effects occur at the NMDA receptors. NMDA receptors have dense expression in the temporal cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, cerebellum and brain stem and are known to contribute to the neuronal process that mediate nociception via activation by glutamate, an excitatory amino acid [52]. By targeting this receptor, ketamine has profound attenuating effects on ascending nociceptive transmission and amplification of descending inhibitory pathways [52, 53]. Ketamine is currently utilized in the management of many diseases and other applications including the management of chronic pain disorders (e.g., complex regional pain syndrome, phantom limb pain, fibromyalgia), acute pain, conscious sedation, and intraoperatively for antihyperalgesia and induction of anesthesia [54].
\nNSAIDs have been used historically to treat both acute and chronic pain. They possess analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties through the inhibition of the pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. Their mechanism of action allows them to establish efficacy in treating a variety of pain diseases but also allows their routine use to produce serious side effects. COX-1 receptors are expressed throughout our body and its inhibition can lead to gastric mucosal injury including gastroduodenal ulcers. Selective COX-2 inhibitors were created with hopes of avoiding the side effects connected with non-selective COX-inhibitors; however, they are associated with their own complications which include an increased risk for cardiovascular events (thrombosis and hypertension).
\nOpioids remain a popular option in treating pain due to their effect on the Mu (μ), Delta (δ), and Kappa (κ) receptors. By activating these receptors, opioids can prevent the release of pain-promoting neurotransmitters providing their analgesic effects. However, the activation of the same receptors is also responsible for the associated side effects. These side effects vary depending on either acute or chronic use but can be life-threatening in some cases. This includes respiratory depression which can lead to fatal apnea. Chronic opioid use is associated with opioid induced constipation that can cause significant morbidity. It is therefore recommended to include prophylactic laxatives with chronic regimens. It is important to remember that addiction and tolerance is associated with opioid use due to its euphoric effect. Therefore, the clinical use of these medications should not only depend on their mechanism of action but also on understanding the potential severe complications that arise with their use.
\nNeuropathic chronic pain disorders have been effectively treated with antidepressants. These disorders include, but are not limited to, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, HIV polyneuropathy, and post-herpetic neuralgia. One of the first line options are the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) which are usually started and maintained at lower doses versus the depression doses. This helps reduce some of their side effects including urinary retention, sedation, and dry mouth. Other antidepressants include serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors that are also used in the management of neuropathic disorders.
\nCannabinoids exhibit their effects by binding to CB1 and CB2 receptors, two isotypes of G-protein coupled receptors. The agonism of these receptors is responsible for cannabinoids’ anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. CB1 receptor agonism is also predominately responsible for the psychoactive effect. Preclinical evidence supports anti-nociceptive effects and with recent legalization of cannabis, the use of cannabinoids to treat pain disorders will expand with ongoing research.
\nKetamine has many uses in treating both acute and chronic pain including fibromyalgia. It is also used for conscious sedation due to both its dissociative and amnestic properties. Ketamine has multiple sites of interactions but it exhibits its principle nociceptive effect by acting as a non-competitive antagonist of the N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NDMA) receptor.
\nAbiotic stress can be defined as the adverse impacts created by the abiotic factors on the plant tissues [1]. Abiotic stress is caused by nonliving factors that are in contrast to biotic stress, which is caused by living organisms. The various factors impacting the plant tissues interrupt their normal metabolism. In response to this stress, the plants adapt newer metabolic reactions to resist the stress. The majority of such reactions aid them to regulate and sustain themselves against various environmental factors [1].
In Figure 1, stresses influencing the growth and developmental patterns of plants are shown. As stated by the figure, plant stress depends upon the stress factors being living or nonliving and thus the stress gets segmented as biotic (living) stress and abiotic (nonliving) stress in plants [2].
Some of the common plant stresses: both biotic and abiotic stresses have effects on plants.
The consequence of the stress factors on the plant tissue is their influence on their growth and development pattern [2]. As a result of the stresses, various types of plant metabolism get triggered, such as the altered expression of the inherited genes, metabolism of the cells of plants, changed patterns of growth types, crop yields, and much more [2]. However, as stated by Zhang et al. [3], there are two types of stresses—biotic and abiotic that are observed among the plant tissues.
Biotic stress is caused by living organisms, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, weeds, and many others [4]. Such stressors deprive the host plants of the growth factors and nutrients within them and eventually the plants die. Thus, biotic stress factors become the major reason for the plants pre-and post-harvest losses.
In Figure 2, the influence of the endophytic fungi on desert plants is. The figure shows how fungi grow with the association of the plants and thus take in salts, water, and other nutrients from the plant roots. In such cases, the growing plants become deprived of salt and water and continuous salt stress and water deficiency are encountered [5]. As a result of all such negative impacts, the deterioration of the inherent metabolism of the plant parts occur. Additionally, in the case of the desert plants, already deserts are known for lower availability of water, thus any such further disturbances by the endophytic fungi have adversely impacted the plant growth [5].
Biotic stress on the desert plant: the endophytic fungi are taking the natural product of the soil meant for the plant and creating biotic stress.
Abiotic stress factors are the nonliving factors influencing the present metabolism, growth, and development of the plant tissues [6]. As stated by Sharma et al. [7], abiotic stress factors impacting plants are excessive hot temperature, extreme cold temperature, salinity, drought, mineral availability or toxicity, and much more. Such abiotic stress factors have, thus, negatively impacted the overall crop yields, and, thus, there is a need of generating resistant plant varieties that can sustain against abiotic stress factors [6].
Figure 3 showcases the various abiotic stress impacting plant parts and their relative outcomes. As stated in the figure, sunlight, cold weather, salinity, and mineral availability or deficiency are the major abiotic stress factors for a plant [8]. As a result of various stress factors, multiple responses can be seen. For example—the amount of ROS (reactive oxygen species) can be increased, plant growth and yield reduced, and simultaneously photosynthetic activity can be reduced. The adverse environmental temperatures deteriorated the plants’ growth and developmental patterns [8].
Abiotic stress factors in plants: major abiotic stress factors for a plant deficiency are sunlight, cold weather, salinity, and mineral availability or deficiency. They are the major abiotic stress factors for plant deficiency.
The abiotic stress is known to impact the internal metabolism of the plant parts, and, thus, the overall productivity of the plants gets reduced [9]. This could be the major adverse impact as the abiotic stress factors are widely known to cause mostly negative impacts only [9]. The several abiotic stress factors and their simultaneous mechanisms are being discussed as follows:
Every plant is known to survive at a particular temperature only. The alteration of the required temperature changed the overall sustenance patterns of the individual plants [10]. In case of plants growing in cold temperatures, cold temperature would result in disruption of the plant tissues, as a result, it would lead to deterioration of the life cycle of plants.
Figure 4 explains the various mechanisms adopted by the plants to mitigate the cold stress factors against the sustenance of plants [10]. As seen from the figure, the incorporation of such stress factors aids the plants to generate signals and further transcriptional control so that the genes of stress signaling could be simultaneously activated. This will ultimately lead to re-establishment of the cellular homeostasis and functional and structural protection of protein and membranes [10]. All such optimistic sequential steps impacted positively internal cellular membranes and, thus, lead to stress tolerance or resistance against abiotic stress factors by plants [10].
Mechanism of abiotic stress factors on plants: genes of abiotic stress signaling could be simultaneously activated. This will ultimately lead to re-establishment of the cellular homeostasis, functional and structural stress tolerance, or resistance protection of proteins and membranes.
The salt concentration is one of the major factors impacting plants’ growth and development [11]. Higher amounts of salt lead to the re-release of genes for minimizing stresses against salt concentration and thus optimizing the plants to survive in such hazardous situations as well.
Figure 5 illustrates the fact that accumulation of solute concentration leads to mineral absorption in an excessive amount and simultaneously it leads to cell wall modification and incorporation of transporters that lead to re-transportation of salts to mesophyll, homeostasis of potassium, and nitrate ions and thus generating optimistic stress responses [12].
Factors impacting salt stress in plants: excessive amount of mineral absorption leads to cell wall modification and incorporation of transporters that lead to re-translocation of salts to mesophyll, homeostasis of potassium and nitrate ions, and thus generating optimistic stress responses.
Toxins are chemicals released by the plant tissues in response to several abiotic stress factors [13]. Toxins are also considered to be the surrounding stress factors adversely impacted by the environment, and, thus, the plants are getting negatively impacted by such abiotic stress factors.
Figure 6 illustrates the toxins released by the cell wall, cell membranes, cytoplasm, chloroplast, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisome, and nucleus [14]. Signal integration of the stress factors occurs now and the stress response genes are activated and released. These responses lead to the sustenance of the overall growth and development of the plant parts [14].
Mitigation strategies against toxins: signal integration of the stress factors occurs and the stress response genes are activated and released. These responses lead to the sustenance of the overall growth and development of the plant parts.
The abiotic stress factors are the ones that cannot be sustained and mitigated by the plants externally, henceforth plants are known for developing fresh mechanisms within their inner metabolism to balance the excessive adverse impacts created by the outside environment [7]. Many such mitigation strategies are adopted by plants to overcome such abiotic stress factors [7].
In Figure 7, the sequential steps adopted by plants to overcome the abiotic stress impacts are shown. The figure states that with abiotic stresses, the plants tend to develop excessive ROS. Such an excessive production leads to the further incorporation of 3 steps—activation of oxygen antioxidants, up-regulation of osmolytes, and activation of stress-responsive genes [15]. The activation of the stress-responsive genes makes the plants much tolerant and thus they can survive against such hazardous temperatures as well. So identification of targeted genes is necessary as the overall mechanism depends upon such gene regulations only [3]. Henceforth it can be concluded that oxidative stress reduction results in an increase in the stress tolerance factors and long-term sustainability of the plants in such adverse conditions as well [3].
Steps for overcoming abiotic stress by plants: in abiotic stresses, the plants tend to develop excessive ROS in oxidative stress reduction, which results in increase of stress tolerance factors and long-term sustainability of the plants.
The research on abiotic stress factors on plant growth and development reveals that they are the major factors that influence and lead to the deterioration of the plant species. Heat, cold, drought, salinity, and toxins are various abiotic stressors impacting adversely the overall development of plants. Various stress-responsive genes are formulated in response to abiotic stresses so that the plants can survive extreme conditions as well. Rapid population growth, economic development, and international economic integration have intensified resource use in every sector of the world. The human population is expected to increase to a total of 9 billion by 2050. So production of more food from the same area of land will be needed and this can happen only by reducing the adverse environmental impacts on plants. This is what has been called sustainable intensification, for feeding, clothing, and providing energy to such a large population. Transgenic approaches have been proven to show as powerful tools to help understand and manipulate the responses of plants to stress. Global research analyses indicate that transcription to proteins and metabolites occurs during abiotic stress. These findings will advance our understanding of major metabolic pathways and provide direction for achieving abiotic stress-tolerant plants. The viable evaluation of transgenes that enhance crop performance under both stress and optimal conditions is a prolonged, tedious, and expensive process. It is being proposed that the current stance on plant stress tolerance can be significantly polished by thorough characterization of individual genes and evaluating their contribution to stress tolerance.
The molecular mechanisms of plants to create stress tolerance against salt, drought, and temperature involve a number of regulatory proteins, such as transcription factors. The study of such mechanisms enabled us to increase our knowledge of enhanced plant survival and increased crop yields in spite of abiotic stresses. Further research is needed for accurate evaluation in the field of genotypes for abiotic stress resistance, a deeper understanding of the transcription factors that regulate major stress-responsive genes, and cross-talks between divergent signaling components. We are to advance our knowledge on traits that are associated with root architecture and plasticity, especially in agronomically superior genotypes under abiotic stress conditions. Crop tolerance to various abiotic stresses is a matter of continued research to increase our knowledge further and to help plants from deterioration and extinction. The stress biotechnology research in the recent future will emphasize on strength and stress-induced expression of the transgenes, combined with the regulatory machinery involving transcription factors as a new genetic manipulation tool for controlling the expression of many different stress-responsive genes.
In conclusion, plant sciences currently achieve good models of how model plants react to environmental factors by transcriptional and metabolic reprogramming. However, especially molecular research efforts in crops have to be strengthened considerably. Plant stress physiology is a very complex matter and needs future biocomputational integration of multiple omics and meta-omics to understand it properly. This needs further effort in developing innovative research tools and fundamental resources for crop plant research, such as reference genomes, proteomes, and metabolomes with comprehensive annotations and structure-function relationships, respectively. Even for the model
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",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
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\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7633,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:149,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16954,totalCrossrefCites:64,totalDimensionsCites:147,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10140,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21541,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14168,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7552,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2947,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"},{id:"82697",title:"Analyzing the Evolution of Land-Use Changes Related to Vegetation, in the Galicia Region, Spain: From 1990 to 2018",slug:"analyzing-the-evolution-of-land-use-changes-related-to-vegetation-in-the-galicia-region-spain-from-1",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106015",abstract:"Considering the complex dynamics, patterns, and particularities that the Galicia region present—e.g., the fragility, shown to achieve sustainable development and growth—a study that analyzes the Land-Use related to the vegetation of this region is seen as pivotal to identifying barriers and opportunities for long-term sustainable development. Using GIS (Geographic Information Systems), the present chapter enables us to identify the dynamics and patterns of the evolution of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 (years 1990, 2000, 2012, and 2018 using CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) data). This study permits us to reinforce that the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region have undergone multiple changes—marked by increasing and decreasing periods. Also, can be considered a surveying baseline for the comparative analysis of similar works for different Land-Use Changes related to vegetation trends in Europe or worldwide. Land-Use Changes related to vegetation studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. This chapter also enables us to understand that the main actors should design development policies to protect, preserve and conserve these incomparable landscapes, environments, ecosystems, and the region as a whole.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Sérgio Lousada and José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"80404",title:"Biotisation of Vegetables",slug:"biotisation-of-vegetables",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102551",abstract:"The research proposes a biofertiliser from mycorrhiza and rhizobium evaluating its antagonistic capacity and biotisation in the cultivation of vegetables with a DCA, the sample considers the potato, pea, and barley in the Huasahuasi Peruvian District, with nine treatments in three formulas, considering a control group without inoculation and two repetitions. 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He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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