The average SS values obtained by bottom echo integration method (BEI) and ring surface scattering (RSS) method and the difference (Δ=BEI-RSS). The number of data for each bottom type is 100.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2188",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Modeling and Measurement Methods for Acoustic Waves and for Acoustic Microdevices",title:"Modeling and Measurement Methods for Acoustic Waves and for Acoustic Microdevices",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Acoustics is a mature field which enjoys a never ending youth. New developments are induced by either the search for a better understanding, or by technological innovations. Micro-fabrication techniques introduced a whole new class of microdevices, which exploit acoustic waves for various tasks, and in particular for information processing and for sensing purposes. Performance improvements are achievable by better modelling tools, able to deal with more complex configurations, and by more refined techniques of fabrication and of integration in technological systems, like wireless communications. Several chapters of this book deal with modelling and fabrication techniques for microdevices, including unconventional phenomena and configurations. But this is far from exhausting the research lines in acoustics. Theoretical analyses and modelling techniques are presented, for phenomena ranging from the detection of cracks to the acoustics of the oceans. Measurement methods are also discussed, which probe by acoustic waves the properties of widely different systems.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1189-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4241-6",doi:"10.5772/2581",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"modeling-and-measurement-methods-for-acoustic-waves-and-for-acoustic-microdevices",numberOfPages:614,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"ae0f011b5180f0cc414a30ec559cb421",bookSignature:"Marco G. Beghi",publishedDate:"August 28th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2188.jpg",numberOfDownloads:78092,numberOfWosCitations:84,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:84,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:195,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 16th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"41947",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco G.",middleName:null,surname:"Beghi",slug:"marco-g.-beghi",fullName:"Marco G. Beghi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41947/images/1666_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco G. Beghi graduated in 1979 in Nuclear Engineering at Politecnico di Milano, Italy. He spent one year at University of California, Los Angeles. In 1984 he became research fellow at the Department of Nuclear Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, and in 2003 associate professor of Condensed Matter Physics. He was member of government bodies of Politecnico: Board of Administrators and Academic Senate. Presently he is in the Micro- and Nanostructured Materials Laboratory of the Department of Energy, Politecnico. Since 1991 he has been teaching Experimental Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and Technology of Nuclear Materials, to undergraduate and graduate students of Nuclear and Materials Engineering. His experimental research concerns the physics of materials. He analysed the mechanical behaviour of metals in terms of dislocation dynamics and irreversible thermodynamics. He then worked on thin films and their properties, exploiting Brillouin spectrometry to measure the elastic properties. 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Underwater acoustic instruments has been an indispensable tool to study the ocean. Echo sounder is one of the acoustic instrument used to remotely classify distributions of biological organisms such as fish and plankton (MacLennan and Simmonds, 1992; Furusawa, 2000). Knowledge of species, location, and behavior observed by the sounders are important for fisheries, fisheries management, and ecological studies.
Echo sounders have also been used to characterize the sea bottom type such as rocks, sand, and mud (Stanton, 1994). The characterization of the sea bottom type are useful in applications such as fish habitat study, fishing port construction, geological studies, marine exploration, and mining.
With the end of World War II, studies on underwater acoustics for sea bottom interactions began extensively. Urick (1954) defined the measure of
One of the methods to measure the bottom backscattering strength is to use the echo integration method (Aoyama et al, 1999). This method is used as the main tool for quantifying the abundance of marine fish or planktonic organisms. The echo integration output can be converted to biomass. For the general situation of arbitrary density, as with a school of fish, individual target echoes may not be resolvable. In this case, the echo voltage, after detection and application of suitable range compensation, is squared and summed over a defined interval. The resulting quantity is proportional to the volume or area backscattering coefficient. Division of this by the characteristic backscattering cross section for the target fish yields the numerical density. The echo integration technique has been originally used for fisheries surveys and at the present study we adopted it to measure backscattering strength (SS) of the sea bottom.
Acoustic scattering by the sea bottom has been studied in order to either predict the performance of the echosounder system (Aoyama, et al. 1999) or to quantitatively map the sea bottom. Characterization of sea bottom can be obtained by measuring the bottom backscattering strength (SS). From the measured SS we may be able to estimate the fish habitat.
The objectives of this researches are development and application of methods to characterize or quantify the fish and sea bottom by underwater acoustic instrument originally developed for measurements of fish scattering. More specifically, the objective is to extensively use multi frequency acoustics (38, 70, and 120 kHz) to measure the bottom backscattering strength (SS) and fish quantification in off Southern Jawa Island, Indonesia.
The SS can be measured by the bottom scattering theory developed by Aoyama et al. (1999). As the extension of this theory, a simple but powerful model for bottom scattering, that is a ring surface scattering (RSS) model was developed. The RSS model enables to interpret the bottom echo and to measure the SS value. The SS values, measured for the first time at the sea off Jawa Island, are related to the sounder frequency, beam width, and the bottom type and the properties of the SS with respect to the parameters are examined. The bottom material sampling were conducted to interpret the bottom echo. An associated objective of this study is to measure bottom depth to know the bottom topography.
The other objective is to identify the bottom material by the SS value and relate it to bottom fish habitat. We developed a new and effective method to display fish volume scattering and bottom SS simultaneously. To verify the bottom fish echo, the bottom trawling was conducted.
A number of mathematical models have been developed in order to gain a better physical understanding of acoustic backscattering from the sea bottom. By observing echo fluctuations from sea bottom, Stanton (1985) determined quantitative information of bottom relief such as bottom roughness. He extended the Eckart (1953) acoustic scattering theory to show the relationship between the probability density function of the echo level and the rms roughness. Stanton model is plane wave model. Jackson et al. (1986) developed a bottom scattering model using the composite roughness and grazing angle parameters.
Aoyama et al. (1997) model was extended as ring surface scattering model (RSS model) in this Chapter. The extension of this model from Aoyama et al. model is described. The RSS model exhibits a raw backscattering strength (without averaging) at the peak of bottom echoes and easily convert the bottom scattering strength to the bottom backscattering strength (SS). Aoyama et al. used the approximation method for the equivalent beam angle, but the RSS model uses a strict instantaneous equivalent beam angle for surface scattering.
Normal incidence reflection of sound from the sea bottom is relatively easy to detect. It is used in depth sounders to give the water depth for ships and boats. There has been, however, little research a bottom backscattering strength measurement by normal incidence echo sounders.
Because the wave is propagating, a certain amount of power flow across a unit area normal to the direction of the propagation. This amount of power is called the sound intensity and shown as
where
Sound intensity of surface scattering from a small scattering area,
where
From Fig. 2.1, we have
where and are the polar and azimuthal angles, respectively.
Substitution of Eq. (2.3) into Eq. (2.2) yields
Intensity of the surface backscattering strength, I, is the total of dI, therefore
In general, the
where
and
The integration limits
and
where
where
We derived a new model called ″ ring surface scattering model ″ from the above theory. This model enables us to measure the bottom backscattering strength (SS) by using the echo sounder (Aoyama, et al., 1999). Figure 2.3 shows a simplified block diagram for bottom backscattering measurement by underwater acoustic instrument.
Principle of surface scattering.
Figure 2.2 shows the geometry showing change of scattering plane with time.The surface insonified by the pulse changes from a circle (a) toa circular (b) like ring with time.
The backscattered pressure signal from the bottom received by the transducer (Fig. 2.3),
where
The bottom echo signal is amplified by the amplifier to give
where
The echo amplitude, E
where
The time varied gain (TVG) amplifier output of
Geometry showing change of scattering plane with time. The acoustic wave hit the bottom at the bold lines.
where
The "raw" SV value of the bottom echo,
where
where
The above
Substitution of
This equation is called ″
The echo wave form simulation is possible by this model. The results of the wave form simulation are compared with the wave forms from the actual data obtained by the echo sounder to interpret the data. When our purpose is to simulate the wave form and echo level, we use the instantaneous equivalent beam angle
The simplified block diagram of underwater acoustic instrument to measure bottom backscattering strength (SS). RSS is ring surface scattering and BEI is bottom echo integration.
In the bottom echo integration method (Aoyama, et al., 1999) we average the bottom echoes for a predefined depth layer (
The average squared voltage of TVG outputs with respect to the ping (index i ) and the range is
where m is the integration period in ping. The average bottom echo integration strength ("bottom SV"), <
Substitution of the Eq. (2.19) into Eq. (2.20) yield
When
where
is the average bottom scattering strength.
In the case of sharp beam, we have (Aoyama et al. 1997)
where
Introducing Eq.(2.25) into Eq. (2.22), we get
where the prime means values which should be given to the underwater acoustic instrument as parameters. Finally we have
if the parameter values have no error. This is the simple relationship between the average SS and the bottom SV.
Using the RSS Model we have a relationship between the raw (or not averaged) SV value of the bottom echo,
where
where
and we can easily convert the raw SV to raw SS. An application of this formula for all
In decibel unit,
The instantaneous equivalent beam angle and the asymptotic value of
The raw SV, raw SS, and instantaneous SS.
The echo sounder is employed in this survey to explore fish resources, bottom topography, and bottom backscattering strength. Additional instrument, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and data storage are included as part of the acoustic system. The raw data of echo sounder is processed using Echoview and Matlab program. The sphere calibration was conducted to guarantee a high quality of acoustic data (Fig. 3.1).
Bottom material sampling using an anchor dredge was conducted to interpret the bottom echo. The obtained bottom material was saved for further processing in laboratory. The acoustic data collection and the bottom material sampling were conducted simultaneously. The bottom material was analyzed using the sieving and pipette methods. Then, the analysis of particle size was done using Wentworth scale.
The sphere echo during calibration.
It is shown that the underwater acoustic instrument can rather easily measures echoes by reflection of sounding pulses from the bottom. The sounder is especially useful when both fish and sea bottom should be quantified. The quantitative echogram of the It is shown that the underwater acoustic instrument can rather easily measures echoes by reflection of sounding pulses from the bottom. The sounder is especially useful when both fish and sea bottom should be quantified. The quantitative echogram of the echosounder showing raw SV as shown in Fig. 4.1 enables us to interpret the backscattered signal from any object. showing raw SV as shown in Fig. 4.1 enables us to interpret the backscattered signal from any object.
Figure 4.1 shows typical echograms at 38 kHz for sand, silt, and clay seabed. The scale shows the raw SV value ranging from -70 to -10 dB. The red belts represent the sea bottom. Because of the same range width of the echograms we can easily compare the bottom echoes and find that the thickness of the reddish belts for sand is thinner than those of silt and clay bottoms; this mainly comes from the difference of the bottom depth rather than of bottom material as discussed later.
Typical echograms in raw SV for sand, silt, and clay. The range width and ping number are the same for three figures.
Figure 4.1 shows the bottom echoes in the same range scale width and easily reveals differences or similarity among the three echograms. The first red belts correspond to the contribution from the main lobe as can be seen from the simulation results in Fig. 4.2; the difference in the thicknesses comes from the depth differences but not from the material differences. We also observe two or three more weaker bluish belts beneath the main belt and these are contributions from side lobe(s) as also can be seen from Fig. 4.2.
Figure 4.2 shows several typical wave forms of the bottom echoes, with absolute raw SV scale for the three frequencies and the three materials near the points whose echograms are shown in Fig. 4.1. Figure 4.2 also shows the simulated wave forms by Eq. (2.18) using the SS values of each bottom type shown in each figure : the SS values were obtained from the peak raw SV values of bottom echo and giving
As shown in Fig. 4.2, the model calculations and measurements agree rather well in the wave form. The width change of the bottom echo was caused by the increasing depth. The bottom material is reflected only in the SS value in the present model. It was supported by the simulation results that the beam spreading caused the increase of the bottom echo width with increasing depth. The present model can well predict the scattering by the side lobes ; this figure also shows that the narrow beam and short pulse configuration receives the contributions of the bottom echoes separately by the side lobes. Comparing with the more thorough model as by Chotiros (Chotiros, 1994), this model can be used easily, sacrificing a little bit rigorousness.
This section describes the examination of the bottom echo integration method. We examined the relation of measured bottom backscattering strength (SS) on integration width
Wave forms of sand (top), silt (middle), and clay (bottom) in raw SV by measurements () and simulations (-----) at 38 kHz (left), 70 kHz (middle), and 120 kHz (right).
We find from Fig. 4.3, the average SS values by the bottom echo integration are independent from the change of integration layer,
The concept of SA was originally developed for estimating the fish biomass by acoustic method. For the echo integration, the received signal is once converted to through the volume backscattering strength,
The echogram in raw SV scale (a) and the relation of measured SS on r
In decibel scale
From Eq. (4.1) we have
for the actual processing in which average SV, that is <
By Eq. (4.2) and Eq. (2.27 ) yields for one layer
We find that the average SS value <SS>, is equivalent to the area backscattering strength of the bottom echo (SA). Therefore, we can easily get the value by the normal function of the echo integration by selecting a belt like integration layer including the bottom echo.
Comparison of the SS values by the ring surface scattering (RSS) model as shown in Fig. 4.2 and bottom echo integration methods by Eq. (2.27) are shown in Table 4.1 to confirm a good agreement. The SS values were obtained from the peak raw SV values of bottom echo and giving
We examine the frequency characteristics of the bottom scattering backstrength by underwater acoustic instrument frequencies of 38, 70, and 120 kHz. The multi-frequency approach will increase the accuracy of the target (sea bottom) estimation due to different response of the target to the frequencies used.
Figure 4.4 shows the average SS for 100 number of data and standard deviation of the SS as a function of frequencies for each bottom type. The standard deviation is obtained by taking the root mean square (RMS) deviation of the average SS. There are several same data of mean diameter particle. The SS decreases with increasing frequency (Fig. 4.4). The results show that the SS for 38 kHz are 2 to 3 dB greater than for 70 and 120 kHz. This is consistent with the conclusions of Stanic et al., (1988) who showed that the SS at normal incidence decreased with increasing frequency by 1.5 dB.
Frequency dependence of measured bottom backscattering strength for sand, silt, and clay with 1 standard deviation indicated.
Bottom material | SS [dB] | ||||||||
38 kHz BEI RSS Δ | 70 kHz BEI RSS Δ | 120 kHz BEI RSS Δ | |||||||
Sand Silt Clay | -12.6 -21.2 -28.3 | -12.8 -20.2 -28.5 | 0.2 1.0 0.2 | -15.7 -22.6 -28.8 | -15.8 - 22.6 - 28.7 | 0.1 0 0.1 | -18.8 -24.0 -29.4 | -19.3 -24.4 - 31.4 | 0.5 0.4 1.0 |
The average SS values obtained by bottom echo integration method (BEI) and ring surface scattering (RSS) method and the difference (Δ=BEI-RSS). The number of data for each bottom type is 100.
Ten bottom material samplings were conducted during the survey. The bottom materials of sand, silt, and clay were determined observing physical characteristics of the samples and mean diameter values. Particle size analysis were conducted by Wentworth scale. The mean diameter of the bottom materials from each 100 data are 223 to 301 m for sand, 58 m for silt, 36 to 43 m for sand-silt-clay, and 9 to 10 m for clay.
To examine the correlation with bottom properties, the measured average (integrated) SS values were plotted against the mean diameter of the bottom material (Fig. 4.5). The regression line shown is given by
with a high correlation coefficient of 0.98, where d is mean diameter of particle size in μm. The data were merged for frequencies in the regression because of the small frequency dependence, but the frequencies are discriminated in Fig. 4.5. The larger the grain size, the stronger the bottom backscattering strength.
Bottom particle diameter dependence of bottom backscattering strength. The regression line and correlation coefficient,
An increase in mean diameter is accompanied by a higher backscattering strength (Fig. 4.5). The reason for this is related to the bulk density of the sediments. The sand (grain sizes from 62 to 2000 μm, from the smooth sand to coarsest sand) has a bulk density between 1.9 and 2.1 g/cm3, silt and clay (grain sizes < 62 μm) have much lower values of bulk density, usually varying between 1.2 and 1.6 g/cm3. The bulk density of the sediment is determined principally from porosity. The porosity values of silt and clay are higher than sand; this is due to the fact that the silt and clay bind water more than the sand. Therefore, there are more water-filled voids per given volume of silt and clay than sand. Bulk density determines the acoustic impedance of sediment ; the higher the sediment density, the higher the impedance, and the greater the scattering backstrength.
As shown in Figs. 4.4, and 4.5 the average SS of sand is higher than silt and clay by more than 5 dB. To some extent, it was possible to relate SS to mean diameter, suggesting the possibility of bottom type classification. We examined our regression to estimate the bottom backscattering strength (SS) for rock and gravel. For this purpose, the regression line is extended without disturbing the original data. By our regression, the estimated SS is -1.3 dB for rock with diameter 8 mm. Urick (Urick,1954) used frequency of 55 kHz and found the SS of rock is -0.8 dB. The estimated SS is -6.7 dB for gravel with diameter 2 mm. The measured SS for gravel is -7.8 dB (Applied Physics Laboratory, UW, 1994).
Although the present data lack particle sizes from 70μm to 220μm, further investigation is necessary to clarify the particle size dependence of SS, Fig. 4.5 or Eq. (4.4) gives a guide to relate the SS and the bottom material.
The echo sounder measured sea bottom depths and the result of the quantitative echogram in instantaneous SS scale is shown in Fig. 5.1 as examples.
The maps show that most of the floors have irregular topography and that the surveyed areas were steeply sloping bottom. According to the depth, the survey area is the continental shelf and the other survey areas are the continental slopes. These are due to that the bottom morphology of this areas are mostly consists of troughs.
The acoustic track, the bathymetry map (a) and SS distribution (b).
The measurement of bottom backscattering strength (SS) using the bottom echo integration method along the acoustic track were conducted. The bottom echo integration (BEI) method measures the average bottom SS by averaging the bottom echoes for a predefined depth layer including the bottom echoes and ping sequence. We found that this process is theoretically same to the ordinary process of the echo integration to get the area backscattering strength (SA) and that the average bottom SS can be easily obtained by a commercial software such as Echoview. The SS map results for the integration period of 0.1 nmi of bottom echo are shown in Fig. 5.1. together with depth contour. The general correlation between SS and depth contour for the present survey was the increasing depth followed by decreasing SS. Figure 5.2 show the bottom trawling, SS distribution, and detected fish school (●) of the survey area.
The bottom trawling (—), SS distribution, and detected fish school (●) of survey area
This section shows an investigation of the relationship between sea bottom material and fish close to sea bottom information obtained by using echo sounder. From the bottom surface to upper depth is SV value and to the lower depth is instantaneous SS.
Measured scattering strength of fish (SV) close to the sea bottom and the SS sea bottom.
Figure 5.3 shows simultaneously the scattering from fish school (SV) close to the sea bottom and the SS values by RSS model (Eq. (2.30)) as the fixed and expanded bottom at trawl survey area. The example of echograms is shown in Fig. 5.3. The increasing of fish density is followed by the increasing receiving voltage of acoustic instrument (Fig. 5.4).
The estimated bottom material is conducted by the SS value.In our results,, the SS value higher than -14.0 dB we categorized as a sand. The SS lied between – 20.0 to -15.0 dB is the silt and the SS less than -22.0 dB is as clay.
The relationship between received acoustic voltage and fish density.
The bottom material is estimated by the SS value. The measured SS is about -12.0 to -5.0 dB when the bottom fish schools were existences. By this value, the bottom material is estimated as sand. The measured SS is about -28.0 to -16.0 dB when the bottom fish schools were absent. The bottom material is estimated as silt and clay, respectively. From this results, the bottom fish schools tend to be associated with the main areas of sand. This interpretation is also supported by the trawl data showing the fish caught in this sand area. The scattering from fish (SV) and bottom (SS) are simultaneously display in echogram. Among the total 98 fish schools examined 95 schools were on the sand bottom. The SV values of fish close to the sea bottom are ranging from -70.0 to -35.0 dB.
The distribution of fish reflect variability in the surrounding environment, and those area normally occupied by a species constitute its habitat. Generally, individual species are not ubiquitous, suggesting that habitat is restrictive.
Bottom type has a major influence on the fish distribution patterns (Gibson and Robb, 1992;). Bottom type preference related to the distribution of suitable prey and the ability of fish to effectively bury themselves, which means they are protected from predation and achieve a strategic advantage in feeding (Gibson and Robb, 1992).
There may also be important differences in the availability and quality of bottom fish associated with different bottom (Gray, 1974). He reported that fish are abundant in sand and decreases in abundance in the silt and clay. The highest densities of fish in sand, since sand are stable from water currents. The other fish is abundant in silt and clay in which they feed. Our case fish is abundant in sand, may be for their living and burying to protect from predation, but further investigation is necessary.
The quantification technique of echoes using underwater acoustic instrument can rather easily measure echoes by reflection of sounding pulses from fish and sea bottom.
The conclusions from the results of the experiments, assessment, and analysis performed in this study are described below :
Underwater acoustic instrument is a reliable tool to measure bottom backscattering strength and useful when to observe both fish and sea bottom ;
The ring surface scattering (RSS) model expressed by the instantaneous equivalent beam angle can well predict echo shapes of the actual bottom echo ;
Higher bottom backscattering strength is followed by the higher mean diameter of particle as shown by Eq. (4.4) ;
The bottom backscattering strength a little bit decreases with increasing frequency ;
The SS is independent with the integration width,
The area backscattering strength (SA) is equivalent to the bottom backscattering strength (SS);
The RSS model is able to measure the SS and the result is nearly equal with the bottom echo integration model ;
The bottom material sampling in the study area show that bottom type is sand, silt, sand-silt-clay, and clay.
The bottom fish were existence with the sand bottom material ;
The bottom echo integration (BEI) model enables us to study bottom material in the synoptic area while the RSS model for bottom material in detail beneath the specified fish.
The research was supported by Directorate General of Higher Education Ministry of National Education Indonesia and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
Fish and fishery products have become increasingly popular due to their high demand and nutritional value. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), worldwide production of finfish, mollusks (mainly bivalves), and crustaceans are 54.3, 17.7, and 9.4 million tons respectively [1]. Human consumption of fish is around 88% of total production and among them, 44% consist of live, fresh, or chilled products, and 35% consist of frozen products [2]. But, among animal-derived products, fish is considered as the most perishable commodity as it contains a high amount of water, high post mortem pH (greater than 6), non-protein-nitrogen content, free amino acids, lower content of connective tissues, and presence of an osmoregulant, trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) [3]. Spoilage or the deterioration process refers to any change in the condition of food in terms of taste, smell, appearance, or texture and becomes undesirable or unacceptable for human consumption. Generally, the process involves 3 stages; rigor mortis, autolysis, and putrefaction. Rigor mortis or the muscle stiffening will last for hours (time may vary with temperature) after their catch. Subsequently softening occurs due to enzymatic or oxidative self-digestion, and completed by microbiological processes (putrefaction) [4].
Every year, chemical and microbial deterioration alone contributes 25% of gross primary product loss (agricultural and fishery products). Besides this, there are several other factors such as harvesting season, type of species, capturing method, handling, the time lag from catch to processing, method of processing, storage temperature, etc. that also influence the rate of spoilage. During spoilage, the breakdown of various components and formation of new compounds responsible for the off- flavor, off odor, discoloration, and texture damage of the fish meat takes place [5]. Therefore, certain food additives have been added to maintain the quality, and the shelf-life of fish and fishery products. The main aim is to combat microbial contamination as well as oxidation for the extension of product’s shelf life. Generally, lipid oxidation leads to quality deterioration, and some of them can be detected by organoleptic evaluation, but microbial contamination especially pathogenic microorganisms mostly do not produce sensory deterioration, which act as a challenge for food safety. It emphasizes the importance of the application of antimicrobials in the preservation techniques [6]. In the case of fish and fishery products, preservation techniques draw more scientific attraction, since they represent internationally traded products. Even though many strategies have been developed to prevent chemical and microbial spoilage by chemical preservation, there is still a need for the use of natural preservatives, considering consumer safety. Thus, various researches and efforts have been made to invent more natural alternative solutions in the field of food preservation.
Fish and fishery products deteriorate rapidly as a consequence of various biochemical breakdowns and microbial activities on the chemical composition of meat. The spoilage involves autolysis or self-digestion of these compounds by digestive enzymes or by free radicals [7]. The major spoilage process is lipid degradation, which mainly occurs through oxidation or hydrolysis. The oxidation could be various types such as photo-oxidation, thermal oxidation, enzymatic oxidation, and auto-oxidation. It can also be accelerated by prooxidants within the body such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochrome c, etc. The process involves the reaction of unsaturated fatty acids of triglycerides with atmospheric oxygen to form unstable primary products like free fatty acids (FFAs), dienes, and peroxides and secondary products like aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, hydrocarbons, volatile organic acids, trienes, epoxy compounds and carbonyls [8]. The process of lipid hydrolysis or lipolysis is breaking down of triglycerides into FFAs by the action of enzyme lipases. Accumulation of these FFAs stimulates protein denaturation, texture damage, and drip loss by the formation of protein-lipid cross-linkages [9]. Generally, protein denaturation in fish occurs mainly by the action of proteolytic enzymes in the muscle (cathepsins) and the intestinal tract (trypsins), which results in muscle solubilization and leads to undesirable texture damage. End products like amino acids, peptides, amines, H2S, ammonia, indole, etc. will be formed and will all act as a medium for microbial growth. Microbial breakdown of amino acids will lead to bitterness, souring, bad odor, sliminess, etc. of the flesh [10].
For fish and fishery products, gram-negative bacteria like
Another important spoilage mechanism is post-mortem nucleotide catabolism, resulting in ATP depletion and subsequent formation of hypoxanthine (Hx) (Figure 1). The breakdown products do not affect the safety but sensory quality undergoes some changes [17, 18]. Based on these compounds formed, the freshness can be expressed. The ratio of inosine (Ino) and Hx to total nucleotides and their catabolic derivatives will give the K value, an indicator of loss of freshness [19]. The ratio of Hx to the total of Inosine monophosphate (IMP), Ino, and Hx will give the H value, an indicator of Hx accumulation (bitterness), and its limit for human consumption has been suggested as 60% [20]. Another quality indicator is the F value. It is the ratio of IMP to the total of IMP, Ino, and Hx, and fish with F-value of 10% and higher is considered unacceptable [21]. Thus there is a huge need for the use of additives in the food industry. Application of food additives and low-temperature preservation leads to diminution of most of the spoilage process to a greater extent.
Nucleotide catabolism as a result of autolysis and putrefaction.
By definition, additives are the substances that are added to maintain or improve the safety, freshness, taste, texture, or appearance of food. Generally additives can occur in fish and fishery products during production, processing, storage, packaging, and transportation. Additives can be of two types; Synthetic or chemical, and natural additives. Some of them are listed in Table 1.
Among chemical additives, the most common and widely used chemical is sodium chloride (NaCl). Salt drying and brining is the most traditional as well as an effective method of food preservation, and several studies have been made to explore all the preservation properties of NaCl. In Nile tilapia fillets, NaCl improved the weight and minimized drip loss [34], showed weight gain in white shrimp (
Many other compounds, including phosphates, carbonates, and sulfites, are used as major seafood additives. Phosphate compounds especially, polyphosphates (PP) have been widely used in fish and fishery products as cryoprotectant [38], gel strength, and flavor enhancer [53], for providing higher cooking yield [31], improving weight, and reducing drip loss [34, 54], modifying texture, color, and reducing cooking loss [55, 56, 57], improving quality of fillet [58], minimizing drip loss in shrimp [59, 60], drip loss in sea robin (
The use of plant-derived natural compounds such as essential oils, plant extracts, hydrocolloids, phenolic compounds, etc. is very popular in seafood preservation. Their strong antimicrobial and antioxidant activities present great potential for use in the food industry [64, 65, 66].
Plant extracts and essential oils can be derived from plant petals, leaves, fruits, peels, stems, roots, and xylems and their antioxidant effects are due to volatile organic compounds, terpenoid, and phenolic components in the plant. The inhibitory effects of essential oil on gram-negative bacteria are less than that of gram-positive bacteria as their lipopolysaccharide cell wall of gram-negative bacteria blocked the invasion of hydrophobic oils into the cell membrane [67]. Using essential oils (EOs) and plant extracts to extend shelf-life and maintain the quality of fish and fishery products has been reported frequently. Some of the recent studies of their application in fish and fishery products are represented in Table 2. However strong odor and taste, high volatility, complex chemical composition, low bioavailability and stability, and factors affecting chemical compositions like plant genetic variability, extraction techniques, etc. are some limitations for the application of these phytogenic additives [99]. Like other plant-derived products, seaweed and algal extracts are emerging as a rich source of natural antioxidants, along with many nutritional values. The three important widely used hydrocolloids are; agar-agar, align, and Carrageenan. As thickening agent agar-agar is used mainly in fish paste products. Carrageenan is used to enhance the gelling property of fish mince [100, 101, 102], and organoleptic properties of mussels and squids [103]. The sodium salt of alginic acid is widely used as a stabilizer and thickener in coating films. Sodium alginate coating with rosemary extract reduced the accumulation of biogenic amines and bacterial count in Abalone (
Additive function | Categories | Examples | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
To maintain palatability and wholesomeness (preservatives) | Antimicrobial agents | Benzoates, Sorbates, NaCl NO3−, NO2− Organic acids, EOs | Surimi/minced fish products dried, salted or cured fish Fish fillets | [22, 23] |
Antioxidants | BHA, BHT, TBHQ , PG, Ca/Na propionate, vit E, Ascorbate, Citric acid, Erythorbic acid EOs | Fish oil Fish fillets | [24, 25, 26] | |
To enhance the appeal of foods | Flavor enhancers | MSG, CaCl2, Citric acid, Disodium guanylate/ inosinate | Ready to cook or ready to eat products | [25] |
Sweeteners | Sucrose, lactose, glucose, fructose, glycerol, sorbitol. Acesulfame K, Aspartame, Sodium cyclamate, Saccarin, Sucralose, Neotam, Neohesperidine | Crab meat Fish fillets Marinades | [27, 28] | |
Colorants | Carmine, carmosine, caramel, paprika, annatto dye Iron oxides and hydroxides, Ponceau, Cochineals, Oleoresin of turmeric, TiO2, FD&C Yellow, Astaxanthin | Paste products, pre-cooked crustaceans, salmon substitutes, surimi, fish roe and smoked fish. | [28, 29] | |
Texturizing agents; (Emulsifiers/Stabilizers/ Water-binding agents) | Polysorbates, DATEM, Agar, Alginates, Carrageenan, gum, Calcium stearate, Lecithin, Yeast, Ammonium alum, | Fish and shrimp paste/mince products, Surimi | [25, 30] | |
To aid in the processing | Moisture control | CaO, Calcium stearate, STPP | Processed products | [25] |
Reduce thaw drip | Na2CO3, SHMP, STPP, TSPP | Frozen: clams, crab, fillets, lobster, shrimp and minced fish | [31] | |
Prevent cracking of glaze | Na3PO4, Na2HPO4 | Frozen products | [31] | |
Anticaking agents | Ca3(PO4)2, Na2SiO3, Ca2SiO4, MgCO3, Na4P2O7 | Paste/minced products | [25] | |
Prevent discolouration/blackspot/browning | Na2SO3 4-Hexylresorcinol, EDTA | Crustaceans | [32] | |
Packaging gases | O2, CO2, N2, Ar, O3, N2O, He, SO2, Cl | Fish and fishery products | [33] | |
Cryoprotectants | PP | Paste products, fillets, Frozen crustaceans | [28] |
Lists of additives used in fish and fishery products.
Plant derived compounds | Preservative properties | Product | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Rosemary | Retarded microbial growth, delay chemical deterioration, sensory qualities, and extend the shelf life for 14 days during storage. | Bonito Fish Patties | [68] |
Rosemary and basil | Inhibited the formation of TVB-N and lipid oxidation products during storage | Atlantic Mackerel | [69] |
Rosemary, laurel, thyme, and sage | Antimicrobial, antioxidant properties, and also enhanced the organoleptic quality | Rainbow trout fillet | [70] |
Rosemary, cinnamon fennel and cardamom | The counts of | Carp fingers | [71] |
Green pepper | Inhibited the growth of wild type strain of | Fish-based products | [72] |
Orange leaf | Enriched with Gelatin film showed shelf-life extension of 10 days | Shrimps | [73] |
Carvacrol, bergamot and grapefruit | Improved the quality of fresh fish and extended the shelf-life up to 4 days. | Seabream | [74] |
Oregano, thyme, and star anise | Inhibited microbial growth and delaying lipid oxidation | Grass carp | [75] |
Ginger | Significant reduction in the TVBN and lipid oxidation | Cobia steaks | [76] |
Clove, cumin, and spearmint | Retarded sensory deterioration and formation of biogenic amines. | Red drum fillets | [77] |
Black cumin | Higher sensory quality, and extended shelf life | Fresh fish fillets | [78] |
limonene | Maintained spoilage bacteria at a lower level and extended the shelf-life of 15 days | Gilthead sea bream fillets | [79] |
Allyl Isothiocyanate | Extended the shelf-life by maintain specific spoilage organisms at a lower level | Gilthead sea bream | [80] |
Oregano | Activity against | Salmon | [81] |
Fennel | Coating with chitosan nanoparticles reduced the PV, TVBN, TBARS and microbial count | [82] | |
Reduced peroxide value and eliminates secondary oxidation products | Gilthead seabream fillets | [83] | |
Lemon | Lowered accumulation of histamine, and improved sensory characteristics | Salted sardines | [84] |
cinnamon bark | Inhibited | Grass carp | [85] |
Cumin seed and Wild mint leaf | Retarded microbial growth, chemical deterioration, and improved sensory characteristics | Rainbow trout fillets | [86] |
Shallot fruit and ajwain seed | Delayed lipid oxidation and microbiological spoilage | Semi-fried coated rainbow trout fillets | [87] |
Significantly delayed oxidative deterioration and maintain lower bacterial growth | Silver carp fillets | [88] | |
Colorant, preservative, and antimicrobial action | Burger and surimi | [89] | |
Potential to preserve the fresh fish during transportation | Nile tilapia | [90] | |
Mint leaf and citrus peel | Retarded the quality changes and extended the shelf life | Indian mackerel | [91] |
Inhibition to | Fresh and cold storage fish | [92] | |
Kakadu plum | Inhibited bacterial growth for 15 days at 4°C | Fish fillets | [93] |
Clove, Sage and kiwifruit peel | Antioxidant and antimicrobial potential, and extend the shelf life | Fish fingers | [94] |
Pomegranate, rosemary, and olive | Delayed the lipid oxidation, and microbial count | Fish patties | [95] |
Improved the color, rehydration and water activity | Fish oil fortified soup powder | [96] | |
Green Tea Leaves and Fenugreek Seeds | Decreased TVBN, TBARS, total bacterial count, and pH | Shrimp | [97] |
Basil leaf | Antimicrobial effect and longest shelf life | Mullet fillet | [98] |
Summary of some of the recent studies of application of essential oils, and plant extracts in fish and fishery products.
Nowadays, animal-derived products like chitosan, gelatin, and whey proteins are widely used as food additives. Chitosan is a natural polymer obtained from chitin, a component of the exoskeleton of shellfish and fungal cell walls. Gelatin is a protein derived from the raw collagen of animal body parts. Whey protein is one of the two proteins, other than casein, found in milk. The bioactive coating of food products with these compounds provides antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and can thereby increase the shelf life of the product. Direct addition of compounds into the packaging materials also provided more potent preservative action [120]. Some of the recent studies on the application of chitosan, gelatin, and whey protein as edible coatings in fish and fish product preservation are represented in Table 3. But in moist environments, edible films and coating showed relatively low stiffness and strength, thus limited their use in specific conditions. Another animal-derived product, bioactive peptide (specific protein fragments) showed antimicrobial [137], and antioxidant activities [138]. In fish paste products, the products like plasma hydrolysate, plasma protein, ovomucoid, egg albumin, egg white, etc. were added as additives for improving strength [119]. The binding effect of egg whites and hydrolyzed beef plasma proteins in surimi gels [139], gel enhancing effect of bovine plasma powder, and egg white powder in arrow tooth surimi [140] were also reported.
Fish product | Preservative action | Reference |
---|---|---|
Grass carp | Inhibited cathepsin activities and thereby retarded the proteolysis | [121] |
Olive flounder | Coating combined with clove oil improved the quality and shelf life was extended by 6 days | [122] |
White shrimp | Coating combined with pomegranate peel extract reduced the melanosis, TVBN and microbial count | [123] |
Mackerel | Coating combined with gallic acid decreased microbial growth, protein decomposition, biogenic amine formation, lipid oxidation and nucleotide breakdown and shelf life was extended | [124] |
Fish burgers | The chitosan film containing lactoperoxidase system suppress the increase of | [125] |
Mori Fish | Spoilage reduction when coated with rosemary extract on storage | [126] |
Rainbow trout fillets | Coating incorporating oregano essential oil minimized the formation of volatile bases, oxidation products, and the growth of total and psychrotrophic bacteria | [127] |
Shrimp | Fish gelatin reduced lipid oxidation and extend shelflife | [128] |
Shrimp | Coating enriched with orange leaf essential oil extend shelf life about 10 days | [73] |
Tilapia fillets | Combined with grape seed extract reduced the formation of undesirable metabolites like TMA and histidine significantly | [129] |
Golden- pomfret fillets | Inhibits myofibril degradation | [130] |
White shrimp | Decreased the total and psychrotrophic bacteria and increased the shelf-life | [131] |
Salmon fillet | Incorporated with garlic and lime extracts extended the shelf life by antibacterial and antioxidant activity | [132] |
Minced trout fillet | Incorporated with grape seed extract | [133] |
Pike-Perch | Coating with lactoperoxidase system and α-tocopherol extended the shelflife significantly | [134] |
Rainbow trout fillet | Reduced microbial growth, and TVB-N and TBA | [135] |
Rainbow trout fillet | Inhibited | [136] |
Some of the recent studies on the application of chitosan, gelatin, and whey protein as edible coatings in fish and fish product preservation.
Bacteriocin, a major bacterial-derived bio preservative (mostly from
As a perishable food commodity, most of the world’s supply of fish and fishery products are lost through chemical and microbial spoilage than other reasons like improper storage, handling and processing damage. Thus, the increasing demand for good quality fish products has intensified the search for applications of additives in preservation strategies. It is well known that none of the additives offer complete protection against spoilage, but can improve the quality of fish as well as shelf life to a greater extent. By considering the potential health hazards associated with chemicals as well as consumer preference, application of natural products from cheap and underutilized resources enabling food safety holds promise.
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