These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10776",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",title:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cellulose and cellulose derivatives are a class of bio-based materials that have attracted scientific interest due to their unique structural features and properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and renewability. They are promising candidates for applications in biomedicine, pharmaceuticals, electronics, barrier films, nanocomposites, membranes, and supercapacitors. New resources, extraction procedures, and treatments are currently under development to satisfy increasing demands for cost-effective and sustainable methods of manufacturing new types of cellulose nanoparticle-based materials on an industrial scale. This book, written by an international collection of contributors in the field, is a useful reference for graduate students and researchers in chemistry, materials science, nanoscience, and green nanotechnology.",isbn:"978-1-83969-579-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-578-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-580-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94799",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cellulose-science-and-derivatives",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Sangita Banga",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10776.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1731,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287032/images/system/287032.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arpit Sand is currently an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University, Faridabad, India. He received his BSc in Science and MSc in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, India, in 2004 and 2006, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the same university in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for Polymer Synthesis Journal by Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK and Journal of Polymer Science. He is an academic book editor and a reviewer for international journals including Carbohydrate Polymers, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, and Fibers and Polymers, among others.\r\nDr. Sand’s previous roles include assistant professor (guest faculty) in the Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad; research associate at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi; postdoctoral fellow at Gwangju Institute of Science & Technology (GIST), Korea; postdoctoral fellow at Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; junior researcher at the Brno University of Technology, Czech Republic; and researcher at Soongsil University, South Korea.\r\nHe has more than ten years of teaching and research experience. He is also a life member of the Indian Science Congress and Green Chemistry Network center. He has made significant contributions in the modification and characterization of graft copolymers and films decorated with chalcogenide quantum dots to tune the energy bandgap for solar energy harvesting applications. His research interests include polymer synthesis using different polymerization techniques. He has authored more than twenty-four international research articles and review articles in reputed SCI journals.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna University Faridabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"345950",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangita",middleName:null,surname:"Banga",slug:"sangita-banga",fullName:"Sangita Banga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345950/images/system/345950.jpg",biography:"Prof. Sangita obtained a master’s in Chemistry with a specialization in Organic Chemistry from the Department of Chemistry, University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee), India. Having qualified GATE, she pursued her MTech in Polymer Science and Technology from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi). She obtained her Ph.D. from Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies (MRIIRS), India, in the area of Alternative Fuels-Biodiesel. Prof. Banga has twenty-one years of experience in teaching and research. Prof. Banga worked with an industry dealing in additives for a year in product development. She began her career in teaching as a lecturer at Lingayas Institute of Technology and Management in 2001. She joined Manav Rachna Educational Institutions in 2004 as a senior lecturer and since then has served the organization in various roles such as B. Tech Coordinator, head of the Mechanical Department, and Dean of Students & Welfare of the University. She has several publications in journals of national and international repute to her credit, and she has authored two books on engineering chemistry. Her current research work is in biofuels, mainly production from various edible, non-edible oils, algae, and purification technology using organic adsorbents, nanoparticles, and natural adsorbents.\nAs a member of organizing committees, Dr. Banga has successfully organized the Green Chemistry workshop and Conference of the Chemistry Department in association with Green Chemistry Network Centre.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Manav Rachna International University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1415",title:"Polymer Chemistry",slug:"polymer-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"77751",title:"Comparative Study of Cellulose Hydrogel Films Prepared from Various Biomass Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99215",slug:"comparative-study-of-cellulose-hydrogel-films-prepared-from-various-biomass-wastes",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The conversion of biomass waste products to valuable products like cellulose hydrogel films is important in cell regeneration. In this study, the various biomass wastes: thanaka heartwood (TH), sugarcane bagasse (SB) and rice straw (RS) were used as cellulose resources. They were chemically treated using acid and alkali to obtain cellulose fibers. The yield percent of cellulose fibers depends on the nature of biomass materials. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses showed that the amount of lignin and hemicellulose from these samples were successfully reduced by chemical treatment. Cellulose fibers were treated using the dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride (DMAc/LiCl) system to obtain cellulose hydrogel solutions. Following this, the cellulose hydrogel films were prepared employing the phase inversion method without cross-linker. These films were transparent and flexible. In the present study, water retainable property and viscoelasticity of cellulose hydrogel films were measured. Antimicrobial activity tests of cellulose solutions have been carried out to be utilized to hydrogel films for biomedical application.",signatures:"Cho Cho, Thinzar Aye, Aung Khaing and Takaomi Kobayashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77751",authors:[{id:"354056",title:"Prof.",name:"Cho",surname:"Cho",slug:"cho-cho",fullName:"Cho Cho"},{id:"426468",title:"Dr.",name:"Thinzar",surname:"Aye",slug:"thinzar-aye",fullName:"Thinzar Aye"},{id:"426469",title:"Dr.",name:"Aung",surname:"Khaing",slug:"aung-khaing",fullName:"Aung Khaing"},{id:"426470",title:"Dr.",name:"Takaomi",surname:"Kobayashi",slug:"takaomi-kobayashi",fullName:"Takaomi Kobayashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75913",title:"Application of Cellulose Derivatives in Mineral Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97127",slug:"application-of-cellulose-derivatives-in-mineral-processing",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cellulose derivatives (CDs) have been recognized as an anionic water-soluble, non-toxic, biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide. The CDs have been used as a viscosity regulator, thickening agent, sizing agent and coating agent and emulsion stabilizer, electrode binder in various industries. These characteristics properties of CDs are associated with hydroxyl groups/functionalized groups present in their structure. The CDs have significant advantages in various fields including several industrial applications such as mineral processing, palletisation process, oil drilling industrial applications due to their non-toxic and selective properties. Moreover, The CDs have been extensively used as a depressant, dispersant as well as flocculants in mineral processing from various ores. During the mineral processing like flotation of sulfide minerals highly toxic inorganic species were used as dispersant and depressant which ultimately cases environmental toxicity. Therefore, there is a current need to introduce CDs as various alternative nontoxic dispersant and flocculants. This chapter emphasized an overview of the application of CDs in mineral processing including the structure, properties of the commonly used minerals processing.",signatures:"Ashok Kumar, Kaman Singh and Satya Prakash Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75913",authors:[{id:"347916",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaman",surname:"Singh",slug:"kaman-singh",fullName:"Kaman Singh"},{id:"352100",title:"Mr.",name:"Ashok",surname:"Kumar",slug:"ashok-kumar",fullName:"Ashok Kumar"},{id:"352103",title:"Dr.",name:"Satya Prakash",surname:"Gupta",slug:"satya-prakash-gupta",fullName:"Satya Prakash Gupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"77813",title:"Nano-Cellulosic Fibers from Agricultural Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98637",slug:"nano-cellulosic-fibers-from-agricultural-wastes",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, the potential of agricultural wastes has received increasing attention from academia and industry. The aim has been to identify strategies for the conversion of low-value wastes into new materials and other value-added products. Cellulose is a naturally abundant polymer that is readily available in various agricultural wastes. It is a linear polymer consisting of β-D-glucopyranose units (disaccharides) joined by glycosidic β-1,4 bonds. Nanoparticles can be extracted from cellulose fibers using a top-down mechanically or chemically treatment. Cellulose nanomaterials have generated significant interest due to their intrinsic properties such as large surface-to-volume ratios, high tensile strength, stiffness, and flexibility in addition to good dynamic mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. The use of nanocellulose for reinforcement in matrices improves thermo-mechanical properties, decreases the sensitivity of polymers to water, and preserves biodegradability. The mixing of nanocellulose with polysaccharides improves mechanical properties. Nano-sized cellulose fibers possess unique physical, chemical, and morphological characteristics. Hence, nano-sized cellulose fibers are considered versatile materials for addition to polymers, and application in high gas barriers and packaging materials. Other uses include electronic devices, foods, medicine, cosmetics, and health care. This chapter focuses on the cellulose nanofibers attained from banana, pineapple and corn-based agricultural wastes.",signatures:"Nozieana Khairuddin, Md. Bazlul Mobin Siddique, Mohammad Sobri Merais, Nurul Husna Che Hamzah and Dayangku Nurshahirah Awang Wahab",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77813",authors:[{id:"214413",title:"Dr.",name:"Nozieana",surname:"Khairuddin",slug:"nozieana-khairuddin",fullName:"Nozieana Khairuddin"},{id:"340457",title:"Ms.",name:"Nurul Husna",surname:"Che Hamzah",slug:"nurul-husna-che-hamzah",fullName:"Nurul Husna Che Hamzah"},{id:"346257",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Bazlul",surname:"Siddique",slug:"md-bazlul-siddique",fullName:"Md Bazlul Siddique"},{id:"356353",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Mohammad Sobri",surname:"Merais",slug:"mohammad-sobri-merais",fullName:"Mohammad Sobri Merais"},{id:"420024",title:"BSc.",name:"Dayangku Nurshahirah",surname:"Awang Wahab",slug:"dayangku-nurshahirah-awang-wahab",fullName:"Dayangku Nurshahirah Awang Wahab"}],corrections:null},{id:"78903",title:"Deinking of Mixed Office Waste (MOW) Paper Using Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99373",slug:"deinking-of-mixed-office-waste-mow-paper-using-enzymes",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Deinking of Mixed Office Waste [MOW] paper was carried out by using a flotation device and adding enzymes as defibrillators. Employing the computational simulation of the molecular coupling between the cellulase enzyme obtained from Trichoderma sp. and cellulose, the enzyme-cellulose molecular complex and the main amino acids endo-β-1,4-D-glucanase of this molecule, responsible for the hydrolysis of cellulose, were obtained. Three of these amino acids were used for deinking. The deinked cellulose fibers were evaluated according to the standards of the paper industry (ISO whiteness [brightness], factor of reflectance, opacity, and tonality) to determine the efficiency of deinking. The experimental results show that the best optical characteristics of the sheets of deinked paper with amino acids are those where a mixture of aspartate, glutamate, and asparagine was applied, instead of their individual dosage. In addition to the aforesaid, the use of enzymes instead of the traditionally used reagent, such as sodium hydroxide, avoids the contamination of wastewater; additionally, the operation of the column is carried out easily, taking into consideration that the pH of the system goes from alkaline to neutral.",signatures:"G. Ramiro Escudero, González P. Jeovani and Perez S. Rosa Elena",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78903",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78903",authors:[{id:"352954",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramiro",surname:"Escudero",slug:"ramiro-escudero",fullName:"Ramiro Escudero"},{id:"423622",title:"Dr.",name:"González",surname:"Jeovani",slug:"gonzalez-jeovani",fullName:"González Jeovani"},{id:"423623",title:"Dr.",name:"Pérez",surname:"Rosa Elena",slug:"perez-rosa-elena",fullName:"Pérez Rosa Elena"}],corrections:null},{id:"77655",title:"Bacterial Cellulose: Multipurpose Biodegradable Robust Nanomaterial",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98880",slug:"bacterial-cellulose-multipurpose-biodegradable-robust-nanomaterial",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of actual global problem is clothes and packing materials biodegradability leading to tremendous water contamination. In order to develop ecologically friendly, game-changing in global industry fabric production, we propose a concept to implement kombucha. Kombucha is a symbiotic bacteria and yeast multispecies consortium producing the most abundant polymer on Earth - bacterial cellulose. There are many advantages of bacterial cellulose that are widely used in medicine, material science, food industry and waste management. Unfortunately: long time of bacterial cellulose polymerisation process, lack of its control, diversity in biological composition, finally, acidic smell and disturbances of kombucha growth - all this issues limit the interest of kombucha use to replace easy-accessible and widely applied synthetic materials. In this chapter will be described a revolutionary concept to develop practical and sustainable use of bacterial cellulose as natural alternative for synthetic materials, particularly for a synthetic fabrics and plastics replacement. The optimal cultivation conditions and examples of bacterial cellulose in applications for daily life will be explained.",signatures:"Agata Kołodziejczyk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77655",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77655",authors:[{id:"352705",title:"Dr.",name:"Agata",surname:"Kołodziejczyk",slug:"agata-kolodziejczyk",fullName:"Agata Kołodziejczyk"}],corrections:null},{id:"77170",title:"Biorefinery System of Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Steam Explosion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98544",slug:"biorefinery-system-of-lignocellulosic-biomass-using-steam-explosion",totalDownloads:223,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, plant biomass has been attracting attention due to global warming and the depletion of fossil fuels. Lignocellulosic biomass (i.e., wood, straw, and bagasse) is attracting attention as an abundant renewable resource that does not compete with the food resources. It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin and is a potential resource that can be converted into high-value-added substances, such as biofuels, raw materials for chemical products, and cellulose nanofibers. However, due to its complicated structure, an appropriate pretreatment method is required for developing its biorefinery process. Steam explosion is one of the simplest and environmentally friendly pretreatments to decompose lignin structure, which converts cellulose into low-molecular-weight lignin with high efficiency. It has received significant attention in the field of not only biofuel but also biochemical production. Steam explosion involves the hydrolysis of plant biomass under high-pressure steam and the sudden release of steam pressure induces a shear force on the plant biomass. Moreover, it is a green technology that does not use any chemicals. Thus, a steam explosion-based biorefinery system is highly effective for the utilization of lignocellulosic into useful materials, such as ethanol, methane gas, antioxidant material, epoxy resin, and cellulose nanofiber.",signatures:"Chikako Asada, Sholahuddin and Yoshitoshi Nakamura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77170",authors:[{id:"355779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshitoshi",surname:"Nakamura",slug:"yoshitoshi-nakamura",fullName:"Yoshitoshi Nakamura"},{id:"357468",title:"Dr.",name:"Chikako",surname:"Asada",slug:"chikako-asada",fullName:"Chikako Asada"},{id:"357502",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Sholahuddin",slug:"sholahuddin",fullName:"Sholahuddin"}],corrections:null},{id:"77422",title:"New Ethylenediamine Crosslinked 2D-Cellulose Adsorbent for Nanoencapsulation Removal of Pb (II) and Cu (II) Heavy Metal Ions: Synthesis, Characterization Application, and RSM-Modeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98709",slug:"new-ethylenediamine-crosslinked-2d-cellulose-adsorbent-for-nanoencapsulation-removal-of-pb-ii-and-cu",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main objective of the present work is to elaborate on a new eco-friendly and efficient adsorbent designated for aquatic micropollutants removal. However, the synthesis of the Ethylenediamine Crosslinked 2D-Cellulose green adsorbent was carried out successfully, by partial grafting of benzyl entities onto hydroxyl groups of HEC, and crosslinking with ethylenediamine ED. Further, the new ethylenediamine crosslinked 2D-Cellulose was used as a biosorbent for nanoencapsulation removal of copper and lead heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. The proposal chemical structures of unmodified and modified materials were confirmed using FTIR, XRD, TGA, and SEM–EDX analysis. Furthermore, many parameters of the optimization for Pb (II) and Cu (II) in terms of removal efficiency including pH, adsorbent amount, and contact time were optimized by response surface methodology with a Box–Behnken design. Based on the desirability optimization with three factors, the maximal removal was 99.52% and 97.5% for Pb(II) and Cu(II), respectively and was obtained at pH = 5.94, 22.2 mg as the optimal adsorbent amount, and 21.53 min as contact time.",signatures:"Issam Jilal, Soufian El Barkany, Zahra Bahari, Youssef El Ouardi, Mohamed Loutou, Hassan Amhamdi, Mohamed Abou-Salama, Amin Salhi, Abderrahmane El Idrissi and Katri Laatikainen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77422",authors:[{id:"175289",title:"Prof.",name:"Soufian",surname:"El Barkany",slug:"soufian-el-barkany",fullName:"Soufian El Barkany"},{id:"175590",title:"Prof.",name:"Abderahmane",surname:"El Idrissi",slug:"abderahmane-el-idrissi",fullName:"Abderahmane El Idrissi"},{id:"356243",title:"Dr.",name:"Issam",surname:"Jilal",slug:"issam-jilal",fullName:"Issam Jilal"},{id:"356244",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahra",surname:"Bahari",slug:"zahra-bahari",fullName:"Zahra Bahari"},{id:"356245",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",surname:"El Ouardi",slug:"youssef-el-ouardi",fullName:"Youssef El Ouardi"},{id:"356246",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Amhamdi",slug:"hassan-amhamdi",fullName:"Hassan Amhamdi"},{id:"356247",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Loutoua",slug:"mohamed-loutoua",fullName:"Mohamed Loutoua"},{id:"356248",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Abou-Salama",slug:"mohamed-abou-salama",fullName:"Mohamed Abou-Salama"},{id:"356250",title:"Prof.",name:"Amin",surname:"Salhi",slug:"amin-salhi",fullName:"Amin Salhi"},{id:"356811",title:"Prof.",name:"Katri",surname:"Laatikainen",slug:"katri-laatikainen",fullName:"Katri Laatikainen"}],corrections:null},{id:"78810",title:"Conversion of Cellulose into Value-Added Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100022",slug:"conversion-of-cellulose-into-value-added-products",totalDownloads:148,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rapid industrialization has led to development of various platform chemicals and fossil fuel refinery is one of the mainstreams for their production. However continuous depletion of fossil fuels reserves has led an urge to look for alternate source of feedstocks. Among various renewable sources, biomass is found to be most sustainable as it is replaced naturally. Biomass by virtue of its nature is comprised of various recalcitrant polymers and cellulose is one of them, which can be used for the generation of various platform chemicals. This chapter gives a background of cellulose and illustrate platform chemicals that can be produced from cellulose.",signatures:"Lethiwe D. Mthembu, Rishi Gupta and Nirmala Deenadayalu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78810",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78810",authors:[{id:"209457",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Lethiwe D.",surname:"Mthembu",slug:"lethiwe-d.-mthembu",fullName:"Lethiwe D. Mthembu"},{id:"428553",title:"Dr.",name:"Rishi",surname:"Gupta",slug:"rishi-gupta",fullName:"Rishi Gupta"},{id:"428554",title:"Prof.",name:"Nirmala",surname:"Deenadayalu",slug:"nirmala-deenadayalu",fullName:"Nirmala Deenadayalu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77903",title:"Cellulose as a Natural Emulsifier: From Nanocelluloses to Macromolecules",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99139",slug:"cellulose-as-a-natural-emulsifier-from-nanocelluloses-to-macromolecules",totalDownloads:233,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last decade, cellulose structural features have been revisited, with particular focus on its structural anisotropy (amphiphilicity) and interactions determining its recalcitrance to dissolution. Evidences for cellulose amphiphilicity are patent, for instance, in its capacity to adsorb at oil–water interfaces, thus being capable of stabilizing emulsions. This behavior is observable in all its forms, from cellulose nanoparticles to macromolecules. This chapter is divided into two main parts; first, the fundamentals of emulsion formation and stabilization will be introduced, particularly focusing on the role of natural emulsifiers. Secondly, the emerging role of cellulose as a natural emulsifier, where the ability of cellulose to form and stabilize emulsions is revisited, from cellulose nanoparticles (Pickering-like effect) to macromolecules (i.e., cellulose derivatives and native molecular cellulose).",signatures:"Carolina Costa, Bruno Medronho, Björn Lindman, Håkan Edlund and Magnus Norgren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77903",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77903",authors:[{id:"175614",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Medronho",slug:"bruno-medronho",fullName:"Bruno Medronho"},{id:"355285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Carolina",surname:"Costa",slug:"carolina-costa",fullName:"Carolina Costa"},{id:"355319",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",surname:"Norgren",slug:"magnus-norgren",fullName:"Magnus Norgren"},{id:"355323",title:"Dr.",name:"Håkan",surname:"Edlund",slug:"hakan-edlund",fullName:"Håkan Edlund"},{id:"355324",title:"Dr.",name:"Björn",surname:"Lindman",slug:"bjorn-lindman",fullName:"Björn Lindman"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7363",title:"Cellulose",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed333d89928591f1a4b2710130fddee3",slug:"cellulose",bookSignature:"Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual and María E. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
According to the 2017 WHO/UNICEFF progress report on drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene, adequate data on hygiene aspects globally are still lacking; 159 million people still collect water directly from surface sources such as rivers; and 2.3 billion people still lack a basic sanitation service. After the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDG), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) or Global Goals were formulated as the way forward. In total, there are 17 SDGs with a total of 169 targets and they all formed the core of the SDGs to put an end to poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The main challenges to the SDGs are aspects such as poverty, exclusion, unemployment, climate change, conflict, lack of humanitarian aid, building peaceful and inclusive societies, building strong institutions of governance, and supporting the rule of law [1].
\n
The availability of water and sanitation and the sustainable management of water and sanitation aspects are essential to hygiene. To have access to safe and affordable drinking water is a basic human right and while many people take clean drinking water and sanitation for granted, many others do not have this luxury due to circumstances out of their control. It is believed that water scarcity affects more than 40% of people around the world. With increasing climate change issues, this number is projected to go even higher and it is predicted that by the year 2050, at least one in four people is likely to be affected by recurring water shortages. Water access, quality, quantity, and water point management are largely influenced by seasonality where different factors impact on the outcome. People tend to use different water sources depending on the season. In addition, seasonality also impacts on the quality and quantity of water available for use. During dry seasons people not only tend to collect and use less water but also tend to use alternative sources. People switch between safe and unsafe sources and between improved and unimproved sources based on the availability of water at specific sources [2]. Human dignity is affected by the lack of sanitation services. Globally, billions of people do not have access to even the basic sanitation services and are exposed to harmful pathogens in their drinking water and their food. Inadequate or poor sanitation is a major cause of infectious diseases and it contributes to stunting, impaired cognitive functions, and anxiety. Poor sanitation also affects the well-being through school attendance, especially of woman and girls during their menstrual periods [3].
\n
\n
\n
2. Conclusion
\n
Hygiene is usually seen by people as a condition of cleanliness; however, it is broader than this. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines hygiene as conditions and/or practices that help to maintain good standard of health and prevent the spread of diseases. Good hygiene is an important barrier to many infectious diseases, and it promotes better health and well-being. Improved hygiene conditions will benefit vulnerable members of the communities, the elderly, children under the age of 5 years, and people suffering from immunocompromised diseases like TB and HIV/AIDS [3, 4, 5]. Globally, the most affected lives are those people living in communities with poor water and sanitation infrastructure and conditions. Therefore, tracking inequalities in access to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene are important for achieving universal access and assuring progressive awareness of the human rights to water and sanitation. In order to achieve the best health benefits, improvements in hygiene should be made concurrently with improvements in the water supply and sanitation, and be integrated with other interventions, such as improving nutrition and increasing incomes.
\n
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School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, South Africa
Department of Microbiology, University of Venda, South Africa
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1. Introduction
Beyond doubts, Seawater desalination is commonly considered as a significant method towards producing and supplying potable water across the globe, especially in areas like the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region characterized by a dry climate, low precipitation, and insufficiency of surface water. Despite the availability of various desalination technologies, membrane technology presented by Reverse Osmosis (RO) witnessed significant growth dominating about 60% of the desalination industry worldwide. The newly developed RO membranes characterized by high rejection and high flow membranes were allowed to operate at high pressures (up to 80–90 bar), thereby making conversions to 55–60% economically feasible. Such advancements towards simplifying RO processes from a two-stage treatment change to a single-stage array which in turn reduced capital and operational costs [1, 2, 3].
The high demand and global climate change have contributed to water scarcity in a significant way. As such, 71% of the world’s population live under conditions of moderate to extreme water shortage, and about 66% (4.0 billion people) live in severe water deficiency. This well-felt scarcity could be a binding limitation on the socio-economic development of many countries according to Goal #6 [SDG6] of the Sustainable Development Goals cover all aspects of managing water for fair access, sustainability, and environmental protection. Having said so, seawater desalination is reliably seen compared to other sources, especially with the long-term satisfaction tends to be achieved fully or partially for the demand in areas around the globe where water scarcity is felt, such as Australia, Southern Carolina, the Middle East, and Northern Africa [4].
Seawater desalination technology by RO is proven to be an extreme energy-efficient compared to other conventional thermal distillation methods and therefore is economically feasible. Membrane technologies application in the desalination industry has witnessed some rapid development and growth over the past 20 years. However, SWRO membranes are highly sensitive to the feedwater characteristics and to the concentration of certain organic compounds that potentially lead to membrane fouling phenomena [1, 5, 6, 7].
2. Desalination pretreatment
Pretreatment is crucial to SWRO, as it influences membrane efficiency and life expectancy by fouling reduction. Practically, it is essential to enhance the raw water quality before passing through RO vessels to promote high and effective performance. Yet, Membrane fouling and scaling remain challenging even though the perfect design and operating conditions can be significantly helpful. Both source and quality of feed water influence the pretreatment choice towards better fouling control. Technically, the silt density index (SDI) and turbidity are the two main parameters determining pretreatment performance [8, 9, 10]. In addition, microbial foulants characterization can be found in [11]. Pretreatment techniques are designed to eliminate the microbial loads on high-pressure membranes but may scavenge nutrients and potentially provide a suitable environment for microbial growth. A comparison of the bacterial community composition can, therefore, answer whether pretreatment compartments serve as inoculum for high-pressure membranes. Physical and chemical water treatment processing feed water in desalination industry is referred to usually as pretreatment, as shown in Figure 1, usually proceed by a series of methods: coagulation and flocculation, followed by granular media filtration (e.g., anthracite coal, silica sand, or garnet) and cartridge filtration. Biocides such as chlorine and Peracetic acid, in addition to ozone or ultraviolet (UV), can be used when biofouling is a problem [2, 11].
Figure 1.
Stages of an RO membrane system.
Furthermore, membrane biofouling cannot be removed by conventional pretreatment methods such as coagulation, flocculation, ultrafiltration, and cartridge filters (CF), as they are unable to remove all passing microorganisms tending to colonize the membrane. Sand filtration combined with chemical disinfection is more efficient in reducing microbial contaminants, including viruses, to acceptable levels meeting drinking water standards. Technically, the pressure-driven process presented by membrane filtration can provide high-quality drinking water. However, it could be faced with vital challenges including system demanding, relatively high cost, clogging, scale formation, and biofouling. Moreover, membranes have a limited lifetime regardless of how good they are and so they may not reject all pollutants of concern for drinking water after a certain time of operation even if microorganisms are successfully removed. One consideration in large-scale applications is that membrane filtration systems produce considerable amounts of more concentrated wastewater per unit of purified water. Having said so, membrane selection must take into consideration the nature of the contaminants associated or extracted [10, 12, 13].
Microbial colonization at the membrane surface is traditionally overcome by overall applying disinfection to the feed water. Ideally, any disinfectant should not be expensive or hazardous. However, it must be highly toxic to microbes with zero effect on the desalination plant productivity. Traditionally, there are many disinfection processes applied in water treatment including but not limited to chlorination, ozonation, and UV radiation. Although ozonation is found to be an effective disinfection technique using oxidative effects in removing microorganisms, it is a bit costly and unstable in addition to producing carcinogenic bromates as by-products in the treated water occasionally. Chlorine on the other hand is the most commonly used disinfectant characterized by easiness use and low cost. During the chlorination process, the biomass on the RO membrane is effectively destroyed. Besides and due to molecular analysis, some bacterial groups appear to tolerate this biocide. Well-known bacterial classes potentially resisting chlorination, such as Bacillus and Clostridia due to their ability to sporulate, are very much identified on fouled membranes [2, 14].
For many reasons, biofouling is challengingly difficult to manage in RO systems. Some membranes like polyamide-based membranes tend to be sensitive to oxidizing agents such as chlorine leading to significant limitations for such use. Generally, Commercial plants are not observably in sterile environments. Therefore, any microorganism that enters the system can rapidly multiply. Surprisingly, it takes only 30 minutes for some bacteria to duplicate their population, showing exponential growth. The free chlorine presented during the chlorination process may potentially lead to membrane damage and salt rejection deterioration. Another downside of applying chlorine as a disinfectant is its capacity of breaking down the organic and humic material to Assimilable organic carbon (AOC), resulting in the rapid growth of biofilm which in-turn leads to accelerated incremental of feed channel pressure drop. In some treatment plants, Mono-chloramine is usually applied to achieve biofouling control. Nevertheless, mono-chloramine can be used to produce N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), which is a human carcinogenic material that can result in public health issues. Furthermore, contaminated water with mono-chloramine may potentially result in the damage of membrane in the iron and manganese presentation [8, 12, 15].
Surprisingly, various bacterial types and groups were found to be succeeding and thriving when membranes are cleaned intermittently with various cleaning agents. One thing to think of is the inclusion of citric acid leading to several community compositions compared to when chlorine was used alone. Acinetobacter, Ralstonia, Comamonadaceae, and Diaphorobacter, Stenotrophomonas, and Enterobacteriaceae are dominantly shown on cleaned membranes via chlorination. When chlorination combined with citric acid cleaning Silicibacter, Rhodobacteraceae, Pseudomonas, Pedobacter, and Janthinobacterium, they became abundant. This is confirmed based on physiological features assigned to taxonomically related bacteria and Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) concentrations. It is, therefore, suggested that spore-formers, Gram-positive bacteria, and Acidophiles are better resisted citric acid treatment. These suggestions should be taken into consideration with caution because simply, there is no evidence provided that bacteria are recalcitrant against citric acid [16].
3. SWRO membrane fouling
Membrane fouling is practically seen as a chronic drawback hindering the development and operation of SWRO desalination processes. Fouling results in overall membrane performance deterioration with operational pressure drop and more frequent cleaning leading to operational costs increase and eventually full loss of membrane. From hydrodynamics perspectives, fouling development mainly in space-filled channels of the membrane is influenced by water quality, operational conditions, and spacer and membrane design. Technically, membrane fouling issues vary from organic and inorganic fouling to colloidal and biofouling contributing to increase cost of operation as well as affecting the quality of water produced. Amongst, biofouling seems to be way too complicated and hard to be controlled due to the excessively increase of biofilm formation on the surface of membrane surface, consequently leading to deteriorated performance. Additionally, the capability of lived bacteria inside biofilms in terms of high tolerance to antibiotics and other antimicrobials than planktonic cultures is problematic. As such, various techniques including pretreatment, membrane surface alteration or modification, disinfecting of feed water via chlorination, and cleaning are developed to overcome and/or control biofouling simply by treating biofilm formation on membrane surfaces [2, 17, 18].
4. Biofouling
4.1 Definition
Presently, several foulants considered or categorized as microbial ones including various microorganisms and organic compounds, known also to be aquatic, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, called extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). Identically, the biofouling process involves in adhesion of organisms that are aquatic along with their metabolic products presented on membrane surface or feed spacers. As shown in Figure 2, strong biofilm growth can be observed and found on the feed spacer strands. More than 45% of all membrane fouling is biofouling originated mainly by unicellular or multicellular microorganisms and therefore seen as one of the major issues of concern to reverse osmosis membrane filtration processes. Although membrane biofilm majority is formed by bacteria, other organisms such as fungi, algae, and protozoa may potentially be attracted by the membrane surface and add up to the formation of biofilm in a significant manner. Various studies confirm that Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Flavobacterium, and Aeromonas are the most predominant bacteria identified in fouled RO membranes [9, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Figure 2.
Biofouling in RO sample (left: top view, right: cross-section) [12].
Membrane biofouling takes place gradually in sequential steps, as shown in Figure 3. Firstly, the microbial cells get to membrane surface attachment, causing the forming of the biofilm as layer, involving communities of different microorganisms’ types (e.g., bacteria, algae, protozoa, and fungi). Initially and acting as mediator for the attachment of microbial substances, electrokinetic and hydrophobic interaction, the growth and multiplication of cell usually follows at the expenses of nutrients being soluble in water feed or membrane surface adsorbing organics. The roughness and charge of the membrane surface are considered as key factors contributing to the enhancement of the microorganisms attached to the membrane surface [9].
Figure 3.
Steps of the biofilm [20].
Several environmental factors raising bacterial growth such as nutrients amount and types which strongly affect the microbial composition and biofilms density. Also, membrane characteristics such as type, roughness, charge, and hydrophobic/hydrophilic characters very much influence the biofouling microbial film establishment. Producing RO membranes highly resistant to biofouling as well as other fouling types remains challenging. Typically and from operational point of view, biofouling poses itself as a challenge, especially for saline waters having natural organics at high levels. Seasonally, biofouling tends to be problematic during extreme algal blooms or in time of having accident entrance to the open intake of the plant in rainy season with highly organic water [2, 11].
Commonly, biofouling attributes to the increased probability of bacteria producing polysaccharides and natural adhesives. It occurs at all open-ocean desalination plants such as the Jeddah SWRO desalination station in KSA. Mature biofilms exhibit anti-bactericidal properties and are also resistant to detachment. Biofilm formation results in biofouling when exacerbated in desalination systems by water production efficiency deterioration of membrane degradation, leading to a significant increase in operational costs associated with cleaning regiment and shortened membrane lifespan [23, 24].
4.2 Factors affecting biofouling
Generally, the saline feed water biofouling potential is influenced by several interrelated factors including microorganisms’ concentration; content of readily biodegradable compounds; nutrients concentration and composition in the source water; temperature; the salinity of the feed water as well as operating parameters such as cross-flow velocity [11, 25, 26].
The study of [25] elucidated Algal organic matter (AOM) impact on biofouling affecting various membranes modules (capillary and spiral wound) by algal blooms. They found that measuring Adhesion force illustrate that AOM has the propensities towards adhering to a membrane surface and would need massive force to be removed from the membrane. Also, the seawater capacity supporting bacterial growth illustrated a correlated positive linear with AOM concentration levels in the water. It was linked to the tending of AOM, especially, transparent exopolymer particles (TEP), to nutrients concentration absorption from the feed water feeding attached bacteria. Also, fastened experiments of biofouling made with spiral wound and capillary membranes evidently show that when biodegradable nutrients presented in the feed water unlimitedly, a high level of AOM concentration in water feeds or as membrane attachment may significantly speedup biofouling. Further observation is that lower biofouling rates occurred once membranes are exposed to feed spikes with AOM or nutrients [25].
4.3 Microbial communities in RO systems
The bacteria can tolerate a wide range of pH (0.5–13) and temperature (−12–110 °C) while being able to colonize on all membrane surfaces in RO plants under different conditions. Various studies were carried out to investigate frequently observed microorganisms on membranes in RO plants. As concluded by [28] some bacterial groups are presented with some potential finger print significantly related to biofouling. Their study mostly opened some future window towards focusing on having already-cleaned membranes treated prior to installation. Also, paying more attention to primarily target troubling colonizers, or developing pre-treatment designs considering biofouling measures through the bacterial load minimization attempting to access membrane unit feed. While, a pilot-scale study of [29] was implemented to compare bacterial populations (membrane biofilm) in seawater, CF, and from Carlsbad plant at California, USA.
Observably, population of biofilm for seawater and membrane tend to have some similarity, but the CF harbored other biofilm community type. It was a relatively firm study because it concluded the findings of different communities of biofilm in five fouled SWRO membranes than those of other found around the globe. Apparently, such unique occurrence was due to differences observed in operational conditions and sampling across the year. Various mutually and dominantly existence of bacterial group could be observed in all samples. As such, strong suggestion was made about certain group being conformed to the membrane surfaces growing under chemolithoheterotrophic conditions oligotrophically [27, 28, 29].
Similarly, [30] results found that members of the Ruegeria, Pseudoruegeria, Parvularcula, Legionella, and Shigella were the only bacterial groups shared between the CF and RO membranes. Phaeobacter, Leisingera, Kangiella, and Bacillales are abundant in the CF, while Haliangium and Limnobacter are abundant on the RO membrane. The presence of bacteria belonging to taxa harboring facultative and obligate chemolithotrophs, such as Geobacter, Desulfuromusa, and Thioalkalivibrio, on the CF potentially indicate the effective removal made by the pre-treatment compartments for certain nutritional compounds, such as ferrous iron or sulfurConsequently, published studies do not uniformly present the composition of the bacterial community at the same taxonomic level, hardening the comparison of bacterial diversity. For instance, a review of [14] compared 33 studies investigating bacterial communities on fouled high-pressure membranes. They classified the identified bacteria at the order level. A total of 35 bacterial orders from those fouled high-pressure membranes have been recorded. These orders were used as a benchmark to compare the microbial diversity of feed water, pre-treatment compartments, and fouled membranes, and to detect the role of specific selection pressures on the microbial composition [14, 30].
A review of [14] found that the most commonly detected bacteria on fouled membranes are Burkholderiales, Pseudomonadales, Rhizobiales, and Sphingomonadales, and Xanthomonadales. Whereas Burkholderiales and Xanthomonadales have not been identified in earlier studies, but studies of next-generation sequencing (NGS) have frequently identified these orders of bacteria on fouled membranes. Due to its ability to study bacterial community compositions in a culture-independent and high-performance way [31]. In [32] they compared the bacterial diversity of the surface water and the membrane population. They concluded that the biofilm actively produced on the membrane surface, rather than being a concentration effect of bacteria. In general, the composition of the bacterial population on the membrane varies from the feed water because only a fraction of the bacterial feed water diversity accumulates at the membrane surface, indicating that the membrane surface provides bacterial selection pressures. However, [33] found that the bacterial composition of a mature fouling layer was similar to the feed water composition [14, 31, 32, 33].
In the experiment of [34], a lab-bench cross-flow RO system was used to explore the impact of chlorine disinfection on reverse osmosis membrane biofouling. No significant distinctively chlorine-resistant bacteria were detected in the sample without chlorine dosage and with 1 mg-Cl2/L chlorine dosage. However, in the samples with 5 and 15 mg-Cl2/L chlorine, kinds of significantly distinctive chlorine-resistant bacteria were presented included Methylobacterium, Pseudomonas, Sphingomonas, and Acinetobacter. These results indicated the significant selection effect of chlorine on the chlorine-resistant bacteria. Results of [35] found Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Planctomycetes are the most abundant phyla with the application of high throughput sequencing. Microbial community succession was revealed during biofilm formation, in which Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, and Bacteroidetes played significant roles [34, 35].
The research of [28] analyzed the biochemical properties by selecting a good-model bacteria include Paracoccus, Burkholderia, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Pseudoalteromonas, Cytophaga, Microbacterium, Bacillus, Marinomonas, Rhodococcus, Exiguobacterium, and Staphylococcus which may influence its ability in terms of forming insurgent biofilms cumulatively at membrane surfaces. In this study, bacteria was isolated across stages of all plant. Predominant organisms were detected and seem to be significantly involved in biofouling as well as including almost all isolated cultures by culturing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) through applying 16S rRNA meta-barcoding. Researchers have also found that as biofilm community influenced by bacterial community on seawater reverse osmosis membranes, it is compulsory to have customized/designed controlling measures targeting the invading microbial elements related to the plant’s geographical spot [28].
4.4 Biofouling potential indicators and measurements
A biofilm has a high content of water and organic matter (70–95%), high numbers of colony-forming units and cells, high contents of carbohydrates and proteins, high content of ATP, and low content of inorganic matter. Indicating biofouling potential can be proposed by multiple parameters as ATP, AOC, and biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC). Generally, the previously mentioned parameters are generally applicable for fresh waters and yet to be extended to be applied for desalination plants [25, 36]. Meanwhile, the study of [37] suggested some testing sets to allow for the determination of the water samples capacity of microbial support. In addition to using fluorescence intensity microplate analysis to determine biofouling potential on RO membranes [35, 37, 38].
Measurement of RO feed water biofouling tendency is not an easy task. To do so, several in-practice parameters are indicatively considered like: Silt density index SDI, turbidity, and total suspended solids (TSS). Having said so, biologically-based data is yet to be obtainable supporting such measurements. The RO feed water microbial support capacity (MSC) is practically determined by factors associated with the algal activity, such as TOC, the ratio of TOC:TN: TP, the increase in RO train DP, Chlorophyll a, TEP, bacterial activity (e.g., ATP), total bacterial count, microscopic observation, and nutrients concentration (Total N, Total P). Biological-based factors such as AOC and BDOC are used in waters with no salinity. Also, many consistent monitoring systems like monitoring of biofilm and the MFS had been developed to determine formation rate of biofilm. These monitoring systems cannot predict the feed water potentiality for biofouling but simulate overall plant operation [11, 19].
The concentration of TOC is widely applied to indicate the potentiality of saline water to biofouling whereas the rate of DP increase is indicatively used for the rate of biofouling. From operational point of view, potentiality to biofouling tends to be significantly increased when TOC concentration raises to 2 mg L−1. Practically, the weekly measurements made for ratio of TOC:TN: TP to indicate biofouling increasing. Consequently, ratios above 20% of 1:1:1 indicates an elevation requires bacterial EPS generation leading to have the bacteria encouraged to cause membrane fouling [11, 39].
The concentration of Chlorophyll a for the feed water can be indicatively seen as a sign related to the green pigmentation algae content in the water [11]. The total count of algae is potentially determined via online methods or through lab experiments. Technically, there are three KPIs (key-performance-indicators) determining the algal high content impact in feed water including: efficiency of solid removals deterioration at pre-treatment stage due to filtration overload, fouling acceleration of CF, and finally RO train productivity deterioration [11].
4.5 Membrane biofouling impact
In SWRO systems, biofouling has many adverse effects, as increases in differential driving pressure and feed channel pressure drop. These are required to maintain the same production rate due to biofilm resistance. In addition to increased energy consumption associated with high pressure to achieve the biofilm resistance and flux decline. Biofouling eventually leads to the biodegradation of cellulose acetate membranes caused by acidic by-products concentrated at the membrane surface. Also, it leads to reducing the active membrane area, and therefore decreased flux of permeate due to the formation of a low-permeability biofilm on the membrane surface. Other main consequences of biofouling decreased membrane permeability, increased the frequency of chemical cleaning, and the possible increase in replacement frequency of membrane [9, 19, 24, 40].
Research conducted by [41] investigated the biofouling effect on the sequentially declining in reverse osmosis membranes in terms of membrane operational parameters like membrane permeability, pressure drop in feed, salt rejection. Also, the consumption of temporal organic carbon (DOC) is being measured. It could be illustrated that all indicators were influenced by biofouling formation. Observed increase in the pressure drop in the feed channel (FCP) affected permeability and decline salt rejection, consequently leading to prove the FCP sensitivity to biofouling. Besides, [35] found that biofouling can accelerate the formation of scaling, and the mixed foulants can block the membrane pores, leading to a significant flux drop [35, 41]. In brief, biofouling has a potential effect on the following: differential driving pressure, feed channel pressure, energy consumption, the flux of permeate, membrane area, membrane permeability, the frequency of chemical cleaning, and salt rejection.
4.6 Biofouling alleviation and control
The control of biofilm formation is a complicated and controversial process involving the reduction of microorganisms within the RO water, monitoring strategies, and controlling factors such as nutrient concentrations and physicochemical interactions between microorganisms and membrane surface. Gulf Sea at the Saudi Arabia is known to be having biofouling major challenge uneasy to be controlled. It still the main challenge in membrane filtration installations. Curative or preventive measures are not always efficient. Flocculants provide a suitable habitat for microbial growth, whereas conditioning agents are potential sources of microorganisms and nutrients for the biofilm. Another source of microbial contamination is the piping, storage tanks, and treatment systems before RO, such as ion exchangers and active carbon filters. Biofilm can grow in very low-nutrient habitats with TOC levels as low as 5–100 μg/L. In practice, several methods for biofouling control have been investigated, such as the application of the pretreatment before SWRO to remove bacteria and biodegradable organic matter, dosing of biocides, and limiting essential nutrients such as carbon and phosphate [9, 40, 42, 43, 44].
Membrane cleaning as a method of biofouling control typically done when there a significant decrease in differential pressure drop or permeability. Principally, cleaning process involves removing and/or destroying of the biomass accumulating on membrane surface to reserve membrane permeability. Cleaning process can be applied physically or chemically. Physical cleaning was usually performed before chemical cleaning, involving flushing of air and water. It requires applying pressure mechanically, attributing to the removal of all non-adhesive fouling-based. Membrane manufacturers suggest different chemical agents’ forms for cleaning purposes (e.g. alkaline, acids, biocides, enzymes, and detergents). Such process is efficiently eliminating or deactivating non-accumulating microorganisms. Therefore, the residual inactive biomass can be consumed as food by survived bacteria leading to bacteria regrowth acceleration. Base/acid cleaning removes organic foulants on membranes and destroys the microbial cell walls. Metal chelating agents and surfactants were used to disintegrate EPS layers by removal of divalent cations and solubilization of macromolecules, respectively. The efficiency of cleaning agents to remove biofouling is limited because the EPS layer is recalcitrant against cleaning agents. Improvement of cleaning efficiency difficult, particularly for aged biofilms. Membrane cleaning frequently removes only part of the fouling layer and cleaned membranes, therefore, provide a suitable environment for swift microbial colonization. Thus, cleaning processes (physically and chemically based) may partially result in biofouling reduction on the short run without sustainably controlling biofouling on the long run [8, 45, 46, 47].
Control of bacterial growth by chemical disinfectants depends on many factors, such as chemical concentration, its mode of action, contact time, the density of organisms, and TSS of feed water. These factors make it extremely difficult to attain absolute disinfection. Besides, chemical disinfectants like chlorine and its derivatives may be hazardous to health. Chlorine is known to oxidize and degrade the humic substances in seawater, thus, resulting in smaller molecules, which are AOC. The AOC is a good nutrient source for marine bacteria, and under such status could also lead to rapid biofilm formation in SWRO plants. Chlorination may foster the formation of trihalomethanes and other chlorinated by-products, which are carcinogenic [48].
Many researchers have concluded that biofouling is inevitable and tend to be difficult to prevent with having the focus shifted towards control strategies aiming to achieve: biofilm formation delay, biofilm accumulation impact reduction or delay on performance, and finally removing biofilm via advanced strategies of cleaning. For many reasons, biofouling control tends to be challenging. As such, various methods were developed towards treating biofilm formation on membrane surface and/or mitigating biofouling effect in general. Instantly, some strategies were applied including: membrane flushing or cleaning, application of chemical additives to target bacterial cell or extra-cellular matrices, membrane surface modification, limiting nutrient content, and the quenching of quorum. All previously mentioned methods have limitations and may result in unwanted membrane degradation [14, 18, 21, 49, 50]. As part of chemical treatments with biocides in addition to anti-microbes were applied mutually as part of industry practices. Chemically-based cleaning are known to be affecting exclusively the topper biofilm layers by colonizers. The effect of nutrient levels and possible manners to control membrane biofouling poses another potential solution for many membrane installations and should be further investigated. Biofouling impact on membrane efficiency is potentially minimized through a combination of strategies involving early identification, preventive cleaning, substrate limitation for delaying biofouling built-up, and cleaning procedures optimization towards effective biofilm removal [14, 41, 50].
Based on the current knowledge, membrane surface modifications tend to be incompatible for control biofilm formation in full-scale membrane operations because of the drag force that transfers bacteria and nutrients to the membrane surface. As various components are moved to the membrane surface by the drag force, they are easily covered, and membrane surface modifications are rendered less efficient. By applying comprehensive pretreatment, therefore, biofouling can be limited but not eliminated. Practically, membrane biofouling prevention tends to be fully or partially achievable by better pretreatment in new desalination systems. Yet, it might be essential to have old, insurgent biofilms and prolonged membrane operating plants dispersed sufficiently. Most existing techniques in efficiently use an enormous spectrum of biocides and chemicals attacking bacteria to maturely disperse biofilms [14, 26, 28].
Practices presented as clean-in-place (CIP) tend to be less efficient and that successful. This is related probably to various reasons including: wrong selection of chemical, improper pH control, temperature, time of contact, unsuitable recirculating flow rates, and partial biomass removing. The repetitive biocides usage potentially lead to bacterial resistance inducing via bacterial cell modification on membrane surface, permeability deterioration of biocide, and biocides degradation by enzymes development, or gaining more resistance for biocide genes [28].
Strategies for Biofilm control applying enzymes towards degrading of EPS matrix including glycosidases, proteases, and deoxyribonucleases. However, these enzymes targeting specific strains, and their sufficiency in complex multi-species biofilms is yet to be established. Also, enzymes are costly and may not be so practical when applied for membrane treatment or flushing. On the other hand, a bad need for more efficient and cost-effective methods to eliminate biofilms and alleviate biofouling in SWRO processes do exist. As such, it is highly recommended to conduct researches investigating novel chemical cleaning agents which may positively contribute to overcome or mitigate biofouling [26, 28].
A study of [18] investigated the Pseudomonas quinolone signal (PQS) pathway role in biofouling control in reverse osmosis membranes. They inoculated Pseudomonas aeruginosa inside water feed as a sort of biofouling simulation. Conversely, a novel-based method on quorum sensing (QS) biochemically, has triggered considerable interest in controlling biofouling. Several advantages could be concluded, as it is characterized by high efficiency low operational pressure, practically contribute to hindering development capacity of the bacteria. QS Identified as cell-to-cell signals whereby microorganisms applied it for the sake of cell density sensing; reaching to a critical threshold level in terms of signals will trigger responsive sets of genes. Many researchers have found that the interference with such cell density-dependent communication technique formulate a biofilm potential controlling strategy.
The application of bacteriophage in synergetic way combined with some other traditional methods, such as cleaning proven to be mitigating P. aeruginosa biofouling-based sufficiently. Some alternative options are presented by bacteriophages. Pseudoalteromonas, for example, presented in high amount on a marine-based biofilm layer is potentially isolatable and known to be having some lytic footprint, highly efficient. Lastly, it might be of interest to explore the bacteriophage treatment effectiveness in biofilm formation prevention instead of having the structure of biofilm removed. To this regard, bacteriophage activation may be limited by low cell density. Another bacterial hosts might be targeted by taxonomical families performing a more sufficient approach towards maximizing infection impact on the way to achieve biofouling mitigation [51].
In [51] research, the isolation of lytic bacteriophages was used to hinder P. aeruginosa growth in planktonic-based mode and varied pH, salinity level, and temperature. Accordingly, bacteriophages were found to be optimally infective with 10-times infection multiplication under salinity mode. It illustrated that the lytic has reasonable abilities over experimental testing temperatures (25, 30, 37, and 45 °C) and pH range of 6–9. When exposed to bacteriophages, Planktonic P. aeruginosa found to be significantly exhibiting a longer lag mode and low rates of specific growth, taking into account the application of bacteriophages to P. made in subsequent manner. The biofilm presented by aeruginosa-enriched was determinant to lowering the relative amount of Pseudomonas-related taxa from 0.17 to 5.58% in controlling to 0.01–0.61% in processed communities of microbes. The findings illustrated the potential application of bacteriophages as a biocidal agent to achieve the mitigation of unwanted P. aeruginosa associated with issues in seawater-based applications [51].
In [26] study, biofilm amount and characterization were analyzed concerning membrane performance applying acid/base cleaning. Generally, cell and tissue of the bacteria deactivate chemical agents used in cleaning process to remove mainly the biomass related to biofouling. Chemical-based reactions like dispersing, chelating, solubilization, suspension, peptisation, sequestration, and hydrolyzing are observed during cleaning process. Cleaning by Alkaline-based solutions like Sodium hydroxide was also applied in this study for three types of biofilm to explore biofilm removal efficiency as well as illustrating EPS matrix role. They concluded that with minimum biomass amount at low substrate concentration cleaning was not as efficient as with high substrate concentration, with same observed phenomena for membrane performance restore [26].
While [43] describes the biofouling monitoring technology of the “Megaton Water System” project and verifies the technology in the pilot and real plants in Al Jubail, Saudi Arabia. Biofouling monitoring technology refers to the community of bacteria composition change by chemical usage of the Membrane Biofilm Formation Rate (MBFR) was applied to this project was a positive indication of a reliably system design and operation. Such monitoring technology could be applied to achieve plant operational and reliability improvement throughout the overcome of biofouling issue. It could also assist in environmental impact reduction and lower plant production costs through chemical-free injection [43].
According to [52] study, they developed a simple method where a combination of bubbling and cleaning-based on frequent addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at lower concentration level at feed water. The same approach was also explored with the use of CuO or PP spacers. The dosage of 0.3% (w/w) H2O2 being applied periodically at 12 h intervals resulting in having no increase in FCP in the tested system, also an indication referring to the tangible biofouling lacking with intermittent H2O2 dosing. For tested fouled membranes fouled over a period of eleven days, a single dose of 0.3% (w/w) H2O2 applied and successfully eliminated almost all spacers and membranes accumulated biofilm in few minutes demonstratively by a FCP of 69% (CuO spacer) and 54% (PP spacer). The biofouling reduction was primarily due to the high shear created by the generated oxygen bubbles in the system, combined with the disinfection effect of H2O2. The reasonably low cost of $0.009/m3 from intermittent H2O2 dosage was not more than 0.8% of overall assumed cost and 6.5% out of pre-treatment cost, allowing for economical accepted approach to overcome biofouling [52].
It seems that dechlorination water, activated carbon, cartridge filtration, UV irradiation, ozone treatment, hydrogen peroxide, detergents, alkaline, sodium bisulfite, and hot water sanitization are effective techniques and limitations to control biofouling.
5. Conclusion
Biofouling in SWRO membranes continues to be problematic for operation and maintenance quality. It plays an essential role in the fouling of the membrane parts in full-scale and pilot-scale plants, and it’s significant to reduce its occurrence by prediction and prevention. The study demonstrates the RO membrane biofouling mechanisms and the effective fouling control strategies within seawater desalination, where biofouling is a critical drawback. The study aims to evaluate microbial fouling (biofouling) to understand its effect on RO membrane performance. The study highlighted the composition of the microbial community and the functional potential of the RO membrane biofilm. In general, biofouling has affected all performance indicators. The selection of pretreatment seems to be a factor affecting the microbial community composition and functional potential. Analysis of the biofilm bacterial community has shown that seasonal changes in water quality influenced the biofouling bacteria.
The results showed that the accumulation of biofilms on membrane surfaces remains the key obstacle for high-pressure membrane filtration. For future research, it is significant to describe the cleaning agent and cleaning frequency. Also, measuring feedwater temperature, determine the location of the membrane element, and the sampling location at the membrane. These comprehensive researches will use to establish an integrated strategy to control biofouling. Biofouling control should concentrate on improving low fouling feed spacers, and the hydrodynamic conditions reduce the effect of biomass accumulation.
We conclude that to maintain plant productivity and membrane recovery it is necessary to increase the membrane cleaning frequency. In the CF and RO membrane, the microbial regrowth rate is a significant factor that impacts the biofouling rate. We recommend further searches of the strategy of balancing the nutrient levels as a solution for several membrane installations to control membrane biofouling. To measure biofouling, it needs for real tool, sensitive pressure drop data, and systematic methodology. Therefore further studies related to avoiding adverse biofouling processes will be valuable to investigate specific microbial members in more detail using biofilm monitoring and control strategies. Finally, additional SWRO research and development are critical for the efficiency of this growing industry.
Abbreviations
AHL
N-acyl-homoserine lactone
AOC
Assimilable organic carbon
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate
BDOC
Biodegradable Dissolved Organic Carbon
CF
Cartridge Filters
CIP
Current Clean-In-Place
DOC
Temporal Organic Carbon
DP
Differential Pressure
EPS
Extracellular Polymeric Substances
FCP
Feed Channel Pressure
H2O2
Hydrogen Peroxide
MENA
Middle East and North Africa
MFS
Membrane-Fouling Simulator
μg L−1
Micrograms Per Liter
mg L−1
Milligrams Per Liter
MSC
Microbial Support Capacity
NDMA
Nitrosodimethylamine
PQS
Pseudomonas Quinolone Signal
PX
Pressure Exchangers
QS
Quorum Sensing
RO
Reverse Osmosis
SDI
Silt Density Index
SWRO
Seawater Reverse Osmosis
TEP
Transparent Exopolymer Particles
TOC
Total Organic Carbon
TSS
Total Suspended Solids
UF
Ultrafiltration
UV
Ultraviolet
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Specific shortcomings and prospective solutions are reviewed towards understanding the biofouling mechanism, pretreatment impacts, level of assimilable nutrients, and real-time monitoring. Accordingly, this review aims to address recent advances in biological fouling measurements and control to better understand biofouling and the best ways of dealing with such a challenging issue.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75237",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75237",signatures:"Rana H. Idais, Azzam A. 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Selection of pretreatment technologies for seawater reverse osmosis plants: a review. Desalination. 2019; 449: 78-91. DOI:10.1016/j.desal.2018.10.006'},{id:"B11",body:'Voutchkov N. Membrane Foulants and Saline Water Pretreatment, Handbook of Pretreatment for Reverse Osmosis Desalination. Elsevier; 2017. p. 11-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809953-7.00002-4'},{id:"B12",body:'Gassol G. M. Biofouling control in reverse osmosis membranes for water treatment [thesis]. Universitat Rovira I Virgili; 2017'},{id:"B13",body:'Cahoon L. Water Purification: Treatment of Microbial Contamination. Handbook of Advances in Water Purification Techniques. Elsevier; 2019. p. 385-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814790-0.00015-6'},{id:"B14",body:'Vries H. J, Stams A.J.M, Plugge C.M. Biodiversity and ecology of microorganisms in high pressure membrane filtration systems. 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DOI:10.1128/aem.00122-11'},{id:"B30",body:'Chun Y, Ha P.T, Powell L,Lee J, Kim D, Choi D, Lovitt R.W, Kim I.S, Mitra S.S, Chang I.S. Exploring microbial communities and differences of cartridge filters (CFs) and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes for seawater desalination processes. Desalination. 2012; 298: 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.05.007'},{id:"B31",body:'Shokralla Sh, Spall J.L, Gibson J.F, Hajibabaei M. Next-generation sequencing technologies for environmental DNA research. Molecular Ecology. 2012; 21: 8: 1794-1805. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2012.05538.x'},{id:"B32",body:'Bereschenko L.A, Heilig G.H.J, Nederlof M.M, Van Loosdrecht M.C.M, Stams A.J.M, Euverink G.J.W. Molecular characterization of the bacterial communities in the different compartments of a full-scale reverse-osmosis water purification plant. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2008; 74: 17: 5297-5304.: 10.1128/AEM.00387-08'},{id:"B33",body:'Horsch P, Gorenflo A, Fuder C, Deleage A, Frimmel F.H. Biofouling of ultra-and nanofiltration membranes for drinking water treatment characterized by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Desalination. 2005; 172 : 1: 41-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.05.009'},{id:"B34",body:'Wang Y. H, Wu Y.-H, Tong X, Yu T, Peng L, Bai Y, Zhao X. H, Huo Z, Ikuno N, Hu H.-Y. Chlorine disinfection significantly aggravated the biofouling of reverse osmosis membrane used for municipal wastewater reclamation. Water Research. 2019; 154: 246-257. DOI:10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.008'},{id:"B35",body:'Jiang L, Chen L, Zhu L. Fouling process of membrane distillation for seawater desalination: An especial focus on the thermal-effect and concentrating-effect during biofouling. Desalination. 2020; 485: 114457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114457'},{id:"B36",body:'Singh R, editors. Water and Membrane Treatment. Handbook of Membrane technology and engineering for water purification, 2nd ed. Elsevier Ltd; 2015. p. 81-177'},{id:"B37",body:'Liberman B, Berman T. Analysis and monitoring: MSC — a biologically oriented approach. Filtration & Separation. 2006; 43: 4: 39-40. DOI:10.1016/s0015-1882(06)70869-2'},{id:"B38",body:'Manalo C. V, Ohno M, Okuda T, Nakai S, Nishijima W. Rapid novel test for the determination of biofouling potential on reverse osmosis membranes. Water Science & Technology. 2016; 73: 12. DOI: 10.2166/wst.2016.159'},{id:"B39",body:'Huang S, Voutchkov N, Jiang S.C. Investigation of environmental influences on membrane biofouling in a Southern California desalination pilot plant. Desalination. 2013; 319: 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2013.03.016'},{id:"B40",body:'Dhakal N. Controlling biofouling in seawater reverse osmosis membrane systems [thesis]. UNESCO-IHE: Delft University of Technology: the Netherlands; 2017'},{id:"B41",body:'Siebdrath N, Farhat N, Ding W, Kruithof J, Vrouwenvelder J. S. 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Effective biofouling control using periodic H2O2 cleaning with CuO modified and polypropylene spacers. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2019; 7: 9582-9587. DOI:10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b01086'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rana H. Idais",address:null,affiliation:'
Water Technology PhD Joint Programme between Islamic University of Gaza (IUG) and Al-Azhar University of Gaza (AUG), Palestine
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Azzam A. Abuhabib",address:"azz200@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
Water Technology PhD Joint Programme between Islamic University of Gaza (IUG) and Al-Azhar University of Gaza (AUG), Palestine
Faculty of Ocean Engineering, Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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The final price includes project management, editorial and peer-review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design, book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
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*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate applied in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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IntechOpen has collaborated with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, which is one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. The services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in a language they understand. Enago’s expert translators incorporate cultural nuances in translations to make the content relevant for local audiences while retaining the original meaning and style. Enago translators are equipped to handle all complex and multiple overlapping themes encompassed in a single book and their high degree of linguistic and subject expertise enables them to deliver a superior quality output.
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This chapter explores how the concept of retirement itself is increasingly redundant in relation to the new world of work. Of course, working lives inevitably do come to an end, but for whom, and at what point, and under what personal and social financial conditions, is this end point? Many people will want, and be required by public policy, to continue their working lives well into later life. In addition, the new dynamics of work and employment unfolding may enable this later life engagement. But in the “post-work” world predicted by many scholars, will later life employment be a possibility for them, and even for many people in their middle and younger years? 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Using a Monte-Carlo simulation approach calibrated to US financial market and mortality data, our results suggest that purchasing a capped participating longevity-linked life annuity at retirement including embedded longevity and financial options that allow the annuity provider to periodically revise annuity payments if observed survivorship and portfolio outcomes deviate from expected (or guaranteed) values at contract initiation deliver superior welfare results when compared with classical annuitization and non-annuitization decumulation strategies.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Jorge Miguel Ventura Bravo",authors:null},{id:"71712",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91856",title:"The Age Pension Means Tests: Contorting Australian Retirement",slug:"the-age-pension-means-tests-contorting-australian-retirement",totalDownloads:585,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most Australian retirees are likely to be subject to the Age Pension assets or income test at some point. Evidence is that many retirees adapt their consumption to increase Age Pension entitlements, but long-term implications are difficult to determine—even if the current rules were to remain in place. This chapter evaluates the current approach to means testing against the principles set out in a Department of Social Services discussion paper on this topic. We evaluate the implied “effective marginal tax rates” (EMTRs) on the assets of part pensioners who are subject to the assets test. We find that depending on a variety of parameters such as assumed future earnings rates, demographic status, drawdown strategy and the base level of assets held, the EMTRs are high enough to explain material distortions to savings decisions of those still in employment, and the spending and investment decisions of retirees. Optimal decisions in this context require contorted retirement strategies that do not appear to be in anyone’s interest. 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The aim of the analysis is to find the main determinants of health and life satisfaction and to verify the importance of lifestyle variables as determinants of health and life satisfaction. We used data collected by the National Health Survey of 2014 and estimated two ordered probits. The main results show that not all lifestyle variables are meaningful in explaining self-assessed health and life satisfaction. The determinants of the health status include education and income; however, it can be assumed that overall good health, family, or close people and income contribute to life satisfaction. A general profile of the Portuguese seniors is provided; however, the results obtained here are changing as a new scenario is emerging, generation X enters old age.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Aida Isabel Tavares",authors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares"}]},{id:"73975",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94281",title:"Retired but Not Tired: Entrepreneurial Motives and Performance among Retired Public Servants in Tanzania",slug:"retired-but-not-tired-entrepreneurial-motives-and-performance-among-retired-public-servants-in-tanza",totalDownloads:419,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Venturing into a business venture at an old age is an interesting phenomenon. Retirees seem to consider this decision as imperative as it provides them with a source of earning and keeps them active post-retirement. Despite a plethora of research on entrepreneurship, there is a paucity of research on entrepreneurial behavior and performance retired public servants. The current study examines the motive and performance of businesses owned by retired public servants in Tanzania, one of the developing economies. The study used a survey of 90 randomly selected public servants who retired between 2012 and 2016. The descriptive and probit regression analyses were used to examine the entrepreneurial performance and factors associated with it. The results of the analysis suggest that the performance of the businesses is generally not good, as the majority made losses for the past 3 years consecutively. As for the determinants of performance, the study observed that age and source of capital negatively affect performance, whereas education and planning/preparations for business establishment positively influenced entrepreneurial performance. The findings imply that employees, employers and social security industry have a role to play in creating awareness and preparing public service employees for life after retirement especially in sustaining post-retirement income. Lumpsum pension and monthly allowance may be necessary, but the knowledge to manage them through profitable business ventures my be sufficient for a better post-retirement life.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Anselm Namala and Mursali A. Milanzi",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70904",title:"Addressing the Pension Decumulation Phase of Employee Retirement Planning",slug:"addressing-the-pension-decumulation-phase-of-employee-retirement-planning",totalDownloads:642,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Longevity increases and population ageing create challenges for all societal institutions, particularly those providing retirement income, healthcare, and long-term care services. At the individual level, an obvious question is how to ensure all retirees have an adequate, secure, stable, and predictable lifelong income stream that will allow them to maintain a target standard of living for, however, long the individual lives. In this chapter, we review and discuss the main pension decumulation options by explicitly modelling consumers’ behaviour and objectives though an objective function based on utility theory accounting for consumption and bequest motives and different risk preferences. Using a Monte-Carlo simulation approach calibrated to US financial market and mortality data, our results suggest that purchasing a capped participating longevity-linked life annuity at retirement including embedded longevity and financial options that allow the annuity provider to periodically revise annuity payments if observed survivorship and portfolio outcomes deviate from expected (or guaranteed) values at contract initiation deliver superior welfare results when compared with classical annuitization and non-annuitization decumulation strategies.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Jorge Miguel Ventura Bravo",authors:null},{id:"72453",title:"The End of the Retirement “Age”: How the New World of Work Is Transforming the Old World of Retirement",slug:"the-end-of-the-retirement-age-how-the-new-world-of-work-is-transforming-the-old-world-of-retirement",totalDownloads:635,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The nature of work is undergoing fundamental transformation in the twenty-first century with drivers including digitalization, automation, and new forms of work organization. This chapter explores how the concept of retirement itself is increasingly redundant in relation to the new world of work. Of course, working lives inevitably do come to an end, but for whom, and at what point, and under what personal and social financial conditions, is this end point? Many people will want, and be required by public policy, to continue their working lives well into later life. In addition, the new dynamics of work and employment unfolding may enable this later life engagement. But in the “post-work” world predicted by many scholars, will later life employment be a possibility for them, and even for many people in their middle and younger years? This chapter explores the implications of the future of work for how traditional models of working lives and retirement need to be restructured and examines the one vital reform to ensure everyone can sustain a decent life in the new highly volatile world of work.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Veronica Sheen",authors:null},{id:"71893",title:"Alternatives to Serve the Interests of Russian Pensioners",slug:"alternatives-to-serve-the-interests-of-russian-pensioners",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The results of the analysis of statistical data on the Russian labor market, employment and wages, as well as the specific features of the Russian pension system, provide the basis for several important conclusions. Firstly, the living standards of the majority of Russian pensioners do not meet their needs as the Russian pension system is focused on the achievement of minimum living standards. Secondly, the regulation on the functioning of the pension system established by Russian legislation is often violated by the regulators without coordination with economic entities and citizens, participants of the pension system, which prevents future pensioners from feeling protected upon retirement. For this reason, citizens of the retirement age do not seek to retire even when they reach the retirement age. The growth rate of working pensioners (who pay taxes, including insurance deductions to the Pension Fund of Russia and private pension funds) confirms this. Thirdly, there is a need to create a socially-comfortable environment for pensioners, to counteract the psychological problems of older people their sense of “uselessness” to society. The article proposes practical measures to mitigate the negative phenomena in the pension provision of Russian citizens.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Elena Ivanovna Kulikova",authors:null},{id:"71593",title:"Called to Plan: Changing Patterns and Perceptions of Retirement for Australian and New Zealand Faith-Based Ministers",slug:"called-to-plan-changing-patterns-and-perceptions-of-retirement-for-australian-and-new-zealand-faith-",totalDownloads:543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The rising tide of aging citizens globally suggests a compelling argument for increasing understanding of factors impacting retirement. Factors such as health and finance have been identified as principal, but these results generally apply to homogenous groups with little reference to the impact of culture and tradition. This study adopted an ex post-facto, cross-sectional, self-reporting survey from working faith-based ministers in Australia and New Zealand to ascertain personal and professional factors affecting retirement perception in specific context including results for age-related differences. Results from four areas of foci show participants generally regarded retirement as a positive season. They were, however, less confident about their preparedness and mostly dissatisfied with the level of planning for retirement. Significant differences were noted in age-related groups with health and financial considerations constituting the primary differences. Increased understanding of changing patterns and perceptions for specific groups including age differences, potentially aids the response of state and society to the ageing phenomenon.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Bernadene Erasmus and Peter John Morey",authors:null},{id:"71712",title:"The Age Pension Means Tests: Contorting Australian Retirement",slug:"the-age-pension-means-tests-contorting-australian-retirement",totalDownloads:585,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most Australian retirees are likely to be subject to the Age Pension assets or income test at some point. Evidence is that many retirees adapt their consumption to increase Age Pension entitlements, but long-term implications are difficult to determine—even if the current rules were to remain in place. This chapter evaluates the current approach to means testing against the principles set out in a Department of Social Services discussion paper on this topic. We evaluate the implied “effective marginal tax rates” (EMTRs) on the assets of part pensioners who are subject to the assets test. We find that depending on a variety of parameters such as assumed future earnings rates, demographic status, drawdown strategy and the base level of assets held, the EMTRs are high enough to explain material distortions to savings decisions of those still in employment, and the spending and investment decisions of retirees. Optimal decisions in this context require contorted retirement strategies that do not appear to be in anyone’s interest. Some possible remedies are suggested, which should include incorporating the value of the principal residence within the assets test. The chapter therefore illustrates the application of principled analysis to policy issues of this sort.",book:{id:"8090",slug:"who-wants-to-retire-and-who-can-afford-to-retire-",title:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?",fullTitle:"Who Wants to Retire and Who Can Afford to Retire?"},signatures:"Anthony Asher and John De Ravin",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1337",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. 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Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/106641",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"106641"},fullPath:"/profiles/106641",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()