Masses in grams of lanthanum and neodymium oxides used in the synthesis of
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\n\nThe research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community\'s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement number 285417. The publishing of this book was funded by the EC FP7 Post-Grant Open Access Pilot programme. ',isbn:"978-953-51-3376-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3375-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4699-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68449",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"search-and-rescue-robotics-from-theory-to-practice",numberOfPages:262,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e1ca88810595580ec90815aab3f1ec9a",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:"August 23rd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6181.jpg",numberOfDownloads:228441,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:45,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:62,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:12,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:136,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 25th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 24th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Authored by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:'
\n\n
\n\nThe research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community\'s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement number 285417. The publishing of this book was funded by the EC FP7 Post-Grant Open Access Pilot programme.',editors:null,equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1250",title:"Rescue Robot",slug:"rescue-robot"}],chapters:[{id:"56152",title:"Introduction to the Use of Robotic Tools for Search and Rescue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69489",slug:"introduction-to-the-use-of-robotic-tools-for-search-and-rescue",totalDownloads:23921,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Modern search and rescue workers are equipped with a powerful toolkit to address natural and man-made disasters. This introductory chapter explains how a new tool can be added to this toolkit: robots. The use of robotic assets in search and rescue operations is explained and an overview is given of the worldwide efforts to incorporate robotic tools in search and rescue operations. Furthermore, the European Union ICARUS project on this subject is introduced. The ICARUS project proposes to equip first responders with a comprehensive and integrated set of unmanned search and rescue tools, to increase the situational awareness of human crisis managers, such that more work can be done in a shorter amount of time. The ICARUS tools consist of assistive unmanned air, ground, and sea vehicles, equipped with victim-detection sensors. The unmanned vehicles collaborate as a coordinated team, communicating via ad hoc cognitive radio networking. To ensure optimal human-robot collaboration, these tools are seamlessly integrated into the command and control equipment of the human crisis managers and a set of training and support tools is provided to them to learn to use the ICARUS system.",signatures:"Geert De Cubber, Daniela Doroftei, Konrad Rudin, Karsten Berns,\nAnibal Matos, Daniel Serrano, Jose Sanchez, Shashank Govindaraj,\nJanusz Bedkowski, Rui Roda, Eduardo Silva and Stephane Ourevitch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56152",authors:[{id:"206420",title:"Dr.",name:"Geert",surname:"De Cubber",slug:"geert-de-cubber",fullName:"Geert De Cubber"}],corrections:null},{id:"56037",title:"User-Centered Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69483",slug:"user-centered-design",totalDownloads:22356,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The successful introduction and acceptance of novel technological tools are only possible if end users are completely integrated in the design process. However, obtaining such integration of end users is not obvious, as end‐user organizations often do not consider research toward new technological aids as their core business and are therefore reluctant to engage in these kinds of activities. This chapter explains how this problem was tackled in the ICARUS project, by carefully identifying and approaching the targeted user communities and by compiling user requirements. Resulting from these user requirements, system requirements and a system architecture for the ICARUS system were deduced. An important aspect of the user‐centered design approach is that it is an iterative methodology, based on multiple intermediate operational validations by end users of the developed tools, leading to a final validation according to user‐scripted validation scenarios.",signatures:"Daniela Doroftei, Geert De Cubber, Rene Wagemans, Anibal Matos,\nEduardo Silva, Victor Lobo, Guerreiro Cardoso, Keshav Chintamani,\nShashank Govindaraj, Jeremi Gancet and Daniel Serrano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56037",authors:[{id:"82804",title:"Ms.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Doroftei",slug:"daniela-doroftei",fullName:"Daniela Doroftei"},{id:"153104",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Lobo",slug:"victor-lobo",fullName:"Victor Lobo"}],corrections:null},{id:"56050",title:"Unmanned Aerial Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69490",slug:"unmanned-aerial-systems",totalDownloads:22708,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unmanned aerial platforms are a means to gather efficiently valuable aerial information to support the crisis manager for further tactical planning and deployment. They can provide continuous support to the coordinators and operators by scanning blocked sectors or establish an communication network. This chapter describes how aerial platforms were tailored to search and rescue (SAR) requirements, including the localisation and tracking of victims. In order to meet the end user demands, complementary platforms are proposed. A small long‐endurance solar aeroplane is used to provide the largest and fastest area coverage at the highest view, and therefore enabling the mapping functionality and potential detection of victims with operation times span up to a day. Complementary to the aeroplane, two rotary‐wing systems were deployed. A large coaxial‐quadrotor was used for outdoor delivery task and detailed close range inspection. Its ability to fly close to the terrain enables a thorough search for victims in a well‐defined sector. A smaller multicopter was used for inspection of the indoor environment. It is able for victim detection in collapsed buildings. Thus, autonomous functionality for precise localisation and positioning was developed to decrease the operator workload.",signatures:"Rudin Konrad, Daniel Serrano and Pascal Strupler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56050",authors:[{id:"212085",title:"Mr.",name:"Konrad",surname:"Rudin",slug:"konrad-rudin",fullName:"Konrad Rudin"}],corrections:null},{id:"56080",title:"Unmanned Ground Robots for Rescue Tasks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69491",slug:"unmanned-ground-robots-for-rescue-tasks",totalDownloads:24038,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes two unmanned ground vehicles that can help search and rescue teams in their difficult, but life-saving tasks. These robotic assets have been developed within the framework of the European project ICARUS. The large unmanned ground vehicle is intended to be a mobile base station. It is equipped with a powerful manipulator arm and can be used for debris removal, shoring operations, and remote structural operations (cutting, welding, hammering, etc.) on very rough terrain. The smaller unmanned ground vehicle is also equipped with an array of sensors, enabling it to search for victims inside semi-destroyed buildings. Working together with each other and the human search and rescue workers, these robotic assets form a powerful team, increasing the effectiveness of search and rescue operations, as proven by operational validation tests in collaboration with end users.",signatures:"Karsten Berns, Atabak Nezhadfard, Massimo Tosa, Haris Balta and\nGeert De Cubber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56080",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56080",authors:[{id:"212086",title:"Prof.",name:"Karsten",surname:"Berns",slug:"karsten-berns",fullName:"Karsten Berns"}],corrections:null},{id:"56139",title:"Unmanned Maritime Systems for Search and Rescue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69492",slug:"unmanned-maritime-systems-for-search-and-rescue",totalDownloads:22708,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of maritime unmanned tools for search and rescue operations is not a trivial task. A great part of maritime unmanned systems developed did not target such application, being more focused on environmental monitoring, surveillance or defence. In opposition to these applications, search and rescue operations need to take into account relevant issues such as the presence of people or other vessels on the water. Building upon user requirements and overall integrated components for assisted rescue and unmanned search operations (ICARUS) system architecture, this chapter addresses the development of unmanned maritime systems. It starts with an overview of the approach where a two‐tier solution was adopted to address safety issues and then proceeds to detail each of the developed technologies.",signatures:"Aníbal Matos, Eduardo Silva, José Almeida, Alfredo Martins, Hugo\nFerreira, Bruno Ferreira, José Alves, André Dias, Stefano Fioravanti,\nDaniele Bertin and Victor Lobo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56139",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56139",authors:[{id:"153104",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Lobo",slug:"victor-lobo",fullName:"Victor Lobo"},{id:"12282",title:"Dr.",name:"Aníbal",surname:"Matos",slug:"anibal-matos",fullName:"Aníbal Matos"}],corrections:null},{id:"56126",title:"Interoperability in a Heterogeneous Team of Search and Rescue Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69493",slug:"interoperability-in-a-heterogeneous-team-of-search-and-rescue-robots",totalDownloads:22680,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Search and rescue missions are complex operations. A disaster scenario is generally unstructured, time‐varying and unpredictable. This poses several challenges for the successful deployment of unmanned technology. The variety of operational scenarios and tasks lead to the need for multiple robots of different types, domains and sizes. A priori planning of the optimal set of assets to be deployed and the definition of their mission objectives are generally not feasible as information only becomes available during mission. The ICARUS project responds to this challenge by developing a heterogeneous team composed by different and complementary robots, dynamically cooperating as an interoperable team. This chapter describes our approach to multi‐robot interoperability, understood as the ability of multiple robots to operate together, in synergy, enabling multiple teams to share data, intelligence and resources, which is the ultimate objective of ICARUS project. It also includes the analysis of the relevant standardization initiatives in multi‐robot multi‐domain systems, our implementation of an interoperability framework and several examples of multi‐robot cooperation of the ICARUS robots in realistic search and rescue missions.",signatures:"Daniel Serrano López, German Moreno, Jose Cordero, Jose Sanchez,\nShashank Govindaraj, Mario Monteiro Marques, Victor Lobo,\nStefano Fioravanti, Alberto Grati, Konrad Rudin, Massimo Tosa,\nAnibal Matos, Andre Dias, Alfredo Martins, Janusz Bedkowski, Haris\nBalta and Geert De Cubber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56126",authors:[{id:"153104",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Lobo",slug:"victor-lobo",fullName:"Victor Lobo"},{id:"212087",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Serrano",slug:"daniel-serrano",fullName:"Daniel Serrano"}],corrections:null},{id:"56257",title:"Tactical Communications for Cooperative SAR Robot Missions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69494",slug:"tactical-communications-for-cooperative-sar-robot-missions",totalDownloads:22535,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes how the ICARUS communications (COM) team defined, developed and implemented an integrated wireless communication system to ensure an interoperable and dependable networking capability for both human and robotic search and rescue field teams and crisis managers. It starts explaining the analysis of the requirements and the context of the project, the existing solutions and the design of the ICARUS communication system to fulfil all the project needs. Next, it addresses the implementation process of the required networking capabilities, and finally, it explains how the ICARUS communication system and associated tools have been integrated in the overall mission systems and have been validated to provide reliable communications for real‐time information sharing during search and rescue operations in hostile conditions.",signatures:"José Manuel Sanchez, José Cordero, Hafeez M. Chaudhary, Bart\nSheers and Yudani Riobó",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56257",authors:[{id:"212088",title:"Mr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"jose-sanchez",fullName:"Jose Sanchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"56086",title:"Command and Control Systems for Search and Rescue Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69495",slug:"command-and-control-systems-for-search-and-rescue-robots",totalDownloads:22810,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The novel application of unmanned systems in the domain of humanitarian Search and Rescue (SAR) operations has created a need to develop specific multi-Robot Command and Control (RC2) systems. This societal application of robotics requires human-robot interfaces for controlling a large fleet of heterogeneous robots deployed in multiple domains of operation (ground, aerial and marine). This chapter provides an overview of the Command, Control and Intelligence (C2I) system developed within the scope of Integrated Components for Assisted Rescue and Unmanned Search operations (ICARUS). The life cycle of the system begins with a description of use cases and the deployment scenarios in collaboration with SAR teams as end-users. This is followed by an illustration of the system design and architecture, core technologies used in implementing the C2I, iterative integration phases with field deployments for evaluating and improving the system. The main subcomponents consist of a central Mission Planning and Coordination System (MPCS), field Robot Command and Control (RC2) subsystems with a portable force-feedback exoskeleton interface for robot arm tele-manipulation and field mobile devices. The distribution of these C2I subsystems with their communication links for unmanned SAR operations is described in detail. Field demonstrations of the C2I system with SAR personnel assisted by unmanned systems provide an outlook for implementing such systems into mainstream SAR operations in the future.",signatures:"Shashank Govindaraj, Pierre Letier, Keshav Chintamani, Jeremi\nGancet, Mario Nunez Jimenez, Miguel Ángel Esbrí, Pawel Musialik,\nJanusz Bedkowski, Irune Badiola, Ricardo Gonçalves, António\nCoelho, Daniel Serrano, Massimo Tosa, Thomas Pfister and Jose\nManuel Sanchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56086",authors:[{id:"212089",title:"Mr.",name:"Shashank",surname:"Govindaraj",slug:"shashank-govindaraj",fullName:"Shashank Govindaraj"}],corrections:null},{id:"56052",title:"ICARUS Training and Support System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69496",slug:"icarus-training-and-support-system",totalDownloads:22373,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ICARUS unmanned tools act as gatherers, which acquire enormous amount of information. The management of all these data requires the careful consideration of an intelligent support system. This chapter discusses the High-Performance Computing (HPC) support tools, which were developed for rapid 3D data extraction, combination, fusion, segmentation, classification and rendering. These support tools were seamlessly connected to a training framework. Indeed, training is a key in the world of search and rescue. Search and rescue workers will never use tools on the field for which they have not been extensively trained beforehand. For this reason, a comprehensive serious gaming training framework was developed, supporting all ICARUS unmanned vehicles in realistic 3D-simulated (based on inputs from the support system) and real environments.",signatures:"Janusz Będkowski, Karol Majek, Michal Pełka, Andrzej Masłowski,\nAntonio Coelho, Ricardo Goncalves, Ricardo Baptista and Jose\nManuel Sanchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56052",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56052",authors:[{id:"63695",title:"Dr.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Bȩdkowski",slug:"janusz-bdkowski",fullName:"Janusz Bȩdkowski"}],corrections:null},{id:"56145",title:"Operational Validation of Search and Rescue Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69497",slug:"operational-validation-of-search-and-rescue-robots",totalDownloads:22312,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes how the different ICARUS unmanned search and rescue tools have been evaluated and validated using operational benchmarking techniques. Two large‐scale simulated disaster scenarios were organized: a simulated shipwreck and an earthquake response scenario. Next to these simulated response scenarios, where ICARUS tools were deployed in tight interaction with real end users, ICARUS tools also participated to a real relief, embedded in a team of end users for a flood response mission. These validation trials allow us to conclude that the ICARUS tools fulfil the user requirements and goals set up at the beginning of the project.",signatures:"Geert De Cubber, Daniela Doroftei, Haris Balta, Anibal Matos,\nEduardo Silva, Daniel Serrano, Shashank Govindaraj, Rui Roda,\nVictor Lobo, Mário Marques and Rene Wagemans",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56145",authors:[{id:"206420",title:"Dr.",name:"Geert",surname:"De Cubber",slug:"geert-de-cubber",fullName:"Geert De Cubber"},{id:"153104",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Lobo",slug:"victor-lobo",fullName:"Victor Lobo"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"3",title:"Monograph",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5905",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a22b4e4b02af1dd0727231b0d974f121",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",bookSignature:"Hüseyin Canbolat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"5887",title:"Dr.",name:"Hüseyin",surname:"Canbolat",slug:"huseyin-canbolat",fullName:"Hüseyin Canbolat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tHomeostasis is the condition of optimal functioning of the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance being kept within certain pre-set limits (homeostatic range). Other variables include the pH of extracellular fluid, the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and calcium ions, as well as that of the blood sugar level, and these need to be regulated despite changes in the environment, diet, or level of activity. Each of these variables is controlled by one or more regulators or homeostatic mechanisms, which together maintain life.
\r\n\tHomeostasis is brought about by a natural resistance to change when already in the optimal conditions, and equilibrium is maintained by many regulatory mechanisms. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the variable to be regulated: a receptor, a control center, and an effector. The receptor is the sensing component that monitors and responds to changes in the environment, either external or internal. Receptors include thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. Control centers include the respiratory center and the renin-angiotensin system. An effector is a target acted on to bring about the change back to the normal state. At the cellular level, receptors include nuclear receptors that bring about changes in gene expression through up-regulation or down-regulation and act in negative feedback mechanisms. An example of this is in the control of bile acids in the liver.
\r\n\tSome centers, such as the renin-angiotensin system, control more than one variable. When the receptor senses a stimulus, it reacts by sending action potentials to a control center. The control center sets the maintenance range—the acceptable upper and lower limits—for the particular variable, such as temperature. The control center responds to the signal by determining an appropriate response and sending signals to an effector, which can be one or more muscles, an organ, or a gland. When the signal is received and acted on, negative feedback is provided to the receptor that stops the need for further signaling.
\r\n\tThe cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), located at the presynaptic neuron, is a receptor that can stop stressful neurotransmitter release to the postsynaptic neuron; it is activated by endocannabinoids (ECs) such as anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamide; AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) via a retrograde signaling process in which these compounds are synthesized by and released from postsynaptic neurons, and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to bind to the CB1 receptor for modulation of neurotransmitter release to obtain homeostasis.
\r\n\tThe polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are lipid derivatives of omega-3 (docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) or of omega-6 (arachidonic acid, ARA) and are synthesized from membrane phospholipids and used as a precursor for endocannabinoids (ECs) mediate significant effects in the fine-tuning adjustment of body homeostasis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to discuss further various aspects of homeostasis, information that we hope to be useful to scientists, clinicians, and the wider public alike.
Writing is a complex cognitive process relying on intricate perceptual-sensorimotor combinations. The process and skill of writing is studied on several levels and in many disciplines, from neurophysiological research on the shaping of each letter to studies on stylistic and compositional features of authors and poets. In studies of writing and literacy overall, the role of the physically tangible writing device (pen on paper; computer mouse and keyboard; digital stylus pen and writing tablet; etc.) is rarely addressed. By and large, the (relatively young) field of writing research is dominated by cognitive approaches predominantly focusing on the visual component of the writing process, hence maintaining a separation between (visual) perception and motor action (e.g., haptics Haptics is defined as a combination of tactile perception associated with active movements (i.e. voluntary movements generated by central motor commands which, in turn, induced proprioceptive feedback). Haptic perception is involved in exploratory hand movements
Today, most of our writing is done with digital writing devices (the computer, the mobile phone, the PDA [i.e., Personal Digital Assistant]), rather than writing by hand. The switch from pen and paper to mouse, keyboard and screen entails major differences in the haptics of writing, at several distinct but intersecting levels. Handwriting is by essence a unimanual activity, whereas typewriting is bimanual. Typically, handwriting is also a slower process than typewriting. Moreover, the visual attention of the writer is strongly concentrated during handwriting; the attentional focus of the writer is dedicated to the tip of the pen, while during typewriting the visual attention is detached from the haptic input, namely the process of hitting the keys. Hence, typewriting is divided into two distinct, and spatiotemporally separated, spaces: the motor space (e.g., the keyboard), and the visual space (e.g., the screen). Another major difference pertains to the production of each character during the two writing modes. In handwriting, the writer has to graphomotorically form each letter – i.e., produce a graphic shape resembling as much as possible the standard shape of the specific letter. In typewriting, obviously, there is no graphomotor component involved; the letters are “readymades” and the task of the writer is to spatially locate the specific letters on the keyboard. Finally, word processing software provides a number of features all of which might radically alter the process of writing for professional as well as for beginning writers.
\n\t\t\tA large body of research in neuroscience, biopsychology and evolutionary biology demonstrates that our use of hands for purposive manipulation of tools plays a constitutive role in learning and cognitive development, and may even be a significant building block in language development. Furthermore, brain imaging studies (using fMRI, i.e., functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) show that the specific hand movements involved in handwriting support the visual recognition of letters. Considering the fact that children today or in the near future may learn to write on the computer before they master the skill of handwriting, such findings are increasingly important. In this article we present evidence from experiments in neuroscience and experimental psychology that show how the bodily, sensorimotor – e.g., haptic – dimension might be a defining feature of not only the skill of writing but may in fact be an intrinsic factor contributing to low-level reading skills (e.g., letter recognition) as well, and we discuss what a shift from handwriting to keyboard writing might entail in this regard. In addition, we discuss the ramifications of the recent interdisciplinary paradigm of embodied cognition for the field of literacy studies in general, and for writing research in particular. Specifically, we intend to address the following questions:
\n\t\t\t- Why, in what ways and with what implications is keyboard writing different than writing by hand?
\n\t\t\t- What implications might these differences have for children’s learning, and for our reading and writing behavior and experience? Entailed in this question complex are, moreover, the wider implications surrounding the role of the hand-brain relationship in learning and cognitive development overall.
\n\t\tWriting is an immensely important and equally complex and sophisticated human skill commonly ascribed a fundamental role in children’s cognitive and language development, and a milestone on the path to literacy. Nevertheless, compared to the vast field of reading research, there has been less scientific attention devoted to the act and skill of writing. As new technologies complement and eventually replace old ones, and we increasingly type and click rather than write with a pen in our hand, however, the distinctive sensorimotor properties of this skill reveal themselves. Writing has always been dependent on technology; indeed, in a very literal sense, writing
However, at least outside the domain of ergonomics, the role and impact of the different technologies employed in the writing process is rarely addressed. Whether focusing on the cognitive aspects of writing, the semiotics of different codes and sign systems of writing, or studying emergent writing skills within a sociocultural paradigm, the technologies in question are by and large – and deliberately or not – treated as transparent. Hence, arguably important questions of how technologies and devices are physically (e.g., haptically) handled during the act of writing, and how these sensorimotor acts might interplay with, and impact, cognition, seem not to be considered scientifically interesting. The haptics of writing is a curiously ignored area of research, both in the field of literacy studies at large, as well as within the field of writing research in particular.
\n\t\t\tIn the theoretically-methodologically inhomogeneous field commonly referred to as digital (or new) literacies, (digital; multimodal) writing is commonly considered a meaning making process situated in specific social and cultural contexts (Barton, 2007, Barton, Hamilton, & Ivanic, 2000, Buckingham, 2003, 2007, Coiro, 2008, Jewitt, 2006, Kress, 2003, Lankshear, 2006, Säljö, 2006). As such, it is argued, it is most appropriately studied within a theoretical-methodological framework defined mainly, if not exclusively, by sociocultural and/or semiotic perspectives. Within such a framework, reflections on the impact of digital technologies on reading, writing and literacy limit themselves to discussing the changing (semiotic; structural; semantic; aesthetic) relations between different sign systems (e.g., image, text, and sound) when displayed on screen.
\n\t\t\tA major digital literacy scholar, semiotician Günther Kress readily acknowledges the radical changes to writing brought about by digital technology:
\n\t\t\tThe combined effects on writing of the dominance of the mode of image and of the medium of screen will produce deep changes in the forms and functions of writing. This in turn will have profound effects on human, cognitive/affective, cultural and bodily engagement with the world, and on forms and shapes of knowledge. (Kress, 2003, p. 3)
\n\t\t\tSuch changes, argues Kress, forces “an insistence on the very materiality of writing […], its
The purpose of this article is twofold. The first purpose pertains to the field of writing research and instruction: by exploring and explicating the critical role of haptics in writing, we discuss and reflect on how new writing technologies and devices, by radically altering the hand movements and hence the haptic feedback, might have an impact on future writing skills. As a corollary, if the technologies of writing do in fact radically alter the acquisition of writing skills, this ought to be reflected in the pedagogies of writing instruction. In the light of emerging knowledge about the implications of the digitization of writing on emergent literacy and early writing acquisition, how can and should writing instruction adjust accordingly? A closely related issue is the current theoretical-methodological state of the art of writing research. The second purpose of this article has to do with an unfortunate but persistent scientific schism between fields such as literacy and media studies on the one side, and on the other side, philosophy of mind, neurophenomenology, Usually applied to the works of the late neurobiologist Francisco Varela et al. (Varela, Thompson, & Rosch, 1991), neurophenomenology is an attempt at combining phenomenology and neuroscience, emphasizing the corporeally embodied nature of cognition and mental experience. Specifically, neurophenomenology explores “the relevance of first-person methods for producing more refined first-person reports in experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience.” (Thompson, 2007, p. 20)
The act of writing is a complex cognitive process relying on intricate perceptual-sensorimotor combinations. As a highly sophisticated and comprehensive way of externalizing our thoughts, giving shape to past memories as well as future plans and dreams, sharing our stories and communicating our emotions and affections, writing always involves the skillful handling of some mechanical/technical device, and necessarily results in a visuographic representation – some kind of (more or less) readable text, in the form of a string of letters or symbols. As mentioned, in studies of literacy in general, and of writing (as well as of reading) in particular, the role and potential impact of the technologies employed – whether pen and paper, or keyboard and computer screen – is rarely addressed. A cursory and cross-disciplinary glance at the current state of writing research yields the impression that writing is mainly, if not exclusively, a mental (e.g., cognitive) process (MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006, Torrance, van Waes, & Galbraith, 2007, Van Waes, Leijten, & Neuwirth, 2006). Cognitive approaches to the study of writing focus predominantly on the visual component of the process, and how it relates to cognitive processing. However, as evidenced by research in neuroscience, and as phenomenologically experienced by the writer him- or herself, writing is a process that requires the integration of visual, proprioceptive (haptic/kinaesthetic), and tactile information in order to be accomplished (Fogassi & Gallese, 2004). In other words, the acquisition of writing skills involves a perceptual component (learning the shape of the letter) and a graphomotor component (learning the trajectory producing the letter’s shape) (van Galen, 1991). Research has shown that sensory modalities involved in handwriting, e.g., vision and proprioception, are so intimately entwined that strong neural connections have been revealed between perceiving, reading, and writing letters in different languages and symbol/writing systems. (James & Gauthier, 2006, Kato et al., 1999, Longcamp, Anton, Roth, & Velay, 2003, 2005a, Matsuo et al., 2003, Vinter & Chartrel, 2008, Wolf, 2007) Current brain imaging techniques show how neural pathways can be differentially activated from handling different writing systems: logographic writing systems seem to activate very distinctive parts of the frontal and temporal areas of the brain, particularly regions involved in what is called motor perception. For instance, experiments using fMRI have revealed how Japanese readers use different pathways – when reading kana (an efficient syllabary used mainly for foreign and/or newer words, and for names of cities and persons), the activated pathways are similar to those used by English readers. In contrast, when reading kanji – an older logographic script influenced by Chinese – Japanese readers use pathways that come close to those used by the Chinese. (Wolf, 2007) Our knowledge about the writing body and brain is steadily increasing, and it is unfortunate – and strange – if such knowledge cannot find accommodation in the field of literary and writing studies.
\n\t\t\tMore and more of our current writing is writing with a digital device, whether it is a laptop, a PDA, or a mobile phone. Computers and keyboards are replacing pen and paper at an ever-increasing rate, and children are increasingly being introduced to writing with computers in addition to, and even at the expense of, writing by hand. With new technologies, we are changing the role of the hands, as the haptic affordances of digital technologies are distinctly different than earlier technologies such as pen and paper, the print book, and even the typewriter. We click and scroll with computer mice and tap keys on a keyboard, instead of putting pen to paper. This switch from pen and paper to mouse, keyboard and screen entails major differences in the haptics of writing, at several distinct but intersecting levels. When writing by hand, we use only one hand, whereas typewriting typically involves both hands; handwriting is commonly experienced as a slower and more laborious process than writing with a keyboard. Writing by hand requires the writer to shape each letter, whereas in typewriting, obviously, there is no such graphomotor component involved. Moreover, our visual attention is commonly restricted to precisely the point where the pen hits the paper during handwriting, while during typewriting there is a distinct spatiotemporal decoupling between the visual attention and the haptic input. Finally, word processing software provides a number of features all of which might radically alter the process of writing for professional as well as for beginning writers – from autocorrect and spell-check options to large-scale genre templates and stylistic features.
\n\t\t\tGenerally speaking, the process of text production, sensomotorically as well as cognitively and phenomenologically, is radically different in a print writing environment compared to a digital environment. Such a change might plausibly have considerable educational implications, the understanding of which mandates a thorough investigation of the currently changing role of haptics in writing. In order to understand why and to what extent the process, skill, and art of writing is being transformed by digital technologies, we must reconceptualize our understanding of writing as incorporating – literally speaking – sensory modalities not commonly addressed in educational research on writing and literacy, such as haptics. Considering the major ongoing changes in how we write, and – perhaps even more importantly – how children, in our age of digital technology, learn to write (and might learn to write in the near future), the haptics of writing is an aspect in urgent need of scientific scrutiny.
\n\t\tWriting is, by definition, the production of some kind of text on some kind of surface or display, employing some kind of technical device. As mentioned, the role of this technical device – how it is employed and implemented in the writing process, and how it thus impacts the process of writing – has not been the subject of much attention in the field of writing research. Describing writing in the very early years of word processors, Christina Haas observed:
\n\t\t\tChanging the technologies of writing has profound implications, at least in part, because different technologies are materially configured in profoundly different ways. That is, different writing technologies set up radically different spatial, tactile, visual, and even temporal relations between the writer’s material body and his or her material text. […] Hence, the body […] is the mechanism by which the mediation of the mental and the material occurs. (Haas, 1996, p. 5)
\n\t\t\tMore than a decade later, Haas’ claim still holds. Overall, contemporary theoretical discussions on writing tend to treat technology as transparent, or simply not interesting in and by itself. However, phenomenological accounts of writing provide some insight into the fundamental
the word no longer passes through the hand as it writes and acts authentically but through the mechanized pressure of the hand. The typewriter snatches script from the essential realm of the hand – and this means the hand is removed from the essential realm of the word. The word becomes something ‘typed.’ [...] Mechanized writing deprives the hand of dignity in the realm of the written word and degrades the word into a mere means for the traffic of communication. Besides, mechanized writing offers the advantage of covering up one’s handwriting and therewith one’s character. (1982 [1942], pp. 118-119)
\n\t\t\tReplacing the mechanical typewriter with the digital computer and its word processing software introduces new features of equally impersonalized and disembodied writing – a writing modality, moreover, that is undoubtedly more phenomenologically monotonous than handwriting. For instance, consider how handwriting might entail and display visible traces – however subtle – of different sensory traits of the writer, such as temper, stress, or nervousness.
In the initial stages […] writing depends on memorizing the graphic form of every letter. It takes place through a chain of isolated motor impulses, each of which is responsible for the performance of only one element of the graphic structure; with practice, this structure of the process is radically altered and writing is converted into a single ‘kinetic melody’, no longer requiring the memorizing of the visual form of each isolated letter or individual motor impulses for making every stroke. The same situation applies to the process in which the change to write a highly automatized engram (such as a signature) ceases to depend on analysis of the acoustic complex of the word or the visual form of its individual letters, but begins to be performed as a single “kinetic melody” […] The participation of the auditory and visual areas of the cortex, essential in the early stages of the formation of the activity, no longer is necessary in its later stages, and
Luria’s kinetic melody thus refers to the neurological role of the hand in writing. In
The increasing disembodiment of writing currently taking place should not be reduced to a matter of interest primarily for philosophers, nostalgics and neo-Luddites, Neo-Luddite is a label commonly attached to people who are considered overly sceptical or resistant of technological change.
In his landmark volume The pedagogies of Montessori and Steiner might be considered as exceptions in this regard, with their focus on holistic education, eurythmy (a pedagogical program focusing on awakening and strengthening the expressive capacities of children through movement) and on seeing children as sensorial explorers. (Palmer, 2002)
As infants, we tend to learn as much, if not more, about our environment by touching as well as looking, smelling, or listening. Only gradually, and after many warnings by our parents not to touch this or that, we do finally manage to drive the tactile sense underground. But the many do-not-touch signs in stores and especially in museums suggest that apparently we still would like to touch objects in order to get to know them better and to enrich our experience. (Zettl, 1973, p. 25)
\n\t\t\tResearch in experimental psychology, evolutionary psychology, and cognitive anthropology (Bara, Gentaz, & Colé, 2007, Greenfield, 1991, Hatwell, Streri, & Gentaz, 2003, Klatzky, Lederman, & Mankinen, 2005, Klatzky, Lederman, & Matula, 1993, Wilson, 1998) has convincingly demonstrated the vital role of haptic exploration of tangible objects in human learning and cognitive development. In a very literal way, the sense of touch incorporates human nature, as eloquently described by Brian O’Shaughnessy: “Touch is in a certain respect the most important and certainly the most primordial of the senses. The reason is, that it is scarcely to be distinguished from the having of a body that can act in physical space.” (O\'Shaughnessy, 2002, p. 658) During infancy and early childhood, haptic exploration is very important; however, as we grow up, we tend to lose some of the strength and clarity of the sense of touch (and smell, it is argued), so that we somehow have to re-learn how to make use of it.
\n\t\t\tMetaphors and colloquialisms are additional indicators of the importance of the haptic modality in cognition. Numerous expressions for understanding and comprehension consist of terms and concepts referring to
It is the body that \'catches\' […] \'and \'comprehends\' movement. The acquisition of a habit is indeed the grasping of a significance, but it is the motor grasping a motor significance. […] If habit is neither a form of knowledge nor any involuntary action, then what is it? It is a
Our fingers and hands are highly active and important means of perception and exploration, representing an access to our lifeworld which in some cases could not have been established by any other sense modality. In our everyday whereabouts, however, we are just not used to thinking of the hands as sensory organs significantly contributing to cognitive processing, because most of our day-to-day manipulation is
During the past decade, intriguing and influential interdisciplinary perspectives have been established between biology, cognitive neuroscience, psychology and philosophy. Jointly advocated by philosophers, biologists, and neuroscientists, The most prominent philosophers are Andy Clark, Evan Thompson, Alva Noë, and the late Susan Hurley; Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana are the biologists most frequently associated with embodied cognition, whereas the best known neuroscientists are Antonio Damasio, V. S. Ramachandran, Alain Berthoz and J.Kevin O’Regan. Cartesian dualism refers to the conception of mind and body as distinct, separate entities and treating mental phenomena (e.g., perceptual experience; cognition; reasoning) as being purely matters of mind.
- Motor theories of perception (initially developed for the perception of spoken language by Liberman et al. [1985]): Until fairly recently, perception and action were studied as quite separate entities in the disciplines involved. Now, converging research data from neuroscience and experimental psychology show how our perception is closely correlated with motor actions, to active explorations of our lifeworld, mainly through the always active and intriguingly complex collaboration of sensory modalities. Commonly referred to as
- The
- The theory of
These theoretical developments all have similarities with the by now classical, ecological psychology of J. J. Gibson, in particular his concept of affordances, which are functional, meaningful, and persistent properties of the environment for activity. (Gibson, 1979) Hence, Gibson would say, we attend to the properties and the opportunities for actions implied by these objects, rather than to the physical properties of objects in the environment
The important role of the motor component during handwriting can be deduced from experimental data in neuroscience. There is some evidence strongly suggesting that writing movements are involved in letter memorization. For instance, repeated writing by hand is an aid that is commonly used in school to help Japanese children memorize kanji characters. In the same vein, Japanese adults report that they often write with their finger in the air to identify complex characters (a well-known phenomenon, referred to as “Ku Sho”). In fact, it has been reported that learning by handwriting facilitated subjects’ memorization of graphic forms (Naka & Naoi, 1995). Visual recognition was also studied by Hulme (1979), who compared children’s learning of a series of abstract graphic forms, depending on whether they simply looked at the forms or looked at them as well as traced the forms with their index finger. The tracing movements seemed to improve the children’s memorization of the graphic items. Thus, it was suggested that the visual and motor information might undergo a common representation process.
\n\t\t\tVarious data converge to indicate that the cerebral representation of letters might not be strictly visual, but might be based on a complex neural network including a sensorimotor component acquired while learning concomitantly to read and write (James & Gauthier, 2006, Kato et al., 1999, Longcamp et al., 2003, 2005a, Matsuo et al., 2003). Close functional relationships between the reading and writing processes might hence occur at a basic sensorimotor level, in addition to the interactions that have been described at a more cognitive level (e.g., Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000).
\n\t\t\tIf the cerebral representation of letters includes a sensorimotor component elaborated when learning how to write letters, how might changes in writing movements affect/impact the subsequent recognition of letters? More precisely, what are the potential consequences of replacing the pen with the keyboard? Both handwriting and typewriting involve movements but there are several differences – some evident, others not so evident– between them. Handwriting is by essence unimanual; however, as evidenced by for instance Yves Guiard (1987), the non-writing hand plays a complementary, though largely covert, role by continuously repositioning the paper in anticipation of pen movement. Even when no movement seems needed (as for instance, in dart throwing), the passive hand and arm play a crucial role in counterbalancing the move of the active arm and hand. The nondominant hand, says Guiard, “frames” the movement of the dominant hand and “sets and confines the spatial context in which the ‘skilled’ movement will take place.” (ibid.) This strong manual asymmetry is connected to a cerebral lateralization of language and motor processes. Typewriting is, as mentioned, a bimanual activity; in right-handers, the left hand which is activated by the right motor areas is involved in writing. Since the left hemisphere is mainly responsible for linguistic processes (in righthanders), this implies inter-hemispheric relationships in typewriting.
\n\t\t\tA next major difference between the movements involved in handwriting and typewriting, pertains to the speed of the processes. Handwriting is typically slower and more laborious than typewriting. Each stroke (or letter) is drawn in about 100 ms. In typing, letter appearance is immediate and the mean time between the two touches is about 100 ms (in experts). (Gentner, 1983) Moreover handwriting takes place in a very limited space, literally, at the endpoint of the pen, where ink flows out of the pen. The attention of the writer is concentrated onto this particular point in space and time. By comparison, typewriting is divided into two distinct spaces: the motor space, e.g., the keyboard, where the writer acts, and the visual space, e.g., the screen, where the writer perceives the results of his inscription process. Hence, attention is continuously oscillating between these two spatiotemporally distinct spaces which are, by contrast, conjoined in handwriting.
\n\t\t\tIn handwriting, the writer has to form a letter, e.g., to produce a graphic shape which is as close as possible to the standard visual shape of the letter. Each letter is thus associated to a given, very specific movement. There is a strict and unequivocal relationship between the visual shape and the motor program that is used to produce this shape. This relationship has to be learnt during childhood and it can deteriorate due to cerebral damage, or simply with age. On the other hand, typing is a complex form of spatial learning in which the beginner has to build a “keypress schema” transforming the visual form of each character into the position of a given key in keyboard centered coordinates, and specify the movement required to reach this location (Gentner, 1983, Logan, 1999). Therefore, learning how to type also creates an association between a pointing movement and a character. However, since the trajectory of the finger to a given key – e.g., letter – largely depends on its position on the keyboard rather than on the movement of the hand, the relationship between the pointing and the character cannot be very specific. The same key can be hit with different movements, different fingers and even a different hand. This relationship can also deteriorate but with very different consequences than those pertaining to handwriting. For instance, if a key is pressed in error, a spelling error will occur but the visual shape of the letter is preserved in perfect condition. The visuomotor association involved in typewriting should therefore have little contribution to its visual recognition.
\n\t\t\tThus, replacing handwriting by typing during learning might have an impact on the cerebral representation of letters and thus on letter memorization. In two behavioral studies, Longcamp et al. investigated the handwriting/typing distinction, one in pre-readers (Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou et al., 2005b) and one in adults (Longcamp, Boucard, Gilhodes, & Velay, 2006). Both studies confirmed that letters or characters learned through typing were subsequently recognized less accurately than letters or characters written by hand. In a subsequent study (Longcamp et al., 2008), fMRI data showed that processing the orientation of handwritten and typed characters did not rely on the same brain areas. Greater activity related to handwriting learning was observed in several brain regions known to be involved in the execution, imagery, and observation of actions, in particular, the left Broca’s area and bilateral inferior parietal lobules. Writing movements may thus contribute to memorizing the shape and/or orientation of characters. However, this advantage of learning by handwriting versus typewriting was not always observed when words were considered instead of letters. In one study (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990), children spelled words which were learned by writing them by hand better than those learned by typing them on a computer. However, subsequent studies did not confirm the advantage of the handwriting method (e.g., Vaughn, Schumm, & Gordon, 1992).
\n\t\tDuring the act of writing, then, there is a strong relation between the cognitive processing and the sensorimotor interaction with the physical device. Hence, it seems reasonable to say that theories of writing and literacy currently dominant in the fields of writing research and literacy studies are, if not misguided, so at least markedly incomplete: on the one hand, currently dominant paradigms in (new) literacy studies (e.g., semiotics and sociocultural theory) commonly fail to acknowledge the crucial ways in which different technologies and material interfaces afford, require and structure sensorimotor processes and how these in turn relate to, indeed, how they
Judging from the above, there is ample reason to argue for the accommodation of perspectives from neuroscience, psychology, and phenomenology, in the field of writing and literacy. At the same time, it is worth noticing how the field of neuroscience might benefit from being complemented by more holistic, top-down approaches such as phenomenology and ecological psychology. Neurologist Wilson deplores the legacy of the Decade of the Brain, where “something akin to the Tower of Babel” has come into existence:
\n\t\t\tWe now insist that we will never understand what intelligence is unless we can establish how bipedality, brachiation, social interaction, grooming, ambidexterity, language and tool use, the saddle joint at the base of the fifth metacarpal, “reaching” neurons in the brain’s parietal cortex, inhibitory neurotransmitters, clades, codons, amino acid sequences etc., etc. are interconnected. But this is a delusion. How can we possibly connect such disparate facts and ideas, or indeed how could we possibly imagine doing so when each discipline is its own private domain of multiple infinite regressions – knowledge or pieces of knowledge under which are smaller pieces under which are smaller pieces still (and so on). The enterprise as it is now ordered is well nigh hopeless. (Wilson, 1998, p. 164)
\n\t\t\tFinally, it seems as if Wilson’s call is being heard, and that time has come to repair what he terms “our prevailing, perversely one-sided – shall I call them cephalocentric – theories of brain, mind, language, and action.” (ibid.; p. 69) The perspective of embodied cognition presents itself as an adequate and timely remedy to the disembodied study of cognition and, hence, writing. At the same time it might aid in forging new and promising paths between neuroscience, psychology, and philosophy – and, eventually, education? At any rate, a richer and more nuanced, trans-disciplinary understanding of the processes of reading and writing helps us see what they entail and how they actually work. Understanding how they work, in turn, might make us realize the full scope and true complexity of the skills we possess and, hence, what we might want to make an extra effort to preserve. In our times of steadily increasing digitization of classrooms from preschool to lifelong learning, it is worth pausing for a minute to reflect upon some questions raised by Wilson:
\n\t\t\tHow does, or should, the educational system accommodate for the fact that the hand is not merely a metaphor or an icon for humanness, but often the real-life focal point – the lever or the launching pad – of a successful and genuinely fulfilling life? […] The hand is as much at the core of human life as the brain itself. The hand is involved in human learning. What is there in our theories of education that respects the biologic principles governing cognitive processing in the brain and behavioral change in the individual? […] Could anything we have learned about the hand be used to improve the teaching of children? (ibid.; pp. 13-14; pp. 277-278)
\n\t\t\tAs we hope to have shown during this article, recent theoretical findings from a range of adjacent disciplines now put us in a privileged position to at least begin answering such vital questions. The future of education – and with it, future generations’ handling of the skill of writing – depend on how and to what extent we continue to address them.
\n\t\tThe phosphosilicate apatites containing a coupled substitution of the divalent cation by a trivalent lanthanide or a tetravalent actinide ion and the trivalent groupment PO4 by a tetravalent SiO4 groupment in the general formula Me(XO4)6Y2 (Me: divalent cation; XO4: anionic groupment and Y: monovalent anion) allow to obtain materials called britholite [1, 2, 3, 4]. Such materials were found in the natural nuclear reactors Alko of Gabon which demonstrated that they are storing some radionuclides such as uranium U, thorium Th, plutonium Pu and minor actinides like neptinium Np, americium Am and curium Cm [5, 6, 7, 8]. Moreover, silicate based apatite samples were found to contain up to 50 wt% of lanthanides (La, Ce, Nd) and actinides (U, Th) in Ouzzal site of Algeria [9]. Hence, britholites were considered as natural nuclear waste disposal and allowing the confinement of radionuclides and some fission byproducts produced by the nuclear industry [10, 11, 12]. In fact, many studies indicated that britholites are able to confine radionuclides with continuous irradiation for millions of years with conserved structure and thermal and chemical stability [13, 14]. Indeed, due to the stability and flexibility of their structure, apatites offer many possibilities for substitutions. Moreover, britholite materials favored many cationic and anionic substitutions in their crystallographic structure. These later might be in a total or limited range [15, 16, 17]. Therefore, these substitutions are governed by the ionic sizes, the valence, the electronegativity and the polarizability [18]. In this context, several processes have been developed for the preparation of these materials containing various elements such as actinides and lanthanides via solid state reaction or mechanical synthesis [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
On the other hand, many investigations have revealed that britholites might be a good ionic conductor for their use in fuel cells. The conductivity was proved as a thermal process at intermediate temperature range 400–900°C [28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Therefore, the electrical properties allow using the materials as a solid electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) [33, 34].
Like-apatite, phosphosilicate apatites have a hexagonal structure and a space group P63/m [15, 35]. Their framework is built on the sixth XO4 groups and the Me is divided between two crystallographic sites: four are located in the site Me(1), coordination 9, and six other are located in the site Me(2), coordination 7. Hence, in order to highlight the capacity of these materials to store non radioactive elements similar to radionuclides as well as their potentialities as ionic conductors, the sintered materials series Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were investigated.
A solid state method was adopted to prepare strontium fluorobritholites compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 [36]. The starting reagents: strontium fluoride SrF2 (99.99%. Merck)), strontium carbonate SrCO3 (≥99.00% Fluka), silica SiO2 (Prolabo), lanthanum and neodymium oxide (La2O3·Nd2O3) (99.99% Merck) and strontium diphosphate (Sr2P2O7) were used. The reaction equation (1) is the following:
Sr2P2O7 was synthesized by the following reaction at 900°C:
SrCO3 (>96% Riedel de Haen), Gd2O3 (>99.5% Prolabo), Nd2O3 (>99.5% Prolabo) SiO2 (>99.5% Alfa), SrF2 (>99.5% Prolabo) and (NH4)2HPO4 (>99% Acros Organics) were used as raw materials. For each composition the molar ratio (Sr + La + Nd)/(P + Si) and the obtained quantity of each composition should be respectively 1.67 and 1.5 × 10−3 moles. Before synthesis, each quantity of lanthanum and neodymium oxides given in Table 1 was furnaced at 1000°C for 12 h to avoid the formation of Ln-hydroxide. Then, the solid mixture was milled and homogenized in an agate mortar for about 30 min, and then cold pressed under 100 MPa into pellets (30 and 3 mm). During sintering, the pellets were sintered in the temperature range 1250–1450°C in a carbolyte type furnace with controlled argon atmosphere. The temperature varied with 50°C for each value of x. The sintering cycle is shown in Figure 1. The heating and cooling rate was of 10°C min−1. In the following sections, the samples will be named SrLa2−xNdxF where x is the substituted Nd rate.
Thermal cycle used for strontium fluorobritholite sintering.
Reactants | SrLa2F | SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | SrLa1Nd1F | SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | SrNd2F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
La2O3 | 0.4887 | 0.3665 | 0.2443 | 0.1221 | — |
Nd2O3 | — | 0.1261 | 0.2523 | 0.3785 | 0.5047 |
Masses in grams of lanthanum and neodymium oxides used in the synthesis of
A PANalytical X’pert Pro diffractometer with a KαCu anode (λ = 1.54 Å) operating 40 kV and 40 mA was the apparatus used for the XRD patterns recording. The scans range was between 10 and 70° (2θ) with a step size of 0.02°. The crystallite size of the powder Dhkl was calculated using the (300) and (002) reflections following Debye Sheerer equation [37]:
Needs to remember that λ is the X-ray wavelength of the monochromatic X-ray beam. For the apatitic crystallites K is a constant equal to 0.9. β1/2 is the full width at half maximum of the selected reflection and θ is the Bragg’s diffraction angle.
The Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR)-attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectra were performed at room temperature on a Perkin Elmer spectrometer in the spectral range 4000–400 cm−1.
The chemical analysis of Sr., P, Si, La and Nd ions in the synthesized samples was determined via an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) (JY-Horiba Ultima-C spectrometer). The samples were thus previously mixed with 99.9% lithium metaborate, fused at 1000°C for 25 min and dissolved in HCl (0.6 M). The fluoride content in the synthesized samples was measured by a specific ion-selective electrode.
The complex impedance measurements were performed on pellets sintered at between 1250 and 1450°C for 24 h. Their densities varied from 72 to 83% of the theoretical density as a function the sintering temperature. The two faces of the pellets were coated with a silver paint and then two platinum wires electrodes linked them to a Hewlett-Packard 4192-A impedance analyzer. The measurements were recorded with the temperatures variation from 450 to 780°C and frequencies from 10 Hz to 13 MHz.
The samples’ quantitative chemical analyses are shown in Table 2. As observed there is a satisfactory agreement between the elements amount determined from the analyses and those introduced in the starting. As a consequence, the experimental formula was close to the theoretical ones. The
Samples | Sr | La | Nd | P | Si | F | Molar ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SrLa2F | 7.96 | 1.97 | — | 3.98 | 1.97 | 1.99 | 1.668 |
SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | 7.96 | 1.47 | 0.47 | 3.98 | 1.96 | 1.98 | 1.666 |
SrLa1Nd1F | 7.97 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 3.99 | 1.96 | 1.96 | 1.667 |
SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | 7.99 | 0.47 | 1.48 | 3.99 | 1.98 | 1.97 | 1.664 |
SrNd2F | 7.98 | — | 1.97 | 3.98 | 1.98 | 1.97 | 1.669 |
Number of atoms per unit cell of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Figure 2 showed the XRD patterns of all compositions. It is evident that the samples were single apatite phase. By comparaison to the JCPDS 17-0609 file data for the strontium fluorapatite, the samples are characteristic of the hexagonal symmetry and the P63/m space group. No additional diffraction lines relative to supplementary phases were detected in any of the patterns. However, the presence of very small quantities of impurities was not excluded. The XRD patterns of the Figure 3 indicated that when the substitution level increased, the peaks slightly shift towards the high 2θ angles indicating a contraction of the unit cell. This contraction, which agrees with the Nd3+ radius (VI
DRX spectra of strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2Ndx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Radiation (300) of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
As shown in Figure 4 and Table 3, the cristallographic parameters calculated using the Fullprof program without any structural refinement of the all compositions depended on the substitution level. In fact, if Nd content rose,
Lattice parameters as a function neodymium level in the Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Sample | a (Å) | c (Å) | V (Å3) | D300 (Å) | D300 (Å) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SrLa2F | 9.735(2) | 7.281(2) | 597.55(2) | 304(3) | 387(4) |
SrLa1.5Nd0.5F | 9.730(3) | 7.278(3) | 596.69(2) | 278(2) | 362(3) |
SrLa1Nd1F | 9.725(2) | 7.271(2) | 595.43(2) | 254(3) | 347(2) |
SrLa0.5Nd1.5F | 9.720(3) | 7.267(2) | 594.57(3) | 237(3) | 326(3) |
SrNd2F | 9.717(3) | 7.263(2) | 593.87(3) | 223(4) | 307(4) |
Crystallographic parameters of strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
indicates the existence of a continuous solid solution in the explored substitution domain.
The rational parameters that govern the site occupation are the nature, the electronegativities, the valences and the polarizabilities of the ions. The bibliography studies’ results indicated that like those observed in natural phosphosilicate apatites, the substituted cations in the apatite structure had preferential occupation for Me(2) sites [42, 43, 44, 45]. Thus, it could be concluded that La3+ and Nd3+ ions substituting Sr2+ with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 in our studied samples were subsequently preferentially localized in Me(2) sites.
The FTIR spectra of the samples were given in Figure 5. The identification of all the bands was done by comparison with un- and substituted strontium fluorapatite the previously reported in the literature [40, 41]. The characteristic absorption bands of SiO4 and PO4 were observed [41].
Infrared spectra of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
The PO4characteristic bands observed at 1072–1024 cm −1 coincide with to the asymmetric stretching mode (
In the Figure 6 are represented the 31P NMR-MAS spectra. A single isotropic signal was observed for all the spectra. It indicated also that a unique crystallographic site for the PO4 tetrahedron in the apatite structure was present. However a slight chemical shift towards the lower values was observed as well as a broadening of the peaks was attributed to the Nd substitution. This fact was related to a disorder induced in the apatite network caused by the substitution of La by Nd. This was previously seen with doped with rare earth apatite’s [46, 47, 48].
31P NMR-MAS spectra of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Materials densification optimization has been performed by sintering the synthesized samples in the temperatures range 1250–1500°C with a fixed holding time of 6 h. Relative density
where the theoretical density ρthe was calculated using the equation:
(Z: number of molecules/unit cell, M: molecular weight Na: Avogadro number and V: volume of the unit cell) and experimental density determined from the mass and the dimension of sintered pellets by means of the equation
Figure 7 shows that relative density of the sintered samples strictly depends on sintering temperatures as well as on Nd content. An irregular trend was noted and the highest relative density 89% was obtained with x = 2 Nd content when sintered only at 1250°C. The remaining samples presents lower than densifications ratios obtained at higher temperatures. From these data, it can be deduced that the grains morphology and size modification strongly depends on Nd content and sintering temperature. The Nd doping should improve the materials densification by reducing the porosity. This was confirmed by the percentage porosity of the higher densified samples calculated by the following equation:
Relative density versus sintering temperature of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
As plotted on Figure 8, the porosity of the samples decreased as Nd content increased. This result muched the evolution of the relative density suggested to increase when crystallite size is reduced (i.e. grain size). This should promotes the materials densifications by eliminating the intergranular porosity.
Porosity versus Nd content of maximum densified samples.
The microstructure of the samples given on Figure 9 is closely coherent with the densification rates as well as porosity. Indeed, the micrographs show a progressive removal of the porosity when the Nd rate rises. Thus with x = 0 the microstructure is of intergranular aspect revealing the presence of abundant porosity. With x = 0.5, although some pores persist on the surface the porosity was reduced,. When x = 1 the open porosity has almost disappeared and only the closed porosity remains, reflecting the 89% densification.
Micrographs of sintered samples Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 (a) x = 0.0; (b) x = 0.5; (c) x = 1.0.
The ionic conductivity of the samples was determined between 400 and 800°C with a step of 20°C by complex impedance plots. Thus, for each sample, 20 complex impedance plots (plane, Z″ vs Z′) were plotted. The intercept of the semicircular arcs with the real axis allow obtaining the bulk resistance R. The ionic conductivity of the sintered samples was calculated from the equation:
The thickness and the area of the sample were e and S, respectively. Figure 10 reprinted the ionic conductivity σ versus the neodymium substitution. The first deduction is that σ depends on this substitution and particularly at higher temperatures. The curves obtained at 604 (877 K) and 482°C (755 K) indcated that the measured conductivity was about 4.4 × 10−7 S cm−1. By contrary with the increase of Nd content, σ rose up to 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 at 779°C (1052 K). Hence, the electric conductivity of the samples depend onthe Nd substituted level.
Ionic conductivity versus neodymium content.
The total activation energy of the samples was obtained from the Arrhenius equation:
The parameters to define are the pre-exponential factor A, activation energy Ea, Boltzmann constant k and absolute temperature T, respectively. Figure 11 shows an Arrhenius-type plot indicating that the electrical conduction of the materials is activated by heating. The σ values were slightly different from those found in the literature [49, 50]. The difference might have resulted from the preparation and sintering methods reflected by the difference in densification ratios (range 72–83%). The slope in the Arrhenius plots versus temperatures gives the activation energy. This later parameter increased when Nd level rose reaching a maximum of 1.1 eV when x = 1 then decreased to 0.91 eV (Table 4). Moreover a slight break in slope for x ≥ 1 was detected in the Arrhenius plots. This was related to the Sr/Nd▬F bond likely to the work of Njema and al [49]. In fact, in Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2) samples, the mobility of F− along the
Plots of LnσT versus 1000/T of fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
x | 0 | 0.5 | 1 | 1.5 | 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ea (eV) | 0.87 | 0.95 | 1.1 | 1.03 | 0.91 |
Activation energy of Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2).
Strontium fluorbritholites Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with (0 ≤ x ≤ 2) were successfully prepared by reaction in the solid state. Characterization by several techniques revealed that all the powders were composed of a single apatite phase. The lattice parameters
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. 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This is also common in Africa. Therefore, they need specialist care from various categories of health care workers and other professionals on geriatric medicine and gerontology. There are few geriatricians in Africans. This is because there are few training centres in the continents. Also, most of the geriatricians are trained on the other side of the continent overseas.",book:{id:"11226",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Healthy Aging",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11226.jpg"},signatures:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari"},{id:"82376",title:"Mechanical Thrombectomy for Acute Pulmonary Ischemia",slug:"mechanical-thrombectomy-for-acute-pulmonary-ischemia",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102548",abstract:"Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a restrictive pulmonary vascular compromise with devastating complications depending on size and location. Massive and sub-massive classifications reflect hemodynamic compromise and cardiac dysfunction due to right ventricular strain, respectively. In addition to cardiac dysfunction, pulmonary ischemia and infarction play a key clinical factor. Mainstay management is with anticoagulation to prevent further clot propagation. Recent technological advances have revolutionized treatment modalities. Mechanical thrombectomy, catheter-based clot retrieval, is an effective way to eliminate emboli, restore cardiopulmonary function, and prevent ischemic injury. One such device, the FlowTriever System, has emerged as a way interventionalists can proceed with embolectomy and provide high level, life-saving care for acutely decompensated patients.",book:{id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy - Recent Advances in Ischaemic Damage Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg"},signatures:"Adam Raskin, Anil Verma and Kofi Ansah"},{id:"82402",title:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Venous Leg Ulcer",slug:"diagnosis-and-treatment-of-venous-leg-ulcer",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105676",abstract:"Venous leg ulcer (VLU) represent a pathological tissue change in the form of a defect in the lower leg which occurs as a complication of chronic venous insufficiency. The prevalence of VLUs varies between 1.5–3% in the total population and 4–5% in persons over the age of 80. Venous ulcer is usually localized on the inner side of the lower third of the leg, oval, circular or irregular in shape. It is usually fibrous or covered with fresh granules that bleed heavily to the touch. It is very important to have a comprehensive clinical examination at the very beginning. Subsequent non-invasive and sometimes invasive tests may be indicated for diagnosis and treatment planning. Inadequate diagnosis results in inadequate therapy. The goal of therapy is complete restitution of the tissue defect and prevention of recurrence. The three basic elements of VLUs therapy are: local therapy, compression therapy and surgical treatment. If VLUs do not heal despite the application of standard therapeutic modalities, there are opportunities to apply new treatment technologies. The modern approach to the treatment of VLUs is based on the application of various biophysical interventions and medical devices.",book:{id:"11723",title:"Wound Healing - Recent Advances and Future Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11723.jpg"},signatures:"Karanikolic Vesna and Karanikolic Aleksandar"},{id:"82393",title:"Pathogenicity, Characterisation and Impact of Ambient Bio-Aerosols on the Climatic Processes: With a Special Emphasis on the Indian Subcontinent",slug:"pathogenicity-characterisation-and-impact-of-ambient-bio-aerosols-on-the-climatic-processes-with-a-s",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104750",abstract:"Airborne particulate matter contains biological entities from various anthropogenic/biogenic activities. Within 1 nm–100 μm size, these are carried to long distances through various external agents. 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This chapter identifies the various types of bio-aerosols and systematically includes their prime role in the climatic processes, pathogenicity to the exposed flora and fauna along with an exclusive interrogation into their types and characterisation over the Indian subcontinent with a hugely diverging population and pollution panorama.",book:{id:"11231",title:"Air Quality and Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11231.jpg"},signatures:"Minati Behera, Jyotishree Nath, Sony Pandey, Ramasamy Boopathy and Trupti Das"},{id:"82384",title:"Phytochemicals from Solanaceae Family and Their Anticancer Properties",slug:"phytochemicals-from-solanaceae-family-and-their-anticancer-properties",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104462",abstract:"Cancer is one of the most dreadful disease conditions all over the world. With the side effects and cost of conventional treatment, there is a demand for new therapies to prevent cancer. 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