Stir casting process parameters.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8545",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Despite efforts to control udder health in cattle, are the causes of mastitis are on the rise. Although at first glance the birth process seems normal in domestic pigs, what could be the problem? What are the clinical aspects of the oestrus cycle and pregnancy endocrinology in mares? What is Lidia cattle breeding and clinic? Does calf gender affect milk yield? Do insecticides reduce fertility? Could boar pheromones be an option to stimulate sow reproduction? Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine is a book with the answers to such questions. It includes ‘Induction and Synchronization of Estrus’, which describes the protocol principles and tools. The practical approach this book takes will help students, farmers, veterinarians and academics to build an understanding of the concepts and procedures required to answer real questions by comprehending the basic function of real clinic data. Humans often endure results from the misunderstanding that to be doing well, they should make each thing themselves.",isbn:"978-1-83881-937-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-936-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-938-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78921",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10229,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:48,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 13th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 31st 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25600/images/system/25600.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Faruk Aral has been a researcher at the Harran and Niğde University for more than 22 years. His practice is not limited to university work. He has worked in several institutions of animal research in public and animal feed manufacturers as well as in the private sector from 1988-1994. He earned his Veterinary Medicine degree from the University of Ankara in 1987, and received his Ph.D. from the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination at the same university (1994). In 2000, he served as Assistant Professor and Associate Professor at the Harran University and in 2010 moved to Nigde University. His research interests are reproduction and artificial insemination, andrology, spermatological studies, biotechnology and toxicology in animal reproduction in livestock animals, fish and bees.",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Harran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1379",title:"Theriogenology",slug:"animal-science-theriogenology"}],chapters:[{id:"70381",title:"Physiological and Clinical Aspects of the Endocrinology of the Estrous Cycle and Pregnancy in Mares",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90387",slug:"physiological-and-clinical-aspects-of-the-endocrinology-of-the-estrous-cycle-and-pregnancy-in-mares",totalDownloads:701,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of advanced reproductive endocrinology can generate important economic benefits for equine breeding farms. Pregnancy in the mare involves considerable endocrine changes, which can be explained in part by the development of different structures such as embryonic vesicles, primary and secondary CL, endometrial cups and development of fetoplacental units. Both the pregnant mare and the fetus adapt to this development with unique mechanisms, such as alterations in the maternal endocrine metabolism and hormonal feedback. Since the ability to produce a viable foal is critical for the broodmare, the maintenance of the gestation implies almost a year of physiological effort. Therefore, the joint knowledge of basic reproductive science and current clinical endocrinology allows veterinarians and breeders to be better positioned to achieve their objectives. This chapter reviews normal and abnormal endocrine patterns during the equine estrual cycle, pregnancy. We also consider hormonal evaluation related to placentitis, abortions, recurrent pregnancy loss, and premature deliveries. Also, several aspects associated with endocrinological control of the reproductive cycle, ovulation, parturition, high-risk mare, and hormone supplementation will be developed.",signatures:"Katy Satué and Juan Carlos Gardon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70381",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70381",authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón"}],corrections:null},{id:"71105",title:"Understanding Sow Sexual Behavior and the Application of the Boar Pheromone to Stimulate Sow Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90774",slug:"understanding-sow-sexual-behavior-and-the-application-of-the-boar-pheromone-to-stimulate-sow-reprodu",totalDownloads:1171,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we review the sexual behavior of domestic pigs, and the visible or measurable anatomical features of the pig that will contribute to detecting sows in estrus. We also summarize olfactory organs, and the effects of a sexual pheromone on pig’s biology and sow reproductive performance. We discuss the role of a live boar in the heat detection where the female is in breeding crates. However, there is an increasing interest in being able to breed sows without a boar present. Farm workers must be trained on the fine points of estrus detection so that they can work in a safe and productive setting. After a review of olfactory biology of the pig, the chapter explains how new pheromonal technology, such as BOARBETTER®, aids in the process of heat detection with or without a live boar. To achieve reproductive success, the persons breeding must assimilate all fine points of pig sexual behavior and possess a clear understanding of what they should be looking for in each sow they expect to breed.",signatures:"John J. McGlone, Edgar O. Aviles-Rosa, Courtney Archer, Meyer M. Wilson, Karlee D. Jones, Elaina M. Matthews, Amanda A. Gonzalez and Erica Reyes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71105",authors:[{id:"311962",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"McGlone",slug:"john-mcglone",fullName:"John McGlone"},{id:"315592",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",surname:"Aviles-Rosa",slug:"edgar-aviles-rosa",fullName:"Edgar Aviles-Rosa"},{id:"315595",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Courtney",surname:"Archer",slug:"courtney-archer",fullName:"Courtney Archer"},{id:"315596",title:"Ms.",name:"Meyer",surname:"Wilson",slug:"meyer-wilson",fullName:"Meyer Wilson"},{id:"315597",title:"Ms.",name:"Karlee",surname:"Jones",slug:"karlee-jones",fullName:"Karlee Jones"},{id:"315598",title:"Ms.",name:"Elaina",surname:"Mathews",slug:"elaina-mathews",fullName:"Elaina Mathews"},{id:"315599",title:"Ms.",name:"Erica",surname:"Reyes",slug:"erica-reyes",fullName:"Erica Reyes"},{id:"315600",title:"MSc.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"amanda-gonzalez",fullName:"Amanda Gonzalez"}],corrections:null},{id:"73979",title:"Troubled Process of Parturition of the Domestic Pig",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94547",slug:"troubled-process-of-parturition-of-the-domestic-pig",totalDownloads:546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past three decades, efficient breeding and management have almost doubled the litter size of sows. Simultaneously, duration of farrowing has increased markedly. The expulsion phase of parturition in the hyper prolific sow is now 3 to 5 times longer than it was in the early 1990s. There has also been a constant downward trend in piglet birth weight, along with a similar trend in colostrum intake, which is an important risk factor for piglet mortality. Together with these trends, an increase in farrowing complications, such as postpartum dysgalactia and retention of placenta, has been reported. This paper investigates group housing of sows during gestation, farrowing and lactation, focusing on management strategies of the sow. In short, the sow needs to be given space and enrichment materials for adequate expression of nest-building behavior. Maternal characteristics may be utilized to improve the success rate of reproductive management during farrowing and early lactation. The lower piglet birth weight and compromised immunity of newborn piglets warrant investigation in the search for novel management tools. Robust breeds with somewhat lower litter size, but improved resilience and increased birth weight may be needed in the near future.",signatures:"Claudio Oliviero and Olli Peltoniemi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73979",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73979",authors:[{id:"45491",title:"Prof.",name:"Olli",surname:"Peltoniemi",slug:"olli-peltoniemi",fullName:"Olli Peltoniemi"},{id:"45504",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Oliviero",slug:"claudio-oliviero",fullName:"Claudio Oliviero"}],corrections:null},{id:"73371",title:"Reproduction in Small Ruminants (Goats)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93481",slug:"reproduction-in-small-ruminants-goats-",totalDownloads:609,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The exploitation of small ruminants (goat and sheep) has always been linked to the development of human civilizations, where they have mainly fed on their derived products such as milk and meat. Currently, the sheep population is around 1 billion head concentrated above 50% in three countries, China, Australia, and New Zealand, contrary to goats with around 720 million heads, distributed mainly in Asia, Africa, and South America. Both species have similar characteristics in some anatomical aspects (a pair of nipples), gestation period (150 days), and presence of seasonal anestrus, differing in terms of magnitude and depth and presence of the male effect. However, they are completely different in feeding habits, nutrient needs, and grazing systems, with differences in terms of the female’s reproductive tract, among other characteristics. Currently, the study of reproduction has intensified over the years in the goats and its counterpart that is the buck. Therefore, in the following topics, the importance of global reproduction of the goat will be discussed, considering that progress has been made today in the application of third generation reproductive techniques and that today they are already consolidated and developed in the bovine species.",signatures:"Fernando Sánchez Dávila and Gerardo Pérez Muñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73371",authors:[{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila"},{id:"327566",title:"MSc.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Perez-Muñoz",slug:"gerardo-perez-munoz",fullName:"Gerardo Perez-Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"71297",title:"Tools and Protocols for Managing Hyperprolific Sows at Parturition: Optimizing Piglet Survival and Sows’ Reproductive Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91337",slug:"tools-and-protocols-for-managing-hyperprolific-sows-at-parturition-optimizing-piglet-survival-and-so",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Genetic selection for higher prolificacy is one of the major causes for a decrease in piglet survival and reproductive health of the sow. Large litters increase farrowing duration and decrease piglet birth weight and therefore have an impact on piglet vitality, colostrum uptake, and piglet survival. Large litters also increase the incidence of postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) and the probability of the sow to be removed from the herd because of reproductive failure. Therefore, hyper-prolificacy challenges the performance of the sow in terms of parturition, colostrum production, neonatal survival, and fertility. In this review, we discuss the tools and protocols for management of parturition, colostrum, and sows’ reproductive health. We provide checklists for the prevention of birth complications and PDS as well as for improvement of mammary gland development and colostrum production.",signatures:"Stefan Björkman and Alexander Grahofer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71297",authors:[{id:"311550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Björkman",slug:"stefan-bjorkman",fullName:"Stefan Björkman"},{id:"317576",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Grahofer",slug:"alexander-grahofer",fullName:"Alexander Grahofer"}],corrections:null},{id:"72063",title:"The Lidia Breed: Management and Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92008",slug:"the-lidia-breed-management-and-medicine",totalDownloads:745,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Lidia breed, originally from Spain, constitutes an important livestock sector in Spain and Portugal. These animals are also bred in southern France and in several countries of South America (Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela). The clinical management of this breed is different from other cattle breeds; therefore, it is essential to analyze the characteristics of the farm organization, the selection scheme, the reproduction, feeding, and healthcare management. The sector is currently evolving with high progress in feeding, selection, and assisted reproduction. Not surprisingly, there are several problems that the farmers and veterinarians must overcome such as health problems, the falling syndrome, and the danger of extinction of certain genetic lines.",signatures:"Juan Manuel Lomillos and Marta Elena Alonso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72063",authors:[{id:"312934",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Juan Manuel",surname:"Lomillos Perez",slug:"juan-manuel-lomillos-perez",fullName:"Juan Manuel Lomillos Perez"},{id:"316830",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta Elena",surname:"Alonso",slug:"marta-elena-alonso",fullName:"Marta Elena Alonso"}],corrections:null},{id:"70760",title:"Induction and Synchronization of Estrus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90769",slug:"induction-and-synchronization-of-estrus",totalDownloads:1720,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Estrus cycle is a rhythmic change that occur in the reproductive system of females starting from one estrus phase to another. The normal duration of estrus cycle is 21 days in cow, sow, and mare, 17 days in ewe, and 20 days in doe. The species which exhibit a single estrus cycle are known as monstrous and species which come into estrus twice or more are termed polyestrous animals. Among them some species have estrus cycles in a particular season and defined as seasonal polyestrous. It includes goats, sheep, and horses. On the other hand, cattle undergo estrus throughout the year. The estrus inducers can grossly be divided into two parts, that is, non-hormonal and hormonal. Non-hormonal treatments include plant-derived heat inducers, mineral supplementation, uterine and ovarian massage, and use of Lugol’s iodine. The hormones that are used in estrus induction are estrogen, progesterone, GnRH, prostaglandin, insulin, and anti-prolactin-based treatment. Synchronization can shorten the breeding period to less than 5 days, instead of females being bred over a 21-day period, depending on the treatment regimen. The combination of GnRH with the prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)- and progesterone-based synchronization program has shown a novel direction in the estrus synchronization of cattle with the follicular development manipulation.",signatures:"Prasanna Pal and Mohammad Rayees Dar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70760",authors:[{id:"299126",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Rayees",surname:"Dar",slug:"mohammad-rayees-dar",fullName:"Mohammad Rayees Dar"},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal"}],corrections:null},{id:"73116",title:"Bovine Mastitis: Part I",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93483",slug:"bovine-mastitis-part-i",totalDownloads:802,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bovine mastitis is one of the most important bacterial diseases of dairy cattle throughout the world. Mastitis is responsible for great economic losses to the dairy producer and to the milk processing industry resulting from reduced milk production, alterations in milk composition, discarded milk, increased replacement costs, extra labor, treatment costs, and veterinary services. Economic losses due to bovine mastitis are estimated to be $2 billion in the United States, $400 million in Canada (Canadian Bovine Mastitis and Milk Quality Research Network-CBMQRN) and $130 million in Australia per year. Many factors can influence the development of mastitis; however, inflammation of the mammary gland is usually a consequence of adhesion, invasion, and colonization of the mammary gland by one or more mastitis pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus uberis, and Escherichia coli.",signatures:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73116",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"}],corrections:null},{id:"73077",title:"Control and Prevention of Mastitis: Part Two",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93484",slug:"control-and-prevention-of-mastitis-part-two",totalDownloads:815,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Current mastitis control measures are based upon good milking time hygiene; use of properly functioning milking machines; maintaining clean, dry, comfortable housing areas; segregation and culling of persistently infected animals; dry cow antibiotic therapy; proper identification and treatment of cows with clinical mastitis during lactation; establishing udder health goals; good record-keeping; regular monitoring of udder health status and periodic review of mastitis control program. Despite significant effect of these control measures when fully adopted, especially on contagious mastitis pathogens, these measures are not equally adopted by all farmers, and mastitis continues to be the most common and costly disease of dairy cattle throughout the world.",signatures:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73077",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"}],corrections:null},{id:"73658",title:"Current Status of Antimicrobial Resistance and Prospect for New Vaccines against Major Bacterial Bovine Mastitis Pathogens",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94227",slug:"current-status-of-antimicrobial-resistance-and-prospect-for-new-vaccines-against-major-bacterial-bov",totalDownloads:838,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Economic losses due to bovine mastitis is estimated to be $2 billion in the United States alone. Antimicrobials are used extensively in dairy farms for prevention and treatment of mastitis and other diseases of dairy cattle. The use of antimicrobials for treatment and prevention of diseases of dairy cattle needs to be prudent to slow down the development, persistence, and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria from dairy farms to humans, animals, and farm environments. Because of public health and food safety concerns regarding antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial residues in meat and milk, alternative approaches for disease control are required. These include vaccines, improvements in housing, management practices that reduce the likelihood and effect of infectious diseases, management systems and feed formulation, studies to gain a better understanding of animal behavior, and the development of more probiotics and competitive exclusion products. Monitoring antimicrobial resistance patterns of bacterial isolates from cases of mastitis and dairy farm environments is important for treatment decisions and proper design of antimicrobial-resistance mitigation measures. It also helps to determine emergence, persistence, and potential risk of the spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistome from these reservoirs in dairy farms to humans, animals, and farm environments.",signatures:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73658",authors:[{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego"}],corrections:null},{id:"73504",title:"Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93966",slug:"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",totalDownloads:570,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main source of incomes in a dairy farm is milk sales, and any factor altering the production affects the farmers’ income significantly. According to the Trivers-Willard hypothesis, if the cows’ systems are generally good and offer competitive conditions, they produce more milk for bull calves. They also suggest that cows in a worse condition or of a genetically diverging strain invest more milk in heifer calves. The existence of a sex-bias in cows’ milk production remains controversial even if it would open new insights on the economic impacts of using sex-sorted semen to enhance farm productivity. Sex-biased milk production in cows can vary, favoring one sex or the other and, sometimes, none. It seems to favor females in intensive production systems, while in other less intensive systems, this effect seems to disappear. This chapter intends to address available evidence on the sex-biased cows’ milk production and discuss why further research forecasting this issue is needed, including other cattle populations and correlating the investment strategy with an animal welfare index. Besides, other factors, such as different housing and feedings, can impact the calf-sex milk production bias through pathways still to be understood.",signatures:"Miguel Quaresma and R. Payan-Carreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73504",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73504",authors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira"},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma"}],corrections:[{id:"74026",title:"Corrigendum to: Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"72504",title:"Reproductive Toxicity of Insecticides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92890",slug:"reproductive-toxicity-of-insecticides",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pesticides include several classes such as insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and have widespread usage in agriculture. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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With each volume, it becomes clearer that there has been a rapid evolution in the technology and the applications of it with regard to indications, management, outcomes, and the challenges in offering a very resource-intensive (and expensive) therapy in which the overall benefits are still questioned. Nevertheless, without a doubt, there has been an ongoing evolution of the use of ECMO as a salvage therapy offered only in extreme and potentially inherently futile cases, to now a mainstream therapy that can be routinely offered in well-defined cases of acute cardiac and respiratory failure. Early experiences resulted in few survivors and poor outcomes, but the reasons for this were clearly complex and multifactorial etiologies [2]. The development of more advanced pumps and circuits, better resources and guidelines for patient selection and management, and a broader understanding of the complex interactions between humans and an extracorporeal pump circuit for longer periods of time all have contributed to the advances in ECMO as an appropriate and reasonable therapy—even, as some would debate, standard of care for acute respiratory failure and/or cardiogenic shock. As these three volumes illustrate, over the years, there has been tireless improvements in all aspects of the use of ECMO. However, as the chapters in this text clearly illustrate, there is still much to be learned and understood. Challenges remain as clinicians continue to push the envelope of this technology to better define a patient population that might benefit from ECMO and how to apply and manage a very complex therapy to optimize outcomes [3].
\nAs the indications for therapy evolve, there continues to be unusual and challenging clinical situations that deserve special attention for many reasons. For example, the chapter by Professor Nandini highlights the very complex issue that is becoming more common—the role of ECMO as a bridge to transplant. It was only a few years ago (and illustrated in the previous texts in this series) that the concept of ECMO as bridge to transplant was discouraged and difficult to justify due to the risks, concerns of limited resource allocation, and technical difficulties to a concept and management pathway that is routinely considered and offered to selected patients.
\nAdditional chapters focus on the growing literature and experiences in other specific disease state or clinical situations for which ECMO might be considered. One area that is particularly challenging is incorporating ECMO into the management of patients who develop acute cardiopulmonary collapse. ECMO-assisted CPR (eCPR) is one of the fastest growing uses of ECMO, and many rapid response/code teams are increasingly using ECMO in the management of patients who develop cardiac arrest. The data, experiences, and outcomes in this very complex area are rapidly evolving, and the controversies are substantial. The chapter by Dr. Lakshmi illustrates the current state of the art in this area and how patients can be selected and managed, with a focus on illustrating the improved outcomes in a patient population that was historically considered unsalvageable. Other similar unique applications for ECMO discussed in this text include a chapter on carbon dioxide removal by Dr. Morales-Quinteros. The very unusual role of normothermic regional perfusion in the setting of solid organ transplantation is discussed by Dr. Constantino.
\nA major focus of this volume is the specific management challenges that complicate the use of ECMO, especially in high-risk patient populations. Despite a greater awareness, peripheral cannulation techniques that are often used are associated with high rates of limb complications including amputation. Such concerns are discussed in the chapter by Dr. Prashant. Imaging of patients on ECMO, with an emphasis on assessing for cardiac recovery and prognosis, is especially important and discussed by Dr. Luigi, while the actual techniques, concepts, and applications of various weaning strategies are the focus of another chapter. Meanwhile, Dr. Weller’s chapter on anticoagulation in the pediatric patient and Dr. Pinto’s chapter on neurologic complications and monitoring revisit some of the difficult topics addressed in the previous editions and emphasize the growing experiences and literature in these complex topics [4, 5]. As some aspects of these topics have been addressed in the earlier books in this series, the contemporary experiences highlight that there remains much to understand and learn about many of these topics.
\nAgain, it is also clear that to successfully offer ECMO as a viable therapy—and especially to strive for reasonable outcomes—there must be alignment of all key stakeholders. Without a doubt, ECMO requires an extensive team of providers at all levels working together in a manner that respects professionalism, competencies, compassion, and strict attention to details. The substantial and tireless efforts of the entire team must be recognized and appreciated by all and at all levels [6].
\nA frequently asked question is “how do we start an ECMO program?” Offering ECMO as a therapy involves so much more than just purchasing capital equipment and some disposable supplies. The chapter on program development emphasizes the many administrative aspects that must be considered within an appropriate framework to establish a program. This chapter considers the importance of physician, nursing, and administrative leadership and collaboration as a foundation for a successful program. While a great deal has been written on the extensive medical and surgical aspects of the management of a patient on ECMO, the chapter by Mr. Botsch and colleagues reviews the many aspects of the nursing bedside care. Of course, these topics continue to illustrate the importance of teamwork which cannot be overemphasized.
\nAs discussed in the previous editions, a highly functioning “ECMO team” is a cornerstone in building a successful program. The ability to initiate therapy at any time and place is increasingly considered an important component of a well-organized team. While the makeup of an ECMO team can vary across institutions; each requires a champion to provide leadership and help with structure and organization. A fundamental principle is effective communication and a multidisciplinary approach to all aspects of management. Just as importantly, all members of the team—regardless of experiences, education, training, degrees, and titles—need to have respect and trust and place value on all aspects of the contributions of all members. This is the basis of crew resource management (CRM). The key concept of CRM is that every team member has input and that each voice is valued and respected. Every member of the team needs to be empowered to speak up, particularly when there are concerns about safety. The different disciplines that are represented in an ECMO Team, as mentioned, can vary from program to program, but given the complexities of patient selection and management—including, the least of which are the technical aspects of cannulation and cannula management—membership must be comprehensive with regard to surgical and medical expertise. Membership should include, but clearly, not be limited to:
\nPhysicians
Surgeons (cardiothoracic, general, trauma, emergency medicine)
Critical care intensivists (pulmonary, surgical)
Medical specialists (infectious disease, neurology, cardiology, nephrology)
Advanced providers
Nursing (bedside, advanced practice providers)
Pharmacists
Perfusionists
Respiratory therapists
Social workers/case management
Palliative care
Often physician or advance practice nurses
Hospital leadership and administration
C-suite executives (chief executive, financial, operating, and other officers)
Quality managers
Marketing
It is critical that even with dedicated, hardworking, and engaged clinical teams, there must be support and encouragement from hospital leadership and administration (Figure 1) [7].
\nECMO “team”. Adopted from reference intro chapter in Volume 1 [
Many of the chapters in these volumes discuss the various indications for ECMO (veno-venous and venoarterial) support and special patient populations and circumstances. However, a critical component of any program remains the role of striving for optimal clinical outcomes. Regardless of the indications and populations, outcomes and clinical complications (e.g., renal failure, limb complications, transfusion rates, etc.) must be tracked and compared to published benchmarks. Quality conferences in which cases are discussed can help a team and program formally recognize their successes while looking for opportunities for collective improvement. As discussed previously in the introductions (and various chapters) of the previous volumes, outcomes still remain less than ideal with survival rates that range from 60 to 70% for veno-venous respiratory support and 25–35% for venoarterial cardiopulmonary support and eCPR [8, 9]. These less-than-ideal success rates should improve over time as programs gain experience and implement guidelines and protocols, teams learn to function more effectively and efficiently, and patient selection and management improve. However, poor outcomes must also be tempered by the concerns that outcomes that are potentially “too good” might suggest that potentially salvageable but higher risk patients might not be offered therapy out of fear of experiencing a bad outcome. Nevertheless, it becomes the priority of a program to develop a “culture” of how aggressive they want to be with regard to offering therapy to high-risk (or low-risk) patients. Fortunately, scoring systems for venoarterial and veno-venous support indications can assist in patient selection. Again, outcomes and quality metrics must be benchmarked against similar programs, like institutions and established registries. Membership in the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO: https://www.elso.org) is an important component of tracking outcomes and can play a key role in documenting program progress and success. In addition, membership can provide an opportunity to establish relationships with other programs to exchange ideas, share protocols, and have access to important and timely developments and technological innovations.
\nWhile the advances in the field of ECMO are rapid and there has been an equally rapid worldwide growth in programs and the number of patients supported, a key aspect of ECMO therapy is the ethical component of a highly invasive, resource-intensive, and complex intervention. Because ECMO is still associated with less than ideal outcomes, relatively high complication rates (including neurologic complications), and high resource intensivity (not to mention expensive, depending on the reimbursement circumstances which can vary dramatically), a fundamental question remains regarding not on whether we can offer and continue support, but within an ethical and moral framework should we offer support. The chapter by Dr. Aultman on the ethics of ECMO therapy explores many of the difficult decisions and circumstances that providers often face when considering offering or continuing therapy in patients who would most likely immediately die if support is neither offered nor continued.
\nExperiences in the selection and management of patients with acute cardiac and respiratory failure who are treated with ECMO continue to grow. Recent trials continue to help demonstrate the effectiveness and role of ECMO as outcomes continue to slowly improve [10, 11]. Even though many patients treated with ECMO still die even in the best of circumstances, it remains important for everyone to continue to search for opportunities for improvement. Good outcomes must be embraced and shared with the entire team, as they can provide hope while also inspiring and motivating a team—even when there are concerns of futility (Figure 2). The goal of this volume is to offer further insights, experiences, and discussions of the current state of the art regarding many topics that challenge those who believed in the tremendous potential benefits of ECMO [12].
\nBH (center in wheelchair) with his parents after qualifying for the finals in the single-scull, arms and shoulder only, rowing competition in the 2016 Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro. BH, a five-time US national champion in the event, represented the USA in Rio as a member of the Olympic team. In 2016, he was selected US rowing “rower of the year.” several years prior, BH lost both legs to complications of a necrotizing soft tissue infection and required cardiopulmonary support with venoarterial ECMO due to overwhelming septic shock. Picture used by permission by all represented [
Figure 1 displays the flowchart of the HMMC development. During stir casting, a non-homogeneous mixture pattern has been an apprehension. The inclination is due to inappropriate segregation of reinforcement because of incorrect process parameters (rotation of stirrer, angle of stirring application, condition of wetting, and density). The material properties likewise have been reported to modify the characteristics of the homogeneous mix. The main metal matrix melted to obtain a molten state by melting it above its liquid temperature. The preheated reinforcement material is combined gradually so that a semi-solid-state is achieved. Repeatedly, the entire mix is needed to get heated to produce a molten state, and in between, stirring is done to attain the entirely conceivable consistency. The capability of the stir casting method predominantly rests on stirring speed, stirring duration, and stirring temperature [3, 4].
Flow-chart of HMMC development.
Here a crucible composed of ceramic or graphite is being utilized to melt the parent metal in a furnace. A mechanized stirrer with a graphite impeller with a rotation speed of around 150–800rpm is engaged to agitate the melt (see Figure 2) periodically. The reinforcement materials are preheated to eliminate the humidity substances, facilitating wettability during stirring. Sakthivelu [2] had recommended a maximum limit of 30% of reinforcement for stable composites.
Stir casting technique for the MMCs fabrication [
The uniform dissemination of the reinforcement materials in the parent metal is essential for the advance in the coveted properties such as stiffness, toughness, tensile strength, etc. The stirrer with inadequate rpm provides an ineffectual activating force on the central metal matrix, contributing to an inadequate association [5]. Cluster arrangement and agglomeration inclination were recorded at slow rpm of mixing. The stirrer operated at high rpm provides considerable benefits in the creation of the expected composite since, at high rpm, the shear force supports the reinforced material to get the transfer inside the metal matrix dispersed phase and better bonding action with the metal matrix deep inside it, thereby setting up a coherent mix [5]. It has also been reported that porosity inclination can be stepped up at enhanced stirrer speed since gas particles induce inside the matrix.
Stirring time likewise influences the distribution of dispersion into the metal matrix. Clustering of the material is observed at the lower stirring time, and further non-uniform mixture with fewer inclusions of reinforcement materials [6].
With a rise in temperature of the matrix metal, the viscosity was established to reduce, generating an effect in the reinforcement materials distribution. In extension, the chemical reaction was further revealed to develop with a rise in the temperature of the molten material [7].
The development of HMMC through stir casting typically uses the following phases. Figure 3 illustrates the phases of melting of metal matrix composite to its melting point. The stirring of molten metal is managed to utilize an electric motor.
Phases of the stir casting process.
Table 1 displays the stir casting process parameters retained during the fabrication of HMMC.
S. No. | Parameters | Values |
---|---|---|
1 | Preheating chamber temperature | 850°C |
2 | Furnace temperature | 900°C |
3 | Core temperature | 750-800°C |
4 | Voltage | 440 V |
5 | Frequency | 50 Hz |
6 | Stirrer speed | 300–400 rpm |
7 | Die pre-heating temperature | 200°C |
Stir casting process parameters.
The reinforcement material is delivered with continuous stirring movement through a stirrer to associate the reinforcements in the matrix of the parent metal. The mixture is eventually poured into the mold and solidifies naturally. The pertinent equipment employed for HMMC development is summarized.
Figure 4 presents the original furnace adopted for the development of the HMMC. It has a temperature gauge with a regulator switch to regulate the temperature. The maximum temperature obtainable is around 1400°C. A convenient mechanical stir system generates a vortex in the melt, facilitating an exquisite melt blending, composing the metal matrix and related reinforcements. In order to evade the chances of solid particles settlement at the base of the crucible, a bottom pouring furnace is likewise suggested.
Electric furnace used for HMMC development.
The mechanical stirrer plays an essential role in forming an acceptable vortex in the melt to bring about the best possible coherence. Distinctive impeller stirrers can be used, i.e., single, double, and multiblade impeller. The double blade impeller (Figure 5) is employed mainly to develop AMCs. The single and multiblade impeller is handled primarily in chemical industries.
Actual photo of mechanical stirrer used.
Figure 6 displays impeller stirrers accepted for HMMC development. The blade was applied with a coating of zirconia onto a stainless-steel stirrer. The zirconia layer helps in averting probable reactions between the molted aluminum material and stainless steel of the stirrer. The impellers have been investigated for developing a sufficient vortex during the mixing process.
Impeller stirrer and types.
Crucible is a container in which the metal matrix is melted to its molten temperature and the desired refracting materials are being added. Nowadays, diverse materials consisting of Alumina, Tungsten, Graphite, etc. are being adopted as a crucible. For HMMC development, the reinforcement materials (SiC and B4C) were pre-heated in the Alumina crucible (Figure 7), whereas the parent metal (Al6063) is melted in a graphite crucible shown in Figure 8.
The Graphite crucible experiences the following advantages.
High melting temperature (2500°C).
It is easily accessible.
The cost is less in comparison to tungsten.
Graphite has good electrical conductivity.
Alumina crucible.
Graphite crucible.
The induction resistance furnace with a temperature regulator is linked with a three-phase electricity supply. To control the current and voltage supply, an ammeter and voltmeter were associated with the circuit. Figure 9 illustrates the ammeter and voltmeter. The ammeter indicates the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit. The induction resistance furnace is engaged with moving iron type (M-Tech industries) with range 0-10A. The Voltmeter is likewise utilized for measuring the instantaneous voltage value across the circuit with a range 0–300 volt.
Ammeter and voltmeter.
The current drawn by the electrical inductor furnace, depends on the furnace size, shape, and capabilities. The furnace shown withdraws around 55A to 75A. The efficiency spectrum of an electrical furnace is surprisingly modest; all modern electrical furnaces have an AFUE of 100%. That means that entire electric furnaces convert electricity into heat energy without any losses. Due to energy losses in ducts and the energy required to run a blower, the electric furnace is slightly expensive for operation [8]. The energy requirement is AC 380/7kw/50 Hz. The induction furnace also comprises a temperature regulator and digital display unit of temperature. Figure 10 shows the Digital display unit with a regulator switch.
Digital display unit with regulator switch.
A graphite material die was utilized to shape and solidify molten material obtained after the rigorous stirring of Al 6063, SiC, and B4C. The size of the die is 100 × 50 × 30 with a tapered shape. Figure 11 displays the die adopted for fabrication.
Graphite die with HMMC brick.
Electric furnace.
Wt. measurement of (a) Al 6063 material, (b) SiC (c) B4C.
Preheating of SiC and B4C.
Aluminum billets melting in furnace.
Motorized stirring of HMMC.
Graphite die with HMMC brick.
Solidified HMMC bricks.
Figure 19(a) and (b) show the weight measurement of brick one and brick two. The brick was cut into a smaller size of 30 mm × 20mm × 5 mm for experimentation on Die Sinking EDM. The wire EDM (Annexure 4) was used for preciously cutting the bricks so that the internal grain structures were not disturbed. Figure 20 shows the line diagram of the HMMC sample, and Figure 21 shows the actual sample.
(a). Wt. measurement of brick 1. (b). Wt. measurement of brick 2.
Line diagram of the specimen.
View of the sample.
Aluminum 6063 is broadly employed as a general-purpose alloy in many engineering applications such as the extrusion process, owing to its fair strength [11]. Table 2 exhibits the constituents of Al6063.
Al6063 | Wt. % | Al6063 | Wt. % |
---|---|---|---|
Al | Max 97.5 | Mn | Max 0.2–0.7 |
Cr | Max 0.11 | Si | 0.2–0.9 |
Cu | Max 0.09 | Ti | Max 0.11 |
Fe | Max 0.36 | Zn | Max 0.92 |
Mg | 0.44–0.89 |
Composition of Al6063 [4].
Table 3 (a-c) presents the physical and thermal properties of B4C [12], Al6063 [4], and SiC [13], respectively.
(a) B4C | (b) SiC | (c) Al 6063 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Properties | Value | Properties | Value | Properties | Value |
Specific Heat (°C) | 700 | Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (°C) | 4 | Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (per o C) | 0.000022 |
Melting Point (°C) | 2783 | Specific Heat (°C) | 750 | Thermal Conductivity (cal/cm2/ cm/ Celsius at 25°C) | 0.285 |
Density (g/cm3) | 2.55 | Melting Point (°C) | 2730 | Electrical Conductivity (% copper standard at 20 °C) | 33.5 |
Thermal Conductivity (W/mk) | 17–42 | Density (g/cm3) | 3.21 | Density (g/cm3) | 2.64 |
Hardness (Kg/mm2) | 2900–3580 | Thermal Conductivity (W/mk) | 120 | Freezing Range (°C) approx. | 625–525 |
(a, b) physical properties of B4C and SiC (c) thermal properties of Al6063.
Boron carbide (B4C) is one of the hardest materials available. Above 1250°C, it has been harder than cubic boron nitride and diamond. B4C is an alluring reinforcement substance owing to its unique balance between thermal and chemical properties. Moreover, it possesses a smaller density and greater hardness value of order 30 GPa. Thus, B4C-reinforced HMMCs fabricated through the moderate-cost stir casting structure have gained higher attractiveness among researchers [14, 15]. B4C has good mechanical strength with desired properties of neuron absorption [16].
Silicon carbide (SiC) is constituted of tetrahedra of silicon and carbon atoms with influential bonds in the crystal lattice. The SiC material has less thermal enlargement, immense strength, and thermal conductivity of greater order and has been recorded to be resistant against thermal shock [17, 18]. The SiC can tolerate severe temperatures and has got high hardness coupled with low density.
Magnesium (Mg) is acknowledged for promoting grain refinement, wettability, and reinforcing the solid solution [19].
The spark atomic emission spectrometry (SAES) was conducted with ASTM E1251–11 standards (test procedure for Al and Al alloys) to determine the elements present in the HMMC samples. Table 4(a) illustrates the composition and %wt of elements. Table 4(b) indicates the HMMC significant properties. The density of HMMC (2637 kg/m3) as obtained through the test report has been used to calculate the MRR and EWR [20, 21].
(a) | (b) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
HMMC | % Wt | HMMC | % Wt | Properties | Value |
Al | 91.43 | Mg | 0.087 | ||
Si | 4.151 | Cr | 0.037 | Melting point | 750–800 |
Cu | 1.516 | Ti | 0.027 | U.T.S | 110Mps |
Zn | 1.498 | Sn | 0.022 | Tensile Strength | 118 Mpa |
Fe | 0.806 | V | 0.006 | Break Load | 9.44KN |
Mn | 0.149 | Cd | 0.0019 | Yield Stress | 82 Mps |
Ni | 0.13 | Co | <0.001 | Hardness | 72HB |
Pb | 0.089 | Density | 2637 kg/m3 |
(a) Composition of HMMC (b) significant properties of HMMC.
For establishing the homogeneity of the HMMC, the sample was tested by employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Figure 22 displays the uniform dispersion of SiC and B4C in the specimen. No segregation of SiC grains along with B4C particles was stationed along the grain edges. Dissemination of grains is acknowledged to be intra-granular, in which the maximum particles locate inside the grains. The uniform distribution is commensurate with the efficient and timely stirring action during the stir casting process [22]. The crater’s size is less with B4C particles this could be because of the creation of a boron oxide (B2O3) layer on the B4C ceramic, because of liquid-to-liquid reaction leading to an expansion in the wettability, which is observable at a specialized high temperature [23]. Many researchers proposed that reinforcement in the particulate form up to wt. 30% may be included in a molten metal matrix to perform a more substantial reinforcement distribution [24]. Reinforcement is added emphatically into the molten stage of aluminum. The stirring speed, time of stir, stirrer blade angle, pouring temperature, solidification rate, reinforcement size, and elements percentage influence the fabricated composite consistency.
SEM image of the stir casted HMMC.
The stir casting process involves melting the metal at around 800-1000°C. The metal matrix used is Aluminum 6063 with Boron Carbide (B4C) and Silicon Carbide (SiC) as reinforced materials. The melting operation produces specific unwanted gases and residual waste, which must be discussed. Table 5 illustrates the relevant unwanted gases/residual waste with apprehensions on the environment and human beings [27].
Sr. No | Unwanted Gases/ Residual Waste | Environmental concerns and human health |
---|---|---|
1 | Aluminum hydroxide | Exposure to Aluminum hydroxide may cause repulsion, vomiting, hyperacidity, pungency, Low blood phosphates (hypophosphatemia), distaste, causticity leading to bowel obstruction, Fecal impaction [25]. |
2 | Aluminum oxides | Indicative toxicity has been reported, followed by chronic inhalation of the aluminum oxides. Long-term aluminum oxide inhalation may cause pneumoconiosis with cold and exertion and a restrictive pattern of rib cage function. In severe cases, death has been reported due to respiratory failure. |
3 | Aluminum sulfates | Eating or gulping aluminum sulfate produces serious disturbance to the digestive organs and stomach. An influenced individual may encounter retching, queasiness, and runs, adding water to aluminum sulfate can make a sulfuric acid structure. The sulfuric acid may cause soil damage by reducing its constituents. |
4 | Boron Oxides | Acute effects: The boron oxides contacts can aggravate the skin and eyes. Breathing in Boron Oxide can bother the nose and throat, causing hacking and wheezing. Introduction to Boron Oxide may cause heaving wooziness, cerebral pain, sickness, and so forth. |
Chronic Effects: The accompanying long-haul wellbeing influences may happen after some time getting an introduction to Boron Oxide and can keep going for months to years [26]. Boron oxide may make permanent damage to kidney and livers. | ||
5 | Silicon Dioxide | Silicon Dioxide exists naturally on earth and our bodies. No evidence has been reported to advocate its implication on human health, but more research is required to ascertain its role on the body. Inhalation of silica dust may cause diseases related to breathing. |
6 | Fly Ash particles | It can get placed in the deepest part of the lungs, where it may cause an asthmatic attack, inflammation, and immunological reactions. They contribute to Particulate Matter 2.5 and 10. |
7 | Magnesium Oxide | Exposure to Magnesium Oxide can cause “metal fume fever” which is a symptom in which the patent gets a metallic taste in the throat with headache, sneezing symptoms, cold symptoms. |
List of unwanted gases/residual waste/effects on the environment.
This chapter focuses on the comprehensive development stages of the HMMC (84%wt of Al 6063–10%wt of SiC-5%wt of B4C with 1%wt. of Mg) through the stir casting method. A comprehensive description of the essential ingredients (electric furnace, stirrer, the crucible, die) required for HMMC fabrication and the procedures has been covered. Reinforcement is added emphatically into the molten stage of aluminum. The stirring speed, time of stir, stirrer blade angle, pouring temperature, solidification rate, reinforcement size, and elements percentage influence the fabricated composite consistency. The developed HMMC was further analyzed for composition and specific mechanical and thermal tests. The HMMC density of 2700 kg/m3 was noted for MRR calculations. For confirming the homogeneity of the HMMC, the sample was analyzed using an SEM test. Dissemination of grains was noticed to be intra-granular, in which the maximum particles reside inside the grains. The uniform distribution is proportional due to the efficient and timely stirring action during the stir casting process. The crater’s size is observed to be less with B4C particles because of the creation of a boron oxide (B2O3) layer on the B4C ceramic because of liquid-to-liquid reaction leading to an expansion in the wettability, which is observable at a specialized high temperature. During the stir casting process, the melting action of material emits out certain gases and residuals apart from the required composite. The residuals have specific environmental concerns. The severe effects caused by aluminum hydroxide, aluminum oxide, aluminum sulfate, boron oxide, silicon dioxide, magnesium oxide, and fly ash on the environment have also been covered.
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This tiny fish is a versatile model organism for many fields of research because of its easy maintenance, breeding, and transparent body during early development.",book:{id:"7054",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management"},signatures:"Farmanur Rahman Khan and Saleh Sulaiman Alhewairini",authors:[{id:"221847",title:"Dr.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Alhewairini",slug:"saleh-alhewairini",fullName:"Saleh Alhewairini"},{id:"258210",title:"Dr.",name:"Farmanur Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"farmanur-rahman-khan",fullName:"Farmanur Rahman Khan"}]},{id:"61662",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78271",title:"The Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2) as a Prognostic and Predictive Biomarker: Molecular Insights into HER2 Activation and Diagnostic Implications",slug:"the-human-epidermal-growth-factor-receptor-2-her2-as-a-prognostic-and-predictive-biomarker-molecular",totalDownloads:1699,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor protein. HER2 gene amplification and receptor overexpression, which occur in 15–20% of breast cancer patients, are important markers for poor prognosis. Moreover, HER2-positive status is considered a predictive marker of response to HER2 inhibitors including trastuzumab and lapatinib. Therefore, reliable HER2 determination is essential to determine the eligibility of breast cancer patients to targeted anti-HER2 therapies. In this chapter, we aim to illustrate important aspects of the HER2 receptor as well as the molecular consequences of its aberrant constitutive activation in breast cancer. In addition, we will present the methods that can be used for the evaluation of HER2 status at different levels (protein, RNA, and DNA level) in clinical practice.",book:{id:"6813",slug:"cancer-prognosis",title:"Cancer Prognosis",fullTitle:"Cancer Prognosis"},signatures:"Daniela Furrer, Claudie Paquet, Simon Jacob and Caroline Diorio",authors:null},{id:"67964",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87963",title:"Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases in Tumor Progression and Metastasis: Promoter or Protection?",slug:"protein-tyrosine-phosphatases-in-tumor-progression-and-metastasis-promoter-or-protection-",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Reversible phosphorylation of proteins, executed by kinases and phosphatases, is the major posttranslational protein modification in eukaryotic cells, causing them to become activated or deactivated. This intracellular event represents a critical regulatory mechanism of several signaling pathways and can be related to a broad number of diseases, including cancer. Few decades ago, protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) were considered as tumor suppressors. However, nowadays, accumulating evidence demonstrates that a misregulation of PTP activities plays a crucial and decisive role in cancer progression and metastasis. In this chapter, we will focus on the molecular aspects that support the crucial role of PTPs in cancer and in turn make them promising for prediction, monitoring, and rational appropriate therapy selection of individual patients.",book:{id:"8002",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis"},signatures:"Carmen V. Ferreira-Halder, Stefano Piatto Clerici, Alessandra V. Sousa Faria, Patrícia Fernandes de Souza Oliveira, Helon Guimarães Cordeiro and Erica Akagi",authors:[{id:"61709",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"carmen-ferreira",fullName:"Carmen Ferreira"},{id:"307647",title:"MSc.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Piatto Clerici",slug:"stefano-piatto-clerici",fullName:"Stefano Piatto Clerici"},{id:"307648",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alessandra",middleName:"V. S.",surname:"Faria",slug:"alessandra-faria",fullName:"Alessandra Faria"},{id:"307649",title:"MSc.",name:"Patrícia",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"patricia-oliveira",fullName:"Patrícia Oliveira"},{id:"307650",title:"MSc.",name:"Helon",middleName:null,surname:"Cordeiro",slug:"helon-cordeiro",fullName:"Helon Cordeiro"},{id:"307651",title:"Dr.",name:"Erica",middleName:null,surname:"Akagi",slug:"erica-akagi",fullName:"Erica Akagi"}]},{id:"55760",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69397",title:"Exosomes and Their Role in Viral Infections",slug:"exosomes-and-their-role-in-viral-infections",totalDownloads:2378,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Exosomes are excretory nano-vesicles that are formed by the cell’s endocytic system and shed from the surface of almost all types of cells. These tiny extracellular vesicles, once thought to be “garbage bags for cells,” carry a wide variety of molecules of cellular origin, including proteins, lipids, and RNAs, that are selectively incorporated during the formation of exosomes. Exosomes are now known to play a central role in several important biological processes such as cellular communication, intercellular transfer of bioactive molecules, and immune modulation. Recent advances in the field have shown that a number of animal viruses can exploit the exosomal pathway by incorporating specific cellular or viral factors within exosomes, in order to modulate the cellular microenvironment and influence downstream processes such as host immunity and virus spread. In this chapter, we provide an overview of our current understanding of exosome biogenesis and how this normal physiological process is hijacked by some pathogenic viruses. Viral components that appear to be selectively incorporated into exosomes and the potential role of these exosomes in viral pathogenesis are discussed. Identifying viral signatures in exosomes and their mode of action is fundamental for any future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for viral infections.",book:{id:"5793",slug:"novel-implications-of-exosomes-in-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-cancer-and-infectious-diseases",title:"Novel Implications of Exosomes in Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer and Infectious Diseases",fullTitle:"Novel Implications of Exosomes in Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer and Infectious Diseases"},signatures:"Gulfaraz Khan, Waqar Ahmed and Pretty S. Philip",authors:[{id:"199889",title:"Prof.",name:"Gulfaraz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"gulfaraz-khan",fullName:"Gulfaraz Khan"},{id:"201764",title:"Mr.",name:"Waqar",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"waqar-ahmed",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed"},{id:"201766",title:"Ms.",name:"Pretty",middleName:null,surname:"Philip",slug:"pretty-philip",fullName:"Pretty Philip"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60895",title:"An Overview of Cancer Treatment Modalities",slug:"an-overview-of-cancer-treatment-modalities",totalDownloads:3027,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Cancer is a global issue majorly affecting developing countries. According to a survey, 63% of deaths due to cancer are reported from developing countries. There are different conventional treatment modalities that are available to treat and manage cancer. However, new cancer treatment options are being explored continuously as over 60% of all current experimental trials worldwide are focusing on tumor cure. The success of treatment depends upon the type of cancer, locality of tumor, and its stage of progression. Surgery, radiation-based surgical knives, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are some of the traditional and most widely used treatment options. Some of the modern modalities include hormone-based therapy, anti-angiogenic modalities, stem cell therapies, and dendritic cell-based immunotherapy. This chapter discusses different traditional and novel treatment modalities to combat different types of cancer.",book:{id:"6313",slug:"neoplasm",title:"Neoplasm",fullTitle:"Neoplasm"},signatures:"Zaigham Abbas and Sakina Rehman",authors:[{id:"214546",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaigham",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"zaigham-abbas",fullName:"Zaigham Abbas"}]},{id:"64178",title:"Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a Model Organism",slug:"zebrafish-em-danio-rerio-em-as-a-model-organism",totalDownloads:2762,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Animals as model organisms, the silent sentinels, stand watch over the environmental health of the world. These are non-human animal species which can be used to understand specific biological processes and to obtain informations which can provide an insight into working of other organisms. Among the model organisms, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is one of the best leading models to study developmental biology, cancer, toxicology, drug discovery, and molecular genetics. In addition, the zebrafish is increasingly used as a genetic model organism for aquaculture species and in toxicogenomics and also to generate zebrafish disease models for application in human biomedicines. This tiny fish is a versatile model organism for many fields of research because of its easy maintenance, breeding, and transparent body during early development.",book:{id:"7054",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management"},signatures:"Farmanur Rahman Khan and Saleh Sulaiman Alhewairini",authors:[{id:"221847",title:"Dr.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Alhewairini",slug:"saleh-alhewairini",fullName:"Saleh Alhewairini"},{id:"258210",title:"Dr.",name:"Farmanur Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"farmanur-rahman-khan",fullName:"Farmanur Rahman Khan"}]},{id:"70898",title:"MicroRNA: A Signature for Cancer Diagnostics",slug:"microrna-a-signature-for-cancer-diagnostics",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Various tools and techniques are being used for the diagnosis of cancer, but not a sole technique provides powerful result at the very early stages of cancer. This provides the need for type of tools which could detect cancer at early stages so that survival rate could be augmented. There are various diagnostic ways to identify cancer, but in each case, there are always circumstances to compromise on the sensitivity. In this framework, a new and more advanced approach of diagnosis for cancer is microRNA (miRNA). miRNAs are conserved regions among humans and animals, and their synthesis takes place in the nucleus and cytoplasm. There are several types of microRNAs that could be upregulated and downregulated in various cancers. A cancer cell could be identified by measurement of the expression pattern of miRNA. By examining the expression level for different types of cancers, miRNA can be used as biomarker for early detection of cancer in human beings.",book:{id:"9172",slug:"current-cancer-treatment",title:"Current Cancer Treatment",fullTitle:"Current Cancer Treatment"},signatures:"Ayesha Siddiqua, Sumaira Kousar, Amer Jamil, Riaz Tabassum, Tariq Mehmood and Nusrat Shafiq",authors:null},{id:"63685",title:"A Molecular Link between the Circadian Clock, DNA Damage Responses, and Oncogene Activation",slug:"a-molecular-link-between-the-circadian-clock-dna-damage-responses-and-oncogene-activation",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Circadian clocks enhance the efficiency and survival of living things by organizing their behavior and body functions. There has been a long history of research seeking a link between circadian clock and tumorigenesis. Studies of animal models and human tumor samples have revealed that the dysregulation of circadian clocks is an important endogenous factor causing mammalian cancer development. The core circadian clock regulators have been implicated in the control of both the cell cycle and DNA damage responses (DDR). Conversely, several intracellular signaling cascades that play important roles in regulation of the cell cycle and the DDR also contribute to circadian clock regulation. This review describes selected regulatory aspects of circadian clocks, providing evidence of a molecular link of the circadian clocks with cellular DDR.",book:{id:"7281",slug:"oncogenes-and-carcinogenesis",title:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis",fullTitle:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis"},signatures:"Yoshimi Okamoto-Uchida, Junko Izawa and Jun Hirayama",authors:[{id:"246364",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Hirayama",slug:"jun-hirayama",fullName:"Jun Hirayama"}]},{id:"67447",title:"Molecular Pathogenesis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma",slug:"molecular-pathogenesis-of-oral-squamous-cell-carcinoma",totalDownloads:3777,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Oral carcinogenesis is a molecular and histological multistage process featuring genetic and phenotypic molecular markers which involves enhanced function of several protooncogenes, oncogenes and/or the deactivation of tumor suppressor genes, resulting in the over activity of growth factors and its cell surface receptors, which could enhance messenger signaling intracellularly, and/or leads to the increased production of transcription factors. Alone oncogenes are not responsible for carcinogenesis, genes having tumor suppressor activity, leads to a phenotypic change in cell which is responsible for increased cell proliferation, loss of cellular cohesion, and the ability to infiltrate local tissue and spread to distant sites. Understanding the molecular interplay of both onco and tumor genes will allow more accurate diagnosis and assessment of prognosis, which might lead the way for novel approaches to treatment.",book:{id:"8211",slug:"squamous-cell-carcinoma-hallmark-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Squamous Cell Carcinoma",fullTitle:"Squamous Cell Carcinoma - Hallmark and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"Anshi Jain",authors:[{id:"280692",title:"Dr.",name:"Anshi",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"anshi-jain",fullName:"Anshi Jain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"428",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"