\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"11012",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Radiopharmaceuticals - Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Radiopharmaceuticals - Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy discusses the importance of radiopharmaceuticals and their environmental, pharmaceutical, diagnostic, therapeutic, and research applications. Chapters address such topics as the fundamentals of radiopharmaceutical chemistry and preparation, fabrication, materials manipulation, and characterization of radiopharmaceuticals, applications of radiopharmaceuticals in preclinical studies, radiopharmaceuticals in modern cancer therapy, and new trends in preparation, biodistribution, and pharmacokinetics of radiopharmaceuticals in diagnosis and research.",isbn:"978-1-83969-660-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-659-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-661-9",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",numberOfPages:226,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1221,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1197",title:"Pharmaceutical Drug",slug:"pharmaceutical-drug"}],chapters:[{id:"77811",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals: On-Going Research for Better Diagnosis, Therapy, Environmental, and Pharmaceutical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99204",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-on-going-research-for-better-diagnosis-therapy-environmental-and-pharmaceutical",totalDownloads:211,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiopharmaceutical material is a pharmaceutical product or drug that may exert spontaneous degradation of unstable nuclei with nuclear particles or photons emission. Radiopharmaceuticals may be used in research, diagnosis, therapy, and environmental purposes. Moreover, radiopharmaceuticals act as radioactive tracers among patients via gamma-ray emissions. Therefore, the uses of radiopharmaceuticals as diagnostic agents may be given to patients to examine any biochemical, molecular biology, physiological, or anatomical abnormalities. Therapeutic radiopharmaceutical may be administered internally for therapeutic purposes via selective effect on certain abnormal cells or organs. The best known example for therapeutic radiopharmaceuticala is iodide131 for thyroid ablation in among patients with hyperthyroid. A third class of radiopharmaceutical is drug labeling which mainly used in research by using small amount of radioactive substances not for diagnostic purposes, but to investigate the metabolism, bio-distribution, pharmakodynamic, and pharmakokinetic of certain drugs in a nonradioactive form. This chapter focuses mainly on basic fundamentals of radiopharmaceutical chemistry, preparation, environmental, pharmaceutical, diagnostic, therapeutic, and research applications.",signatures:"Farid A. Badria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77811",authors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],corrections:null},{id:"77528",title:"Start Here When Performing Radiochemical Reactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98766",slug:"start-here-when-performing-radiochemical-reactions",totalDownloads:98,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiation products are present in several fields of knowledge. From the energy field, with nuclear reactors and nuclear batteries, to the medical field, with nuclear medicine and radiation therapy (brachytherapy). Although chemistry works in the same way for radioactive and non-radioactive chemicals, an extra layer of problems is present in the radiochemical counter-part. Reactions can be unpredictable due to several factors. For example, iodine-125 in deposited in a silver wire to create the core of a medical radioactive seed. This core is the sealed forming a radioactive seed that are placed inside the cancer. Several aspects can be discussed in regards to radiation chemistry. For example: are there any competing ions? Each way my reaction is going? Each reaction is more likely to occur? Those are important questions, because, in the case of iodine, a volatile product can be formed causing contamination of laboratory, equipment, personal, and environment. This chapter attempts to create a guideline on how to safely proceed when a new radioactive chemical reaction. It discusses the steps by giving practical examples. The focus is in protecting the operator and the environment. The result can be achieved safely and be reliable contribution to science and society.",signatures:"Carla Daruich de Souza, Jin Joo Kim and Jin Tae Hong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77528",authors:[{id:"105031",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",surname:"Daruich De Souza",slug:"carla-daruich-de-souza",fullName:"Carla Daruich De Souza"},{id:"421488",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin Joo",surname:"Kim",slug:"jin-joo-kim",fullName:"Jin Joo Kim"},{id:"421489",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin Tae",surname:"Hong",slug:"jin-tae-hong",fullName:"Jin Tae Hong"}],corrections:null},{id:"81818",title:"Radiopharmaceutical Biodistribution and Dosimetry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104917",slug:"radiopharmaceutical-biodistribution-and-dosimetry",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty, where diagnostic and or therapeutic radioisotopes are used to study the physiology of organs and the metabolism of various types of tumors. Pharmaceuticals labeled with radionuclides (radiopharmaceuticals) are studied at pre-clinical level before being used in humans. Animals (Rodents) are generally used to study the biokinetics of tracer in a group of predefined organs. The extrapolation of the results of these studies from animals to humans provides an estimate of the behavior of the radiopharmaceuticals and the irradiation delivered clinically. Nuclear Medicine is fundamentally based on Radiopharmaceuticals whose biodistribution in disease and healthy organ result in either images that are diagnostically useful or local irradiation of tissue that is therapeutically beneficial for treatment of tumors. In result, in most procedures the biodistribution is primarily dependent on clearance of the radiopharmaceuticals from the blood into organs, tissues or lesions. Radiation is harmful for living beings and hence radiation toxicity is required to assess for new radiopharmaceutical which can be calculated by following the methodology of Internal dose calculation. Basic principle of Internal dosimetry and calculation methodology are explained in this chapter.",signatures:"Santosh Kumar Gupta and Venkatesh Rangarajan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81818",authors:[{id:"53556",title:"Dr.",name:"Venkatesh",surname:"Rangarajan",slug:"venkatesh-rangarajan",fullName:"Venkatesh Rangarajan"},{id:"195506",title:"Dr.",name:"Santosh Kumar",surname:"Gupta",slug:"santosh-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Santosh Kumar Gupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"77849",title:"Focal Increased Radiopharmaceutical Uptake Differentiation Using Quantitative Indices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99065",slug:"focal-increased-radiopharmaceutical-uptake-differentiation-using-quantitative-indices",totalDownloads:87,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Focal increased radiopharmaceutical uptake in a lesion results in focal Hot Spots in the scans. This can occur in benign infective or inflammatory disorders and cancerous diseases as well. Comparison between malignant and benign lesions is important. The Hot spots can be classified into benign and malignant lesions by Spatial Scintimetry or Temporal Scintimetry. Spatial Scintimetry compares the uptake in the region of interest with the adjacent tissue or the unaffected contralateral site. The quantitative indices are lesion/non lesion ratio, lesion/background activity and lesion to Bone ratio etc. The Temporal Scintimetry relies on the changes in the counts or uptake in the Hotspot lesion with reference to the dual point time of acquisition. The Hotspot in the bone scan can be classified using the quantitative index of retention ratio by Dr. V. Siva and Israel. In PET studies the focal hot spots can be differentiated into benign and malignant lesion using the dual phase PETCT evaluation using the Rong’s Retention ratio and Dr. V. Siva’s modified RRI values.",signatures:"V. Sivasubramaniyan and K. Venkataramaniah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77849",authors:[{id:"354827",title:"Prof.",name:"V.",surname:"Sivasubramaniyan",slug:"v.-sivasubramaniyan",fullName:"V. Sivasubramaniyan"},{id:"420847",title:"Prof.",name:"K.",surname:"Venkataramaniah",slug:"k.-venkataramaniah",fullName:"K. Venkataramaniah"}],corrections:null},{id:"78369",title:"Strategies for Site-Specific Radiolabeling of Peptides and Proteins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99422",slug:"strategies-for-site-specific-radiolabeling-of-peptides-and-proteins",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although anatomical imaging modalities (X-ray, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)) still have a higher spatial resolution (0.1–1 mm) than molecular imaging modalities (single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), optical imaging (OI)), the advantage of molecular imaging is that it can detect molecular and cellular changes at the onset of a disease before it leads to morphological tissue changes, which can be detected by anatomical imaging. During the last decades, noninvasive diagnostic imaging has encountered a rapid growth due to the development of dedicated imaging equipment for preclinical animal studies. In addition, the introduction of multimodality imaging (PET/CT, SPECT/CT, PET/MRI) which combines high-resolution conventional anatomical imaging with high sensitivity of tracer-based molecular imaging techniques has led to successful accomplishments in this exciting field. In this book chapter, we will focus on chemical synthesis techniques for site-specific incorporation of radionuclide chelators. Subsequently, radiolabeling based on complexation of a radionuclide with a chelator will be discussed, with focus on: diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), 1,4,7-triazacyclononane-triacetic acid (NOTA), hexa-histidine (His-tag), and 6-hydrazinonicotinic acid (HYNIC) that allow the production of peptides labeled with 18F, 68Ga, 99mTc, and 111In – the currently most widely used isotopes.",signatures:"Ingrid Dijkgraaf, Stijn M. Agten, Matthias Bauwens and Tilman M. Hackeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78369",authors:[{id:"414299",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Dijkgraaf",slug:"ingrid-dijkgraaf",fullName:"Ingrid Dijkgraaf"},{id:"421827",title:"Dr.",name:"Stijn M.",surname:"Agten",slug:"stijn-m.-agten",fullName:"Stijn M. Agten"},{id:"421828",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthias",surname:"Bauwens",slug:"matthias-bauwens",fullName:"Matthias Bauwens"},{id:"421829",title:"Prof.",name:"Tilman M.",surname:"Hackeng",slug:"tilman-m.-hackeng",fullName:"Tilman M. Hackeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"79266",title:"Dose Rates Comparative Study for Workers Involved in the Hot-Cells Clean-Up Activities of the VVR-S Nuclear Research Reactor under Decommissioning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99901",slug:"dose-rates-comparative-study-for-workers-involved-in-the-hot-cells-clean-up-activities-of-the-vvr-s-",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study consists in the assessment of the dose rates potentially received by the workers involved in Hot Cells decontamination from a VVR-S type Nuclear Research Reactor under decommissioning. Two exposure scenarios were considered: the dosimetrist performing contamination scanning measurements (H*(10) inside of the Hot Cell prior decontamination and the mechanical worker performing floor decontamination. The dose rates were calculated based on the floor hot spots activity concentration using a standard and a numerical method (RESRAD Build code) assuming that the highest radiological risks are from these surfaces. It was noticed that the external dose rate is relatively high both for the floor scanning and decontamination and the internal committed effective dose is relatively low for floor decontamination due to fact that the worker is equipped with a high filter efficiency mask. By comparing the two methods results it is noticed that the dose rate obtained using the numerical method is 32% lower than the dose rate evaluated with the standard method, due to model complexity.",signatures:"Carmen Tuca and Ana Stochioiu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79266",authors:[{id:"425641",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Tuca",slug:"carmen-tuca",fullName:"Carmen Tuca"},{id:"428831",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Stochioiu",slug:"ana-stochioiu",fullName:"Ana Stochioiu"}],corrections:null},{id:"78233",title:"Quality in Non-Licensed Radiopharmaceutical Products: Are We Achieving the Goal?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99388",slug:"quality-in-non-licensed-radiopharmaceutical-products-are-we-achieving-the-goal-",totalDownloads:144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiopharmaceutical compounds, considered a special group of medicines, can be prepared outside the marketing authorisation track. Small-scale preparations at non-commercial sites thereby represent an important segment, however a lack of harmonisation in the regulation leads to extreme differences in the application and availability of radiopharmaceuticals across Europe. A number of guidelines and guidance documents have been issued by European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EAMN), Pharmaceutical inspection convention (PICs), European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM) to achieve a good radiopharmacy practice for small-scale preparation. Nevertheless, in the case of non-licensed radiopharmaceuticals their consideration as magistral formulas, in some countries, makes it possible to waive regulatory inspections aimed to ensure those good practices enforcement. Moreover, special attention should be put on the quality assurance process for non-licensed starting materials, given that the final radiopharmaceuticals quality chiefly depends on it. This paper (chapter) will provide an insight into the quality standards applicable to starting materials, such as supplier qualification control, starting material re-test period, etc. in order to raise for discussion about how best to achieve a proven quality, efficacy, and safety for our radiopharmaceuticals (licensed or non-licensed).",signatures:"Estrella Moya Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78233",authors:[{id:"353961",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Estrella",surname:"Moya Sánchez",slug:"estrella-moya-sanchez",fullName:"Estrella Moya Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"77681",title:"Recent Advances in Biodistribution, Preclinical and Clinical Applications of Radiolabelled Iodine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99113",slug:"recent-advances-in-biodistribution-preclinical-and-clinical-applications-of-radiolabelled-iodine",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adequate understanding of radiopharmaceutical distribution in the body of the patient has both spatial and temporal characteristics and they are the key factor to consider when planning successful radio pharmaceutical therapy, because they are an integral part of the radiation dosimetry calculations of any proposed personalized treatment. In this chapter we will focus on radioiodine therapy for thyroid cancer patients since it is a widely known practice in clinical oncology. Factors affecting the radioiodine organs’ distribution will be examined in sufficient details using the available published research in the scientific literature. The literature will be reviewed extensively and summarized in this chapter. Another aim is to provide the medical practitioners with a quick reference guide to this clinically important area of expertise; often mastered by medical physicists with background in radiation physics, mathematics and medical imaging analysis. This chapter will cover recent advances in the area of radioiodine biodistribution modeling with applications in preclinical and clinical studies.",signatures:"Khaled Soliman, Ahmed Alenezi, Abdullah Alrushoud, Salman Altimyat, Mousa Bakkari, Hanaa Alshikh and Turki Alruwaili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77681",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77681",authors:[{id:"200866",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",surname:"Soliman",slug:"khaled-soliman",fullName:"Khaled Soliman"},{id:"257768",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Alrushoud",slug:"abdullah-alrushoud",fullName:"Abdullah Alrushoud"},{id:"257769",title:"Mr.",name:"Salman",surname:"Altimyat",slug:"salman-altimyat",fullName:"Salman Altimyat"},{id:"354455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Alenezi",slug:"ahmed-alenezi",fullName:"Ahmed Alenezi"},{id:"354456",title:"MSc.",name:"Mousa",surname:"Bakkari",slug:"mousa-bakkari",fullName:"Mousa Bakkari"},{id:"354457",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanna",surname:"Alsheikh",slug:"hanna-alsheikh",fullName:"Hanna Alsheikh"},{id:"428063",title:"Dr.",name:"Turki",surname:"Alruwaili",slug:"turki-alruwaili",fullName:"Turki Alruwaili"}],corrections:null},{id:"78187",title:"Radium-223 and Actinium-225 α-Emitter Radiopharmaceuticals in Treatment of Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99756",slug:"radium-223-and-actinium-225-emitter-radiopharmaceuticals-in-treatment-of-metastatic-castration-resis",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent decades, multiple radiopharmaceutical conjugates have been tested and shown to be efficacious in treating metastasized castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Several types of research have been published on the therapeutic use of α-emitter radiopharmaceuticals, and several authors suggested their treatment superiority. One of the suggested methods is targeted alpha therapy. In this method, alpha radiation delivers energy to cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment while minimizing toxicity to surrounding tissues. In this chapter, the alpha emitter radiopharmaceutical applications in castration-resistant prostate cancer patients were investigated. Hence, we studied the 223Ra and 225Ac α-emitter radiopharmaceuticals application method and distribution of dose throughout human body organs.",signatures:"Akbar Abbasi, Hesham M.H. Zakaly and Fatemeh Mirekhtiary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78187",authors:[{id:"298871",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",surname:"Abbasi",slug:"akbar-abbasi",fullName:"Akbar Abbasi"},{id:"428904",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesham M.H.",surname:"Zakaly",slug:"hesham-m.h.-zakaly",fullName:"Hesham M.H. Zakaly"},{id:"428905",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatemeh",surname:"Mirekhtiary",slug:"fatemeh-mirekhtiary",fullName:"Fatemeh Mirekhtiary"}],corrections:null},{id:"75986",title:"Molecular Imaging with Genetically Programmed Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96935",slug:"molecular-imaging-with-genetically-programmed-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nanoparticle research has greatly benefitted medical imaging platforms by generating new signals, enhancing detection sensitivity, and expanding both clinical and preclinical applications. For magnetic resonance imaging, the fabrication of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles has provided a means of detecting cells and has paved the way for magnetic particle imaging. As the field of molecular imaging grows and enables the tracking of cells and their molecular activities so does the possibility of tracking genetically programmed biomarkers. This chapter discusses the advantages and challenges of gene-based contrast, using the bacterial magnetosome model to highlight the requirements of in vivo iron biomineralization and reporter gene expression for magnetic resonance signal detection. New information about magnetosome protein interactions in non-magnetic mammalian cells is considered in the light of design and application(s) of a rudimentary magnetosome-like nanoparticle for molecular imaging. Central to this is the hypothesis that a magnetosome root structure is defined by essential magnetosome genes, whose expression positions the biomineral in a given membrane compartment, in any cell type. The use of synthetic biology for programming multi-component structures not only broadens the scope of reporter gene expression for molecular MRI but also facilitates the tracking of cell therapies.",signatures:"Donna E. Goldhawk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75986",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75986",authors:[{id:"338621",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Donna E.",surname:"Goldhawk",slug:"donna-e.-goldhawk",fullName:"Donna E. Goldhawk"}],corrections:null},{id:"78024",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals in Modern Cancer Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99334",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-in-modern-cancer-therapy",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nuclear medicine plays a role in oncology. It uses tracers (radiopharmaceuticals) to study physiological processes and treat diseases. The radiopharmaceuticals can be formed as radionuclides alone or radionuclides labeled with other molecules as a drug, a protein, or a peptide. The radiopharmaceutical is introduced into the body and accumulates in the target tissue of interest for therapy or imaging purposes. It offers to study cancer biology in vivo to optimize cancer therapy. Another advantage of radiopharmaceutical therapy is a tumor-targeting agent that deposits lethal radiation at tumor sites. This review outlines radiopharmaceuticals agents in current cancer therapy.",signatures:"Aisyah Elliyanti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78024",authors:[{id:"332355",title:"Prof.",name:"Aisyah",surname:"Elliyanti",slug:"aisyah-elliyanti",fullName:"Aisyah Elliyanti"}],corrections:null},{id:"80197",title:"New Trends in Preparation, Bio Distribution, and Pharmacokinetics of Radiopharmaceuticals in Diagnosis and Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101069",slug:"new-trends-in-preparation-bio-distribution-and-pharmacokinetics-of-radiopharmaceuticals-in-diagnosis",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radiopharmaceuticals are radioactive compounds which have a bound radionuclide in their structure. It is used to direct the radionuclide to a location to be treated or to obtain images. Nuclear medicine is the science that in the charge of employing radiopharmaceuticals, which is very useful support for medicine assisting in several diagnoses and treatments for cancer. The main aim of this work is to shed lights on the main radionuclides and metal complexes which are used as radiopharmaceuticals. Radiopharmaceuticals are compounds of technetium (99mTc) is considered as the main metal complexes like sodium pertechnetate and methylenediphosphonate MDP99mTc and other compounds which used in nuclear medicine for diagnosis such as: (1) indium (111In); (2) thallium (201Tl); (3) gallium (67Ga, 68Ga); (4) iodine (123I and 131I); (5) chromium (51Cr); (6) sulfur (35S); (7) phosphorus (32P); (8) a18F. They are very important in the early diagnosis for several diseases such as cancer, kidney, cardiovascular, liver. Generally, technetium compounds are main radiopharmaceuticals, widely all over the word.",signatures:"Hasna Albander and Maisoon Ibrahim Aljalis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80197",authors:[{id:"257770",title:"Mrs.",name:"Hasna",surname:"Albander",slug:"hasna-albander",fullName:"Hasna Albander"},{id:"428099",title:"Mrs.",name:"Maisoon",surname:"Ibrahim Aljalis",slug:"maisoon-ibrahim-aljalis",fullName:"Maisoon Ibrahim Aljalis"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9086",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Hypothesis, Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b13e06123db7a16dcdae682eb47ac66",slug:"drug-repurposing-hypothesis-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Farid A. 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Biodiversity is declining globally at an unprecedented rate, a trend that has proceeded unabated since the early 20th century [1, 2, 3]. Recognition of the importance and conservation needs of global biodiversity resulted in the proposal of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 [4]. More than 190 nations have since ratified the treaty. At the turn of the millennium, several international initiatives were started with the aim to change the trajectory of biodiversity conservation. Through the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment initiative (2001–2005), research was conducted with the goal to identify conservation priorities and set benchmarks for future actions [5]. At the time, the initiative provided a comprehensive summary of ecosystem changes and their effects on human well-being and linked to economic activities. The UN Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015) aimed to mitigate the extent of biodiversity loss. These goals are now addressed by the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) containing benchmarks for marine and terrestrial biodiversity [6]. In 2012, at the Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, a strategic plan for the protection of biodiversity was formulated. The plan included 20 so-called Aichi targets to be addressed during the period 2011–2020. Ultimately, none of the Aichi targets were met on time (Figure 1) [7].
Global conservation trends over the past 500 years (blue bars) and implementation of conservation treaties (orange bars). MA = millennium ecosystem assessment; MDGs = millennium development goals; SDGs = sustainable development goals; YNP = Yellowstone National Park established in 1872 (yellow bar). Timeline not drawn to scale.
Looking forward to 2030, the SDGs provide a global framework toward sustainable development on economic, social, and environmental levels [8]. SDGs 14 and 15 are particularly relevant for biodiversity conservation. Goal 14 aims to protect life below water with a focus on marine pollution, protection, and restoration of ecosystems, reduction of ocean acidification, and sustainable fishing. Goal 15 targets terrestrial biodiversity, with a focus on protection, restoration, and promotion of sustainable forest management while reversing land degradation. To track evidence-based achievement of SDGs, far-reaching state-of-the-art monitoring capacities must be advanced.
Despite the formation of the CBD, biodiversity has continued on a downward trajectory for vertebrate and insect species, while trends for many other taxa are unquantified [9, 10]. At least 900 species have gone extinct since 1500, and to date 1,145 species are listed as critically endangered or possibly extinct [11]. Given the considerable knowledge gap, these numbers are likely higher. The Living Planet Report noted a global decline in vertebrate abundance by 60% from the period 1970–2014 [12]. Main causes of biodiversity loss in the past century were associated with human population growth and economic development [13]. In its recent Global Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) highlighted that terrestrial biodiversity losses were primarily linked to land-use changes caused by agricultural practices, whereas in maritime ecosystems overexploitation of fisheries caused major declines of biodiversity [14]. Other threats for biodiversity include climate change and proliferation of invasive alien species (IAS).
Biodiversity is under pressure due to human activities, and species extinctions will have severe negative feedbacks on human society in the future [15]. The impacts of biodiversity loss on global environmental change are comparable to climate change and need urgent attention. In its recent assessment, IPBES identified major drivers for current biodiversity losses: human-induced land-use changes, climate change, and IAS [16]. A separate study found that climate change, biodiversity loss and biogeochemical flows have already exceeded safe operating space [17]. Rising mean annual temperatures are linked to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. Temperatures have increased globally by about 0.2°C per decade since the 1970’s [18], and climate change-driven impacts on biodiversity are documented across the globe [14]. Projections forecast further changes in the future [19, 20, 21, 22].
The concept of protected areas (PA) may be as old as civilization itself [23]. Throughout the 20th century until today, the number of PAs has grown considerably to over 265,000 sites [24]. The CBD emphasized the importance of PAs for conservation of biodiversity and encouraged further PA establishment to mitigate ongoing biodiversity losses [4].
Some 76 years following the establishment of the world’s first national park, Yellowstone, USA, the establishment of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) occurred in 1948 and marked a landmark change in global biodiversity conservation [25]. Today, six commissions within the IUCN, including the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) and Species Survival Commission (SSC), actively address environmental and socioeconomic issues related to conservation [23]. The importance of PAs is well-documented, but sufficient data on effectiveness of governance and management status for a majority of PAs are still lacking [26]. Recent studies additionally emphasize that biodiversity is on the decline in many PAs due to persistently high human pressures [27, 28, 29]. However, the advent of new technologies, with the possibility to provide fast and highly automated species identification and analysis across large spatial areas, points toward new perspectives in nature conservation [30].
True measurement of conservation outcomes requires effective and meaningful biodiversity monitoring systems (BMS). To foster best practice standards in governance and management of PAs, the WCPA released the Green List in 2016 [31]. In it, four components to evaluate the performance of PAs are described: good governance; sound design and planning; effective management; and successful conservation outcomes [32]. The SSC provides updated information on species and the status of ecosystem conservation in the IUCN Red List [11]. In 2009, the Joint Task Force on Biodiversity and Protected Areas was established by the WCPA and SSC. Their work focuses on two major objectives, determining best predictors of success for biodiversity conservation in PAs, and evaluating of key standards to identify sites that contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation.
Monitoring of biodiversity is a challenge for many reasons, including deficits in the conception, methodologies, and technologies of BMS. Monitoring is expensive and demands significant human effort. Multiple species may require monitoring, but within the framework of data collection only a limited set of indicators can be selected. A sufficient number of specialists must be available to document taxa of expertise. Human resources can be limited by scheduling conflicts, poor weather, and inaccessible or hazardous field sites. BMS must additionally be reliable, reproducible, flexible, and comparable across sites, as well as applicable to different management questions. Perhaps most importantly, BMS should reflect the current state of the habitat or an organism group, providing key metrics to the manager in a timely and comprehensive manner. Solutions should take these limitations into consideration through application of effective technologies.
Novel approaches are now available to complement, or in some cases replace, classical monitoring methodologies. These exciting approaches are in different stages of maturity. In the following sections, we review digital monitoring techniques that are still under development or have become increasingly standardized in PA management in recent years.
Advances in computational technology over the past half century have revolutionized scientific capacity for monitoring of biodiversity. Digital methodologies that seemed unfathomable just a few years ago are now practical to enable rapid and automated collection of species data [33]. Primary among these state-of-the-art approaches are metagenomics through environmental DNA (eDNA) collection, camera trapping (CT) using digital trail cameras, environmental sampling of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using digital sensors, passive acoustic monitoring (PAM), and earth-based remote sensing (RS) approaches [34]. In the field of biodiversity conservation, digital collection of big data is accomplished through use of data storage platforms such as GBIF; a lagging element is adequate analysis of these often-unstructured data [33, 35].
Practical considerations constrain a BMS. One challenge is that due to time and cost considerations, often only limited selections of taxa can be monitored. To improve ecological assessments, metagenomics could be used to address sampling deficiencies. Molecular analysis could support a rapid survey of a wide range of taxa, quantify species richness, and measure diversity across different trophic levels of the ecosystem. Analysis of eDNA is increasingly becoming part of PA monitoring and management programs and can contribute to ensuring that conservation measures are implemented in a targeted manner.
Barcoding is a DNA-based taxonomic identification technique that allows a living organism to be identified on a genetic level through molecular analysis of skin, mucus, feces, or other biological samples [36]. Hair sample collection from the elusive European wild cat
Taxon-specific primers targeting highly conserved regions of the genome are used to amplify sample DNA in a thermocycler [44]. The sample is then sent to a Next Generation Sequencer. Species identification is based on output of nucleic acid sequences. Very short DNA primers, so-called mini-barcodes [45], allow amplification of degraded DNA, for example from soil samples [46].
DNA metabarcoding offers diverse applications to conservation, paleobiology, biomonitoring, and invasion biology. Metagenomics technologies under development could in the future provide more comprehensive biodiversity assessment in PAs using bulk samples from the environment. Moreover, interactions between taxonomic groups could be investigated, and detection of changes in these interactions could optimize adaptive management decisions [47]. For instance, aquatic eDNA sample collections are suited to detect pathogens in the environment including the fungus
A coarse application of molecular diagnostics is the application of (molecular) operational taxonomic units, or (M)OTUs [48]. These are distinct clusters of reads whose nucleic acid sequences differ by less than a fixed threshold and can be applied as an initial survey of diversity. These OTUs are of particular value for soil biodiversity assessment in PAs, as no taxa of microorganisms need to be known to benchmark the diversity of different soil samples relative to one another.
Although DNA metabarcoding may have a highly supportive function in PA management, several challenges remain [40]. Reproducibility of results is a primary issue. For example, species composition of replicate samples taken from a freshwater stream may provide conflicting results. DNA detection in fresh water may be possible at a distance of 9 to 12 km away from the genetic source [49]. Species determination is influenced by the primers used and is highly dependent on the quality of available reference databases. Additionally, most designs are customized for the particular research question because there is no uniform approach for all applications. Another disadvantage includes limitations on accurate species density estimates. Furthermore, no information can be provided on the life stages or demographic structures of identified organisms, as eDNA analysis typically generates presence/absence data. Concerns exist that rare and endangered species could be reduced to numbers on a species list. But for their respect and protection, they would need support from society.
However, successful applications of eDNA analysis promote further usage of this novel approach in PAs. Much expectation is placed on future application of metabar-coding in a BMS. Favorable comparability of DNA-based and classical approaches has been demonstrated in the context of the European Union Water Framework Directive [50]. For the PA manager, several prerequisites for the workflow must be assessed. When using eDNA, the analytical procedure, which in most cases is carried out in an external laboratory, is not as important as the evaluation of conservation questions of interest. For this purpose, the manager must be familiar with the range of conclusions that could result from metagenomic analyses. Consideration must be given to whether eDNA collection would be the appropriate technique to answer the monitoring question. The next critical step for the manager is to acquire expert interpretation of the data. Yet, with appropriate research questions, analytical approaches using eDNA sampling have great potential to detect target species and contribute valuable insights to a BMS.
Nature photography provides an archivable, permanent record on the in-situ occurrence of plants and animals. As a biodiversity research technique, photography dates back to the late 19th century [51]. In the early period of CT development, photographic approaches utilized cumbersome hardware and explosive compounds to create a flash [52, 53, 54]. Technological developments including remote triggering of the shutter, improved flash mechanisms, improvements to battery life, and digitization of images have enhanced cameras since the mid-20th century [51, 55]. With trail cameras, social media platforms, and dozens of smartphone apps, scientists and enthusiasts can now contribute to real-time photo documentation of species (Figure 2) [33, 56]. As a biodiversity research tool, CT compares favorably to many previously standard methodologies [57].
Trail cameras are widely available, allowing citizen scientists to capture the movement of animals, such as this family of American black bears (
Formal CT studies for biodiversity monitoring came into existence a century ago [58]. Approaches have since undergone a dramatic evolution, with a wide selection of wildlife cameras now commercially available [55]. Use of remote photography has become standard for documenting species distributions over broad spatio-temporal scales [59]. Photographic approaches are suitable for examination of species occupancy or abundance in aquatic and terrestrial biomes [34] and are suitable for targeting a range of animal species [60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65]. Robust statistical methodologies are available for data analysis, including spatially explicit capture-recapture techniques (SECR), multi-layered robust principal component analysis, occupancy modeling, and predator–prey co-occurrence analysis [66, 67, 68, 69]. Photographic and video processing programs are undergoing continual refinement, providing an ever-improving framework for data analysis and allowing inferences into animal behaviors and spatial distribution [70].
The field of big data analytics is advancing rapidly, utilizing machine learning (ML) algorithms to provide automated analysis of digital imagery [35]. Applications include identification of animals in pictures and systematic behavioral descriptions [71]. Today, deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) are applied to image libraries, allowing rapid processing of large datasets using standard computer operating systems and open-source software [70]. Yet, ML works only if the computer is trained using accurately tagged photographs, which demands significant human effort. CNN in the context of CT research can be applied to identify any properly annotated object, from animals in PAs to agricultural pest insects [72, 73, 74]. Interconnectivity of hardware with cloud-based software is poised to empower real-time remote data collection in agriculture [75]. A parallel approach could be applied to state-of-the-art CT systems in PAs to provide real-time monitoring of animals or vegetation [76].
Passive infrared sensors (PIR) are the dominant feature used to trigger the camera shutter, while time-lapse (TL) approaches and PIR + TL in combination are also utilized [77]. Sensitivity of PIR is modulated by the camera field of vision and speed of the passing animal. A major shortcoming to PIR-activated cameras is that they often fail to trigger upon encounter by insects or small animals. Modifications of PIR sensor sensitivity or camera focal point distance can be made to improve detection of small-bodied animals [55, 77]. One advancement to PIR sensors, the so-called HALT trigger, utilizes a near-infrared beam to increase camera trapping performance on arthropods and small vertebrates [63]. As an alternative to sensor-based CT activation, automated TL photography has application to document arthropods, squamates, and avian roosting sites [62, 65, 77, 78, 79]. In addition to PIR and HALT, infrared technology has been used to create a less invasive flash mechanism for night photography compared to use of xenon or LED flash [55].
The advantages of remote CT are myriad. Today’s automated approaches largely eliminate the requirement of human presence at a study site, restricting visitation to plot establishment and removal, and thereby reducing activities that could bias animal behavior. Furthermore, cameras can be deployed in locations that are difficult to access [79, 80]. Traps can be programmed to function at optimal times to detect target species behaviors. Exclusion of empty pictures or videos is enabled through automated image pre-processing [81, 82]. While studies generally focus on one or a small set of animals, the bycatch of unanalyzed photographs additionally serves as a rich source for wider ML training applications or retrospective occupancy analyses [83].
Despite the advancements of CT methodologies, critical logistical challenges remain. Animals may be able to detect CT through sight or sound, even in the absence of field workers [84]. A network of CT, deployed for weeks at a time, is necessary to acquire a robust dataset. The cumulative sampling effort of all cameras in an array, termed CT days, needs to be approximately determined prior to deployment [55]. Data analysis is an obstacle to understanding the value of CT schematics [59]. Another critical hindrance is the lack of standardization of CT technologies due to the wide selection of cameras on the market today [55, 80], although open standards to promote uniform collection of CT images have been proposed [85]. Up-front material costs of CT surveys can be high but are attenuated the longer the camera traps are in place [57]. The photo archive of a single project typically numbers in the thousands of images but requires a rapid turn-around time to inform management decisions. This problem is addressed through ML, but photographs must first be annotated, requiring months or years of technical effort depending on size of the photographic archive [71]. While automated identification of common species is reliable, identification of rare or undescribed species is challenging because photographic archives may not contain enough pictures to effectively train the computer [58].
With the use of appropriate digital camera sampling methodologies, the researcher no longer needs to interact directly with animals in order to gain insights into their behaviors or population structures. Images are either analyzed manually, or with a computer through ML approaches. Large networks of cameras may capture a representative number of individuals or species, allowing scientific inferences. In general, deployment periods need not exceed more than a few weeks to result in acceptable data. Foresight should be made when investigating particular behavioral attributes such as migration phenology or hibernation, because seasonality can affect captures of certain animals.
Automated sensing of airborne chemicals is an emerging area of environmental diagnostics with high potential transferability to PA management. The use of electronic noses, or e-noses, is an established technique with diverse industrial and agricultural functions, including determination of the presence of VOCs, volatile inorganic compounds, and heavy metal pollutants in the environment [86]. Applications of e-nose technologies in conservation include monitoring of IAS and pathogenic infection of plants and animals [86, 87, 88, 89]. E-nose devices are even capable of identifying species-level differences in plants based on their VOC emission profiles [90]. As such, e-noses are intelligent instruments that have great potential toward plant health monitoring [91], including in PAs.
Communication in mammals is moderated through sensory modalities, including scent. VOC emissions can be acquired from body surfaces, glands, or breath of animals [89, 92]. Insect communication is impacted by antennal detection of semiochemical VOCs [93]. In integrated pest management, this serves as the basis of mating disruption [94]. E-noses are designed to mimic mammalian or insect olfactory systems [86, 93]. First developed in the 1980’s [95], e-noses can be equipped today with a variety of sensors. Among the most common sensor types are conductive polymer biosensors [86]. Environmental analysis using these sensors is an established method for ecological, forestry, and taxonomic research [90]. E-noses can be paired with fluorescence technologies and ML algorithms to allow reliable identification or diagnosis of VOC profiles [96]. Miniaturization of next-generation e-nose devices will allow greater utility in the field [86, 97].
Plants and animals emit altered suites of VOCs under biotic or abiotic stresses [86, 89, 97]. Comparison of VOC emissions can be made between field-grown plants and reference electronic aroma signature patterns to determine plant infection or infestation status [90]. In a study of North American ash trees, healthy trees had higher diversity of VOCs compared to trees infested with emerald ash borer
Utilization of e-nose devices suffers from considerable practical limitations. Their bulky size and high price, coupled with difficulties of aroma profile detection, limit their application in the field [97]. E-noses only display raw response unless they are paired with computer-based training datasets [91]. When working with previously uncharacterized species, new computer algorithms and VOC reference libraries must be generated [86]. Moreover, due to geographic variability of abiotic factors, source materials for reference libraries should come from the sampled region [90]. Periodic calibration of e-nose monitors is necessary to maintain accuracy [86]. Sensors must be replaced periodically due to degradation over time [87]. Yet, the objective identification of VOC profiles in the environment represents a clear opportunity for management of plant health in PAs.
Animals communicate with one another for a number of biologically important reasons including defense, mating, group interactions, and orientation [98, 99]. Sound is recognized as a common means of communication in insects, fish, birds, squamates, and mammals [98, 100]. Call count censusing has long been a standard practice to identify community assemblages [101, 102]. Initially conducted with expensive, cumbersome equipment, census techniques using recorders now allow ecologists to document a wide diversity of species at a far lower cost than continual deployment of field crews [98]. Today, PAM uses autonomous recording units (ARUs), representing a non-invasive means to collect species-level occupancy data, thereby minimizing behavioral impacts or animal stress [103, 104].
Modern ARUs have many advantages over previously standard field techniques, enabling research crews to conduct more site surveys with fewer site visits and allowing improved biodiversity estimation in remote areas [105, 106]. Digital recordings further serve as permanent data records that can be played back for verification of species identity [101, 107, 108, 109]. Rapid acoustic surveys using microphone arrays have application in conservation, identifying changes in community species assemblages or migration patterns, phenology, communication, or even presence of IAS [105, 110, 111]. This approach may help to identify environmental impacts of anthropogenic disturbance, for example the impacts of artisanal mining on the local avian community [112].
Methodologies for detection of vocal species are well established, including classic field approaches of physical trapping, playback of audio recordings, point counts, and timed area searches [105, 108, 113, 114]. Bats and birds have been recorded in proximity to wind turbines using radar tracking, infrared imagery, and radio telemetry, [61, 115]. First formalized nearly 20 years ago, SECR techniques provide the statistical framework to document species density across microphone arrays [69, 103, 114, 116]. For some taxa, effectiveness of manual calling surveys has been directly compared to results from ARU methodologies, with both methods providing synergetic benefits to a monitoring program [101]. Manual calling surveys and ARU approaches can support similar conclusions; however, ARUs may provide biodiversity data with dramatically reduced human effort [117]. Similar to CT studies, well-established statistical techniques are available for studies using PAM to provide estimates on animal abundance, density, and occupancy [105, 113, 118, 119].
Species-specific auditory signals can be identified by experienced personnel, or automatically using ML algorithms. Several automated ML techniques are described [99, 100, 107, 120]. Two crucial components of automated bioacoustics analysis are recognized. First, auditory signals are characterized visually through spectrograms; subsequently, signals are extracted from continuous recordings through pairing with a “recognizer” template segment [105]. Spectrograms assist in species identification [106, 115]. Automation coupled with cloud-based technologies now enable remote real-time identification, potentially providing up-to-the-minute conservation information to a PA manager [107, 121].
Expert-based field identification may compare favorably to findings generated from remote microphone arrays linked to species recognition algorithms [108]. Yet, surveys relying on human skill for identification of species are prone to error due to imperfect species detection, confirmation bias, or listener fatigue [102, 103, 119, 122]. Lack of objective classification is especially challenging when a reviewer is charged with identifying rare or unknown species, with animals that are known to employ mimicry, or in complex soundscapes [104, 111]. Multiple factors influence the soundscape, including relative abundance of species, caller density, and community acoustic diversity [123]. Analysis of soundscape profiles can be facilitated through reduction of background noise [104, 109]. Incorporating species time of arrival or activity into a survey using fixed-point microphone arrays can be an approach to reduce bias [102, 114]. Through application of sound filters, automated programs can eliminate sections of uninformative data, facilitating verification of acoustic signals by a reviewer [117].
Important limitations persist for auditory species identification. Use of automated computer recognition of animal calls is currently underutilized [102]. For effective ML, hundreds of labeled sound records are required [115, 120]. Recordings may miss very faint or distant calls and allow overrepresentation of calls by noisy species [115, 117, 122]. Depending on equipment, costs can be high for acquisition and maintenance of a microphone array [105]. Furthermore, effective sampling area is often imprecisely known due to landscape features, thus limiting inference on species occupancy [103]. An effective study design can help alleviate some limitations, for example through strategic placement of microphone arrays providing overlap within species habitat. Certain types of hardware are becoming less expensive, while many software programs and call libraries are deposited in open-source libraries [99].
The generation of large amounts of data is a common feature to many PAM programs [117]. While automated identification of acoustic calls is possible for certain species or analytical processes, big data processing challenges remain [35, 99, 121]. Solutions to data management should be transferrable to personnel of all skill levels, and in a way that acoustic data can be statistically compared across sites [117]. Nonetheless, the recent advancements of automated PAM hold great promise for the future of PA management.
Management of PAs can be supported by RS applications. A range of different datasets can be produced using RS, including information on climate, characteristics of vegetation, plant phenology, water budget, energy exchange, and terrain models [124]. In order to ensure efficient use of such data, a clear implementation strategy is essential. Analysis of satellite data is a cost-efficient extension to conventional in-situ monitoring in the field, particularly in remote and inaccessible areas. Moreover, analyses can be carried out retrospectively with historic satellite imagery [125]. To detect different ecosystems and habitats, structural and functional attributes can be determined based on various RS technologies [124]. For example, LiDAR- and radar-derived elevation models are often used for forest mapping to assess aboveground structure and biomass [126]. Some RS techniques also provide the possibility to compare different PAs worldwide based on the same dataset, enabling global estimates of habitat availability. Local and regional datasets are often more accurate than global datasets, in particular for the use of unmanned aerial systems, or drones [124]. Drones are flexible vehicles that can be equipped with imaging sensors including thermal vision cameras, visible red-green-blue, near infrared, multispectral, or hyperspectral sensors, as well as ranging sensors including laser scanners and synthetic aperture radars. Drones come in multi-rotor or fixed wing configurations and are used in many conservation-based fields: wildlife monitoring and management, ecosystem monitoring, law enforcement, ecotourism, environmental management, and disaster response [127].
To improve management and monitoring effectiveness in PAs, software programs like Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) combine geographic information systems (GIS) with database tools and digital field assessment [128]. Through such tools, standardized results of conservation efforts or PA law enforcement activities can be generated in real-time. SMART output shows the spatial distribution of illegal activities while simultaneously tracking patrol efforts and providing a record of the violation [129].
The SMART approach streamlines the time required for quality assessment. A multilingual interface facilitates its implementation in PAs anywhere in the world. The use of pictograms can further simplify the generation of datasets. Preparation of data templates also provides an efficient way to produce standardized reports that can be expressed as a dashboard visualizing monitoring results with only a few clicks [130]. Using cloud-based technology, it is now possible to produce near real-time (NRT) alerts directly from the field [131]. This allows immediate action on incidents of conservation interest, thus improving management of the PA.
A study on the impact of NRT alert systems for conservation concluded that such systems are suitable for identifying fire impact and illegal forest activities [132]. The accuracy and availability of NRT alerts are affected through different factors including spatial resolution or time lag due to cloud cover. Despite these limitations, RS datasets provide an important indication of potential threats [133].
Diverse methodologies and thresholds are used to assess key variables in forest inventories, making data comparison a challenge [134]. In particular, use of subjective techniques can lead to faulty measurements. One solution is to compare parameters using RS such as above-ground woody biomass across national borders [135]. In this instance, generation of cross-comparable information could play an important role in understanding carbon sequestration dynamics of different forests [136]. By identifying, such datasets enable a comparison of individual tree characteristics at the landscape level [137]. The applicability of different methodologies and datasets for single tree detection has been studied for more than three decades [138] and is becoming more accurate. For laser scanner datasets, the point density to detect tree parameters can vary from 2 points m−2 up to more than 25,000 points m−2 [139, 140]. Furthermore, analysis of datasets with repeat survey dates allows detection of single missing trees. These so-called change detection approaches are already possible using consumer-level drones without post-processing effort, based on multi-temporal ultra-high-resolution orthomosaics (5 cm pixel resolution with a flight altitude of 100 m) and three-dimensional point clouds. The use of such technologies can thus increase the comparability and repeatability of monitoring datasets. With a combination of pre-processed single tree detection it is possible to ground-truth tree parameters or quantify microhabitats directly in the field based on the position of the trees [141].
Applications like QField further allow PA managers to establish digital assessments in the field based on GIS (Figure 3). Such applications promote effective workflows encompassing whole data assessment, data input, and digitization, thereby enabling data quality control. The availability of actual RS data in the field can further increase the quality of digitization [142].
In-situ single tree assessment with QField. The points represent single tree detections from a remote sensing approach and allow a linkage of tree parameters to the tree itself. Coloration indicates the tree height and crown structure.
In this chapter, a review of some of the most exciting technological advances to improve BMS is provided. To meet the urgent demands of international biodiversity conventions, state-of-the-art monitoring approaches must be quickly adopted on a broad scale. In some cases, completely new work flows will be required. Yet, in order to retain the value of historical data, utility of new technologies must be evaluated, compared with previously standard approaches, and visualized for interpretation. In other words, while application of individual novel technologies may be beneficial, no method alone provides a singular solution to improve conservation metrics. Instead, PA managers must select suitable tools as part of a toolkit to allow large-scale assessment and flexibility in an adaptive management program. Using such an integrated approach will assist PA managers to reach conservation goals. Currently, the BioMONITec research team of the UNESCO Chair on Sustainable Management of Conservation Areas Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Austria, is constructing an online decision-making assistant, or configurator, to guide development of site-specific monitoring toolkits. In coordination with the IUCN WCPA, a comprehensive global biodiversity monitoring guideline that shall be applicable in PAs across the world is being developed (M. Jungmeier,
Implementation of digital monitoring tools is poised to augment biodiversity monitoring programs, economizing both human capital and natural resources. Where monitoring data already exist, usage of new tools must allow valid comparison of data to permit identification of trends. High-throughput DNA metabarcoding techniques using eDNA sampling have proven to be invaluable for rapid and comprehensive biodiversity assessments in PAs. Advances in cloud-based computer frameworks and ML will allow sensor-based technologies to convey data in real-time to a manager. Drones and satellites can already provide NRT data from above the earth’s surface, and these capabilities are continually improving. In this context, PA managers of the future should not only be competently qualified scientists, excellent communicators and mediators, but must also be up-to-date technology enthusiasts.
The authors would like to thank Isabella Clemens, Laura Schnabl, and Hannes Egger for providing critical feedback on figures. Funding was provided through FFG COIN project number 884138, “Biodiversity Monitoring Technologies – test, development and transfer of disruptive engineering technologies into conservation practice” and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Digital and Economic Affairs (BMDW).” Mention of the BMDW is required by our funding sources. All opinions, findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of funding agencies.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ARU | autonomous recording unit |
BMS | biodiversity monitoring system |
CBD | Convention on Biological Diversity |
CNN | convolutional neural network |
CT | camera trapping |
eDNA | environmental DNA |
GIS | geographical information system |
IAS | invasive alien species |
IPBES | Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |
IUCN | International Union for the Conservation of Nature |
ML | machine learning |
(M)OTU | (molecular) operational taxonomic unit |
NRT | near real-time |
PA | protected area |
PAM | passive acoustic monitoring |
PIR | passive infrared |
RS | remote sensing |
SDGs | Sustainable Development Goals |
SECR | spatially explicit capture-recapture |
SMART | Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool |
SSC | Species Survival Commission |
TL | time-lapse |
UN | United Nations |
VOC | volatile organic carbon |
WCPA | World Commission on Protected Areas |
LASIK is the most commonly used corneal refractive surgical procedure to treat ametropia worldwide [1, 2]. Compared to earlier microkeratome variant, femtosecond laser-assisted laser in situ keratomileusis (FsLASIK) provides precise flap creation achieving better morphological stability. Even so, flap related complications, induction of higher-order aberrations, as well as biomechanical corneal instability are still present [3, 4, 5]. When ablating stroma between 10 and 30% of depth, LASIK is estimated to reduce the tensile strength of the stroma by about 35% [6, 7, 8].
In recent years, the lenticle extraction method has gradually become popular as a potential alternative for traditional LASIK and PRK procedures. The femtosecond laser-assisted corneal procedure known as small-incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) was first described by Sekundo et al. in 2008 [9] and after larger series followed, the procedure became clinically available in 2011. Using an ultrashort pulse laser system, procedure delineates contour of tissue volume that needs to be excised in order to accomplish refractive correction. It is a flapless procedure where two precise intrastromal planar sections are created by femtosecond laser forming the lenticule that is manually extracted through a superiorly (nasal/temporal) placed small 2–5 mm length incision after careful dissection from the pocket. When removing intrastromal lenticule, corneal shape is altered without Bowman’s membrane disruption, therefore procedure offers biomechanical stability of the cornea, especially in treatment of higher levels of myopia and astigmatism [6, 9]. Since there is no flap creation, lenticule extraction procedure rules out formerly known risks in LASIK procedures, such as flap creation complication and dislocation [6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12].
Recently, two emerging alternatives have been introduced in the market: CLEAR using Z8 by Ziemer, Switzerland [13, 14, 15] and SmartSight using ATOS by SCHWIND eye-tech-solutions, Germany [16, 17].
CLEAR (Corneal Lenticule Extraction for Advanced Refractive correction) treatment is an additional treatment program from FEMTO LDV Z8, which is a multipurpose laser (cataract surgery, corneal transplantation, flap creation for LASIK, tunnel/pocket creation for inlays, arcuate incision). In the technical aspect, it works under pulse energies below 100 nJ with a repetition rate above 20 MHz and a spiral raster laser pattern [15]. Besides eye-tracking guided centration, the laser system has intraoperative OCT, which is predominantly used for cases of corneal transplantation, tunnel creation for inlays, and cataract surgery. The ability to create two side-cuts potentially reduces the learning curve for less experienced surgeons since tunnels guide directly to the anticipated plane of the lenticule (anterior or posterior) [13, 14].
SmartSight treatment profile by SCHWIND ATOS, without using side cuts, does not have a minimal thickness (as in SMILE) and includes lenticule tapering toward the periphery, a refractive progressive transition zone, to achieve minimal refractive regression by reducing epithelial remodelling [17] The laser works in the plasma-mediated ablation regime, slightly above the threshold for laser-induced optical breakdown, and below the photodisruption regime. It works under pulse energy below 100 nJ, with spot spacing >4 μm and track spacing ~3 μm, with a repetition rate up to 4 MHz, and an asymmetric scanning pattern. The laser system has cyclotorsion control, where it incorporates a video-based eye registration from the diagnostic image along with an eye-tracker guided centration to improve the predictability of the astigmatic corrections (Figure 1).
Video-based eye registration (cyclotorsion control) from the diagnostic image along with an eye-tracker guided centration inside the Schwind ATOS.
When forming and extracting lenticule in SMILE procedure from anterior half of the stroma, the tensile corneal strength is reduced by 55% while this effect is less profound in the case of lenticule formed in deeper stromal layers [7] Therefore, extent of changes in biomechanical corneal properties is depending on the lenticule volume and location (depth) in the cornea [7, 8, 18].
The differences between SMILE and FsLASIK are potential sources that could influence the final refractive and overall optical performance of the eye after surgery by inducing unwanted astigmatism. Moreover, there has been an increasing awareness and understanding of the change in higher-order optical aberrations following corneal refractive surgery over the last two decades. It is widely accepted that higher-order aberrations should be either maintained after surgery at preoperative levels or modified to improve the overall optical and visual performances of the eye [19, 20, 21, 22].
Indications for lenticule extraction adhere to the guidelines for all corneal refractive surgical procedures [23].
Prior to the decision if the patient meets the criteria for refractive surgery complete ophthalmologic examination is needed. The examination includes uncorrected distance visual acuity, corrected distance visual acuity, manifest and cycloplegic refraction, corneal tomography, corneal and ocular aberrometry, tonometry, slit lamp, and dilated funduscopic examination.
Patients with stable refraction, myopia up to −10.00 D, and astigmatism up to 5 D or SE up to 12.50 D with sufficient corneal thickness and normal tomography are considered eligible candidates. As the most common contraindications would be considered: abnormal corneal topography, signs of progressive preoperative corneal thickness <480 μm or calculated residual stromal bed thickness <275 μm, scotopic pupil wider than 7.5 mm, dry eye, inflammation of ocular adnexa and periocular area, active autoimmune disease or connective tissue diseases.
The surgery is performed under topical anesthesia. After standardized cleaning with 2.5% povidone-iodine and sterile draping, an eyelid speculum is used to keep the eye open. After positioning patient on the surgical bed, and connecting the surgical cone (disposable interface) to suction ports, the patient is instructed to fixate the light target when the eye is aligned with the cone. When centration coincides with the visual axis and there is visible matching of corneal vertex (from corneal tomography), suction can be applied, followed by treatment initialization and laser ablation immediately after complete suction is achieved. Caps can be 100–150 μm thick and incisions are usually positioned superotemporal with width between 2.5 and 3.2 mm. The optical zone selected depends on the scotopic pupil size and attempted correction. Automatic suction release occurs upon completion of lenticule formation. After identifying both anterior and posterior lenticular surface with thin blunt spatula, separation of the lenticule and extraction through the side cut is performed. In order to detect any residual material or tears, lenticule tissue is thoroughly inspected.
In two separated studies we were evaluating outcomes, safety, efficacy, and predictability of small-incision lenticule extraction procedures performed at different laser systems. For treating myopia and myopic astigmatism. In first study, ReLEx SMILE procedure was performed on VisuMax from Zeiss, with comparing refractive and visual outcomes with FsLASIK procedure performed on VisuMax for flap creation and Schwind Sirius 750s for excimer ablation at one-year period. The second study was conducted on Atos for Schwind eye-tech-solutions, performing SmartSight lenticule extraction procedure. During a three-month follow up refractive, wavefront, and topographic outcomes were evaluated. The results of both studies are presented below.
There was a significant difference in the magnitude of astigmatism between the SMILE and the FsLASIK groups one year after the surgery [24]. Postoperatively, the amount of any astigmatism revealed by subjective refraction results from a combination of the treated astigmatism coupled with the effects of postoperative healing. In the SMILE group, we encountered more residual manifest astigmatism compared with the FsLASIK group. Vector analysis of astigmatism did not show any difference between the two groups prior to surgery. Both mean J0 and J45 values were slightly lower in the FsLASIK group in comparison with the SMILE group indicating that astigmatism is less prevalent after FsLASIK (Figures 2–5). This indication is further supported by the slightly higher surgically induced astigmatism values following SMILE compared with FsLASIK. Both techniques of vector analysis show that individual differences between the vector value pre- and postoperative were strongly correlated with the preoperative vector values. This is encouraging indicating that for individual cases the postoperative astigmatic vector values can be predicted with precision using the preoperative astigmatic value in both SMILE and FsLASIK. The Thibos\' method of vector analysis [25], clearly points out that within the SMILE group the correlation between ΔJ45 and preoperative J45 (0.792) tended to be lower in comparison with the counterpart in the FsLASIK group (0.924). This suggests that the precision of controlling a change in astigmatism with FsLASIK is superior compared with SMILE.
Change in J0 vector value in each case treated with SMILE procedure. Significant association between the change in J0 (ΔJ0) and preop J0 value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: ΔJ0 = 1.015J0 + 0.040 (R = .861, N = 89, P < .001).
Change in J45 vector value in each case treated with SMILE procedure. Significant association between the change in J45 (ΔJ45) and preop J45 value is presented as linear regression. The least squares line: ΔJ45 = 1.082J45 + 0.019 (R = .792, N = 89, P < .001).
Change in J0 vector value in each case treated with FsLASIK procedure. Significant association between the change in J0 (ΔJ0) and preop J0 value is presented as linear regression. The least squares line: ΔJ0 = 0.952J0 − 0.005 (R = .921, N = 92, P < .001).
Change in J45 vector value in each case treated with FsLASIK procedure. Significant association between the change in J45 (ΔJ45) and preop J45 value. Is presented as linear regression. The least squares line: ΔJ45 = 0.962J45 − 0.002 (R = .923, N = 92, P < .001).
Turning to the mean target and surgically induced astigmatism values, in the FsLASIK group the target and surgically induced astigmatism values were nearly identical. This can only occur when the residual astigmatism is almost totally nullified. In the SMILE group, the mean surgically induced astigmatism was significantly higher than the target induced astigmatism (−0.57 D and −0.41 D respectively). This indicates that the SMILE procedure tends to overcorrect and even induce astigmatism. The centration is different for both SMILE and FsLASIK procedures, wherein SMILE, procedure is centred on the visual axis and FsLASIK is centred on the corneal vertex. In the event that the intersection of the corneal surface and the visual axis does not coincide with corneal apex, a smaller amount of unwanted astigmatism may be predicted [26]. Given the procedure centration on corneal vertex, this should more likely occur after FsLASIK. Other factors must be responsible for the increased astigmatism after SMILE.
In Figures 6 and 7 vector diagrams demonstrate the unwanted induced astigmatism that occurred in some cases, where surgically induced astigmatism values appear more dispersed from the central point in the SMILE group compared with the FsLASIK group. Of a total of 89 eyes treated with SMILE procedure, at one-year postop we found three cases where astigmatism increased by 0.75 D and 10 cases where astigmatism increased by 0.50 D. The results of astigmatic corrections after SMILE differ among authors. Some authors reported no significant differences in postoperative astigmatism between SMILE and FsLASIK, and no significant increases in astigmatism [27, 28]. On the other hand, others reported more favourable outcomes after FsLASIK [29]. In addition, Kunert et al. [30] and Qian et al. [31] reported up to 1.00 D overcorrection of astigmatism and an overall undercorrection of high astigmatism after the SMILE procedure. None of the available reports mentions or discusses cases where astigmatism becomes manifest during the postop period. Unexpected postoperative astigmatism following a SMILE procedure could, to some extent, be explained by insufficient intraoperative centration, decentration of refractive lenticule ablation profile relative to the visual axis, dislodged fragments from the lenticule (although we did not encounter any), and the impact of any epithelial hyperplasia during the postoperative period. The lower incidence of astigmatism in the FsLASIK group may be linked to the advanced eye-tracking devices designed to compensate for any cyclotorsional effect and eye movements during the excimer laser ablation [32]. For the SMILE procedure centration was achieved manually after instructing the patient to fixate a blinking green light and locking the laser procedure about the visual axis using suction ports [6]. Slight tilting of the lenticule, in association with any decentration, would further contribute to any unexpected postop astigmatism.
Polar diagram showing target and surgically induced astigmatic values for the SMILE group. The targeted surgically induced astigmatism data points are shown as empty circles and filled dots respectively, with semicircles from −2 DC to 0 (central point) in 0.5DC steps and from 0°to 90°and 180° (right to left) in 30° steps.
Polar diagram showing target and surgically induced astigmatic values for the FsLASIK group. The target and surgically induced astigmatism data points are shown as empty circles and filled dots respectively, with semicircles from −2 DC to 0 (central point) in 0.5DC steps and from 0°to 90°and 180° (right to left) in 30° steps.
At one-year postop, significant differences between the two groups were found for all higher-order aberrations (HOAs). Coma, trefoil, and spherical aberration (SA) tended to be lower in the FsLASIK group compared with SMILE. In the SMILE group, a significant increase in postoperative SA was revealed while there were no differences for coma or trefoil. For the FsLASIK group, significant changes in coma and trefoil were observed but not for SA. The changes in the mean values of some HOAs were statistically significant, but their clinical relevance is open to question. Figures 8–13 show there are highly significant correlations between changes in coma, trefoil, and SA in individual cases when compared with preoperative values. The results of these linear regressions can be used to predict the likely change in an HOA we can expect to encounter after surgical intervention on an individual case-by-case basis. For example, Figures 8 and 9 show preoperative values for coma below 0.15 μm are not expected to change greatly after either SMILE or FsLASIK. The magnitude of coma is predicted to fall by approximately 0.14 μm after either procedure when the preop value is in the region of 0.30 μm. Turning to Figures 12 and 13, when the preoperative SA is of the order +0.10 μm the postoperative value should reduce by nearly 50% after either SMILE or FsLASIK. However, if the preoperative was −0.10 μm the predicted postoperative value after SMILE is +0.010 μm and +0.002 μm after FsLASIK. Thus, when refractive surgery is the desired option, it would be advisable to treat highly aberrated eyes with FsLASIK.
Change in coma value in each case treated with SMILE procedure. Significant association between the change in coma (y) and preop coma (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.847x − 0.094 (R = .562, N = 89, P < .001).
Change in coma value in each case treated with FsLASIK procedure. Significant association between the change in coma (y) and preop coma (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.688x − 0.034 (R = .743, N =92, P < .001).
Change in trefoil value in each case treated with SMILE procedure. Significant association between the change in trefoil (y) and preop trefoil (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.793x − 0.057 (r = .515, N = 89, P < .001).
Change in trefoil value in each case treated with FsLASIK procedure. Significant association between the change in trefoil (y) and preop trefoil (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.741x − 0.027 (R = .618, N = 92, P < .001).
Change in spherical aberration (SA) value in each case treated with SMILE procedure. Significant association between the change in SA (y) and preop SA (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.832x − 0.027 (R = .779, N = 89, P < .001).
Change in spherical aberration (SA) value in each case treated with FsLASIK procedure. Significant association between the change in SA (y) and preop SA (x) value presented as linear regression. The least squares line: y = 0.428x + 0.004 (R = .545, N = 92, P < .001).
Our results conflict with other published reports. Wu et al. [33] reported the magnitude of all higher-order aberrations increased after either SMILE or FsLASIK. However, after surgery, the average values for SA and horizontal coma were lower in the SMILE group compared with the FsLASIK group. Lin et al. [34] also reported increases in all ocular higher-order aberrations after both SMILE and FsLASIK but, with significantly lower values of SA and coma after the SMILE procedure. Others report that contrast sensitivity improved after SMILE implying more favorable high order aberration profiles [6, 28]. Our experience does not support previous reports because we found SA increased after SMILE with coma and trefoil reduction after the FsLASIK. The differences between some reports may be due to several factors such as geographical factors. For example, the work of Wu et al. [33] Lin et al. [34], and Liu et al. [35] were based in Southeast Asia, and the work by Ganesh et al. [36] was based in India. Our results were obtained predominantly from Caucasian eyes. The differences in the outcomes between studies can result from a variety of reasons including genetic factors. However, results based on studies in other territories are concordant with the findings from Asia [6, 27, 37].
In conclusion, our experience with both procedures yields satisfactory visual acuity results. However, FsLASIK offers a marginally improved outcome as indicated by the residual high order aberrations and astigmatism.
The short-term changes at three-month follow-up of the efficacy and safety of lenticule extraction treatments using the SmartSight profile were analyzed.
The main difference and advantage of SCHWIND ATOS and SmartSight at this time of development is the low energy delivered to the cornea since the laser works slightly above the threshold for the laser-induced optical breakdown with energies between 80 and 100 nJ. In addition, the laser also possesses features such as cyclotorsion control and eye-tracker guided centration. Lack of the abovementioned technologies was one of the main drawbacks for the surgeons in transition from excimer laser-based procedures to lenticular extraction and was often emphasized as the main shortcoming in the treatment of a higher amount of astigmatism.
The analysis revealed promising results after the treatment. The unaided vision was expected to improve overall. Most of the outcome measures showed significant improvement compared to the preoperative status. The improvement in visual acuities was significant (Figures 14–16).
Standard graphs for reporting outcomes in laser vision correction: Cumulative Snellen Visual acuity.
Difference between UDVA and CDVA.
Accuracy of MRSEq to intended target (D).
An excellent refractive outcome was observed in terms of manifest refraction, but this was only partly confirmed by the objective refraction and the topographical changes. This suggests that manifest refraction may be more forgiving in terms of exactly determining the accuracy of the treatments, but at the same time, UDVA is the main driver for patient satisfaction. CDVA loss of two lines occurred only in a single eye (Figure 17).
Change in Snellen lines of CDVA.
At three months after the surgery, for the change in wavefront refraction or corneal keratometry 68% of eyes were within 0.5D from target (Figures 18 and 19), with 63% and 58% of eyes within 0.5D from target astigmatism for wavefront refraction and corneal keratometry, respectively (Figures 20 and 21). The angle of error was within 25° from the attempted astigmatism axis in 60% and 42% of the eyes for wavefront refraction and corneal keratometry, respectively (Figure 22).
Wavefront refraction vs. attempted SEQ (D).
Accuracy of SEQ to intended target (D).
Scattergram of achieved change in wavefront refraction vs attempted correction of the astigmatism.
Percentage of eyes within intended target of postoperative astigmatism.
Angle of error from attempted astigmatism axis.
Previous publications, like recent studies by Sideroudi et al. [38] and Ganesh et al. [39], suggest that undercorrection in SMILE can be associated with forward shifting of posterior corneal surface that leads to posterior curvature steepening. Opposite to our findings, some works report lower changes observed in keratometries than in refraction. This could be due to using simpler models and not considering difference in refractive indices (used for keratometry) and actual refractive corneal index, the effect of central tissue removal on refraction, or effect of the vertex distance on planned refraction (spectacle plane to corneal plane). Taking this into consideration, The SmartSight profile involves tapering the lenticule toward the edge to achieve smoothing of the transition zone from treated to the untreated cornea in an attempt to reduce the biomechanical changes and epithelial remodelling on the edge of the treatment. It is determined as refractive progressive transition zone, similar to the one used in the SCHWIND AMARIS ablation profiles, ranging from 0.2 mm to 0.8 mm, determined by corneal curvature gradient and also induced by correction.
In this study at three months, the scattergram of achieved change in wavefront refraction vs. achieved change in keratometry readings of the SEQ showed a very good correlation (Figure 23), with 75% eyes within 0.75D (Figure 24).
Scattergram of achieved change in wavefront refraction vs achieved change in keratometry readings of the SEQ.
Agreement of change in SEQ between wavefront refraction and keratometry readings.
Corneal aberrations slightly increased after the treatment, but the change of ocular aberrations was very minor and non-significant (Figures 25 and 26). This may confirm the relatively neutral behaviour in terms of aberrations reported from other refractive lenticule extraction techniques, as well as be indicative of adequate centration. SA was less positive when measured with ocular aberrations than for corneal aberrations. Postoperative corneal SA increased more than ocular SA, remaining stable at three months follow-up. The RMS higher-order aberrations increased, both for corneal and ocular aberrations, with corneal aberrations showing systematically higher inductions HOA than the ocular counterparts (Figure 27). Corneal topography and aberrometry revealed an induction of positive SA associated with an increase in the RMS higher-order aberrations.
Preoperative and postoperative corneal wavefront aberrations.
Preoperative and postoperative ocular wavefront aberrations.
Change in postoperative HOAs from preoperative baseline.
A limitation of this work is that only 50 eyes of 31 consecutive patients completed the three-months follow-up and were included for analyses. Another limitation is the retrospective nature of the study. Several confounding factors may be argued in our review, we have considered both eyes of the patients.
These clinical results are presented based on a three-month clinical follow-up, which is considered minimal for establishing notable clinical significance in refractive surgery. In literature, however, there are results with shorter follow-ups reported for determining the time-course of visual recovery. Studies with longer follow-ups and a greater number of clinical cases will shed light on the durability of performance and allow for further nomogram refinement to improve outcomes.
When achieving excellent clinical visual outcomes in refractive surgery, it is often difficult to demonstrate that novel procedures like lenticule extraction are superior to the standardized LASIK procedure. Up to this point, comparable outcomes in terms of refractive predictability, efficacy, and safety at minimum of three months were found, also theoretical biomechanical advantage of lenticule extraction over Fs. LASIK was described in the literature. Still, a longer learning curve for the surgeons, more frequent suction loss occurrence, prolonged visual recovery, and complicated enhancement treatment have been observed when comparing lenticule extraction to traditional Fs. LASIK. Aforementioned requires further enhancement and refinement of the procedure. Given the increasing clinical use over the last decade, lenticule extraction treatment has continuously been optimized and improved through multiple iterations. Introduction of new laser platforms such as CLEAR and SmartSight, with different energy levels, repetition rates and spot spacing has significantly improved visual outcomes. Precisely, combining high frequency and low energy profile for smooth cutting results in lenticule surface that could provide better clinical performance and optical quality for each laser platform. SmartSight treatment includes even a refractive progressive transition zone tapering the lenticule towards the edge of the transition zone to reduce epithelial remodelling and, therefore refractive regression. Additionally, eye tracking, the centring according to pupil, vertex or defined offset by surgeon, and the video-based cyclotorsion compensation are particularly helpful in astigmatism correction. More studies involving a larger number of patients with longer follow-up will evaluate if new profiles and laser platforms can improve already achieved good visual outcomes after lenticule extraction.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
laser in situ keratomileusis small-incision lenticule extracton femtosecond laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis photorefractive keratectomy corneal lenticule extraction for advanced refractive correction optical coherence tomography diopter diopter cylinder spherical equivalent higher order aberration spherical aberration uncorrected distance visual acuity corrected distance visual acuity root mean square ocular wavefront corneal wavefront nano Joule mega Hertz micrometer vector of astigmatism power at axis of 90° and 180°, so-called Cartesian or with-the-rule astigmatism vector of astigmatism power at axis of 45° and 135°, so called oblique astigmatism overall change in value of J45 overall change in value of J0 value that indicates a linear correlation between variables measure of the probability that an observe difference could have occurred
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Diseases"},signatures:"Erminio Trevisi, Massimo Amadori, Ivonne Archetti, Nicola Lacetera and Giuseppe Bertoni",authors:[{id:"40371",title:"Dr.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Amadori",slug:"massimo-amadori",fullName:"Massimo Amadori"},{id:"47776",title:"Prof.",name:"Erminio",middleName:null,surname:"Trevisi",slug:"erminio-trevisi",fullName:"Erminio Trevisi"},{id:"47777",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivonne",middleName:null,surname:"Archetti",slug:"ivonne-archetti",fullName:"Ivonne Archetti"},{id:"47778",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Lacetera",slug:"nicola-lacetera",fullName:"Nicola Lacetera"},{id:"47779",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertoni",slug:"giuseppe-bertoni",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertoni"}]},{id:"21680",doi:"10.5772/19492",title:"Application of Acute Phase Proteins for Monitoring Inflammatory States in Cattle",slug:"application-of-acute-phase-proteins-for-monitoring-inflammatory-states-in-cattle",totalDownloads:3293,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"534",slug:"acute-phase-proteins-as-early-non-specific-biomarkers-of-human-and-veterinary-diseases",title:"Acute Phase Proteins as Early Non-Specific Biomarkers of Human and Veterinary Diseases",fullTitle:"Acute Phase Proteins as Early Non-Specific Biomarkers of Human and Veterinary Diseases"},signatures:"Burim N. Ametaj, Afshin Hosseini, John F. Odhiambo, Summera Iqbal, Sumeet Sharma, Qilan Deng, Tran H. Lam, Umar Farooq, Qendrim Zebeli and Suzanna M. Dunn",authors:[{id:"35129",title:"Prof.",name:"Burim",middleName:null,surname:"Ametaj",slug:"burim-ametaj",fullName:"Burim Ametaj"},{id:"49239",title:"Prof.",name:"Qendrim",middleName:null,surname:"Zebeli",slug:"qendrim-zebeli",fullName:"Qendrim Zebeli"},{id:"49242",title:"MSc",name:"Sarah",middleName:null,surname:"Terrill",slug:"sarah-terrill",fullName:"Sarah Terrill"}]},{id:"21456",doi:"10.5772/18241",title:"Haptoglobin and Hemopexin in Heme Detoxification and Iron Recycling",slug:"haptoglobin-and-hemopexin-in-heme-detoxification-and-iron-recycling",totalDownloads:4123,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"234",slug:"acute-phase-proteins-regulation-and-functions-of-acute-phase-proteins",title:"Acute Phase Proteins",fullTitle:"Acute Phase Proteins - Regulation and Functions of Acute Phase Proteins"},signatures:"Deborah Chiabrando, Francesca Vinchi, Veronica Fiorito and Emanuela Tolosano",authors:[{id:"30837",title:"Prof.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Tolosano",slug:"emanuela-tolosano",fullName:"Emanuela Tolosano"},{id:"48270",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Chiabrando",slug:"deborah-chiabrando",fullName:"Deborah Chiabrando"},{id:"48271",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Vinchi",slug:"francesca-vinchi",fullName:"Francesca Vinchi"},{id:"48272",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorito",slug:"veronica-fiorito",fullName:"Veronica Fiorito"}]},{id:"45299",doi:"10.5772/56101",title:"Molecular Aspects of Human Alpha-1 Acid Glycoprotein — Structure and Function",slug:"molecular-aspects-of-human-alpha-1-acid-glycoprotein-structure-and-function",totalDownloads:3369,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"3318",slug:"acute-phase-proteins",title:"Acute Phase Proteins",fullTitle:"Acute Phase Proteins"},signatures:"Kazuaki Taguchi, Koji Nishi, Victor Tuan Giam Chuang, Toru\nMaruyama and Masaki Otagiri",authors:[{id:"158116",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Otagiri",slug:"masaki-otagiri",fullName:"Masaki Otagiri"},{id:"158238",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuaki",middleName:null,surname:"Taguchi",slug:"kazuaki-taguchi",fullName:"Kazuaki Taguchi"},{id:"165882",title:"Dr.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Nishi",slug:"koji-nishi",fullName:"Koji Nishi"},{id:"165883",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Tuan Giam",middleName:null,surname:"Chuang",slug:"victor-tuan-giam-chuang",fullName:"Victor Tuan Giam Chuang"},{id:"165884",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Maruyama",slug:"toru-maruyama",fullName:"Toru Maruyama"}]},{id:"46263",doi:"10.5772/57507",title:"HLA-E, HLA-F and HLA-G — The Non-Classical Side of the MHC Cluster",slug:"hla-e-hla-f-and-hla-g-the-non-classical-side-of-the-mhc-cluster",totalDownloads:2484,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"3824",slug:"hla-and-associated-important-diseases",title:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases",fullTitle:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases"},signatures:"Iris Foroni, Ana Rita Couto, Bruno Filipe Bettencourt, Margarida\nSantos, Manuela Lima and Jácome Bruges-Armas",authors:[{id:"70522",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacome",middleName:null,surname:"Bruges Armas",slug:"jacome-bruges-armas",fullName:"Jacome Bruges Armas"},{id:"81144",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Couto Rendeiro",slug:"ana-rita-couto-rendeiro",fullName:"Ana Rita Couto Rendeiro"},{id:"81147",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"manuela-lima",fullName:"Manuela Lima"},{id:"82501",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bruno Filipe",middleName:null,surname:"Bettencourt",slug:"bruno-filipe-bettencourt",fullName:"Bruno Filipe Bettencourt"},{id:"170238",title:"Dr.",name:"Iris",middleName:null,surname:"Foroni",slug:"iris-foroni",fullName:"Iris Foroni"},{id:"170824",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarida",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"margarida-santos",fullName:"Margarida Santos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65210",title:"Introductory Chapter: Concept of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)",slug:"introductory-chapter-concept-of-human-leukocyte-antigen-hla-",totalDownloads:2753,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"7140",slug:"human-leukocyte-antigen-hla-",title:"Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)",fullTitle:"Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)"},signatures:"Batool Mutar Mahdi",authors:[{id:"77656",title:"Dr.",name:"Batool Mutar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahdi",slug:"batool-mutar-mahdi",fullName:"Batool Mutar Mahdi"}]},{id:"21456",title:"Haptoglobin and Hemopexin in Heme Detoxification and Iron Recycling",slug:"haptoglobin-and-hemopexin-in-heme-detoxification-and-iron-recycling",totalDownloads:4123,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:null,book:{id:"234",slug:"acute-phase-proteins-regulation-and-functions-of-acute-phase-proteins",title:"Acute Phase Proteins",fullTitle:"Acute Phase Proteins - Regulation and Functions of Acute Phase Proteins"},signatures:"Deborah Chiabrando, Francesca Vinchi, Veronica Fiorito and Emanuela Tolosano",authors:[{id:"30837",title:"Prof.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Tolosano",slug:"emanuela-tolosano",fullName:"Emanuela Tolosano"},{id:"48270",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Chiabrando",slug:"deborah-chiabrando",fullName:"Deborah Chiabrando"},{id:"48271",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Vinchi",slug:"francesca-vinchi",fullName:"Francesca Vinchi"},{id:"48272",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorito",slug:"veronica-fiorito",fullName:"Veronica Fiorito"}]},{id:"46315",title:"In Phase HLA Genotyping by Next Generation Sequencing — A Comparison Between Two Massively Parallel Sequencing Bench-Top Systems, the Roche GS Junior and Ion Torrent PGM",slug:"in-phase-hla-genotyping-by-next-generation-sequencing-a-comparison-between-two-massively-parallel-se",totalDownloads:4503,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"3824",slug:"hla-and-associated-important-diseases",title:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases",fullTitle:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases"},signatures:"Jerzy K. Kulski, Shingo Suzuki, Yuki Ozaki, Shigeki Mitsunaga,\nHidetoshi Inoko and Takashi Shiina",authors:[{id:"169295",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerzy",middleName:"Kazimierz",surname:"Kulski",slug:"jerzy-kulski",fullName:"Jerzy Kulski"},{id:"170241",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"shingo-suzuki",fullName:"Shingo Suzuki"},{id:"170242",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",middleName:null,surname:"Ozaki",slug:"yuki-ozaki",fullName:"Yuki Ozaki"},{id:"170243",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigeki",middleName:null,surname:"Mitsunaga",slug:"shigeki-mitsunaga",fullName:"Shigeki Mitsunaga"},{id:"170244",title:"Prof.",name:"Hidetoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoko",slug:"hidetoshi-inoko",fullName:"Hidetoshi Inoko"},{id:"170245",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiina",slug:"takashi-shiina",fullName:"Takashi Shiina"}]},{id:"66411",title:"TNFR2 and Regulatory T Cells: Potential Immune Checkpoint Target in Cancer Immunotherapy",slug:"tnfr2-and-regulatory-t-cells-potential-immune-checkpoint-target-in-cancer-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"TNF has both proinflammatory and antiinflammatory effects. It binds to two structurally related but functionally distinct receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2. Unlike TNFR1 that is ubiquitously expressed, TNFR2 expression is more limited to myeloid and lymphoid cell lineages including a fraction of regulatory T cells (Treg). In general, TNFR1 is responsible for TNF-mediated cell apoptosis and death, and mostly induces proinflammatory reactions. However, TNFR2 mainly leads to functions related to cell survival and immune suppression. Treg play an indispensable role in maintaining immunological self-tolerance and restraining excessive immune reactions deleterious to the host. Impaired Treg-mediated immune regulation has been observed in various autoimmune diseases as well as in cancers. Therefore, Treg might provide an ideal therapeutic target for diseases where the immune balance is impaired and could benefit from the regulation of Treg properties. TNFR2 is highly expressed on Treg in mice and in humans, and TNFR2+ Treg reveal the most potent suppressive capacity. TNF-TNFR2 ligation benefits Treg proliferation, although the effect on Treg suppressive function remains controversial. Here, we will describe in detail the TNF-mediated regulation of Treg and the potential clinical applications in cancer immunotherapy as well as in autoimmune diseases, with the focus on human Treg subsets.",book:{id:"7853",slug:"cytokines",title:"Cytokines",fullTitle:"Cytokines"},signatures:"Xuehui He and Xinhui Wang",authors:[{id:"284559",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuehui",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"xuehui-he",fullName:"Xuehui He"},{id:"296531",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinhui",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xinhui-wang",fullName:"Xinhui Wang"}]},{id:"46259",title:"HLA in Gastrointestinal Inflammatory Disorders",slug:"hla-in-gastrointestinal-inflammatory-disorders",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3824",slug:"hla-and-associated-important-diseases",title:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases",fullTitle:"HLA and Associated Important Diseases"},signatures:"M.I. Torres, T. Palomeque and P. Lorite",authors:[{id:"34102",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",slug:"isabel-torres",fullName:"Isabel Torres"},{id:"213607",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Lorite",slug:"pedro-lorite",fullName:"Pedro Lorite"},{id:"213610",title:"Prof.",name:"Palomeque",middleName:null,surname:"T",slug:"palomeque-t",fullName:"Palomeque T"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1040",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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