\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
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1. Introduction: conceptualizing health promotion
According to Tannahill [1], health promotion is an umbrella term covering overlapping fields of health education, prevention and attempts to protect public health through social engineering, legislations, fiscal measures and institutional policies which entail the combination of the best in terms of both theory and practice from a wide range of expert groups (educationists, behavioral scientists, medical practitioners) and non-professionals including the communities involved. For him, health promotion stems largely from a new focus for health services that recognize some basic facts: many contemporary health problems are preventable or avoidable through lifestyle change; modern technology is a bundle of mixed blessings bringing both benefits and risks to health; medical technology is at the phase of diminishing returns (losing efficacy and connection to ordinary people); such non-medical factors as better nutrition, improved living conditions and public health measures have contributed to both health and longevity even more than medical measures; that doctors can cause as well as cure disease; and increasing public desire to attain better or improved quality of life and at the same time demystifying and demedicalising the attainment (achievement) of good health [1].
For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept responsibilities for health.
Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social well-being), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in manners consistent with complete good health.
Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.
Without doubt the WHO’s Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, “the key concepts in this definition are ‘process’ and ‘control’, and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empowering it is not health promotion” [4], p. 6.
As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and dynamics (see [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]).
It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health “is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier society” [11], p. 315.
There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, “health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena” [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates, social workers to medical practitioners).
The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL) Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.
2. Theories and models of health promotion
There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.
Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.
2.1 The ecological models of health promotion
As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13, 14, 15, 16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).
As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual’s health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.
Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people’s health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.
2.2 The health belief model (HBM)
This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or insurmountable or otherwise).
In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main action-related segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification targeted at the health issue in question) (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Health belief model (HBM).
In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people’s response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate community.
2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)
This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual’s readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned).
The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.
2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)
The main contention of this theory is that an individual’s health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual’s social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour) related to that behaviour.
The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people’s health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.
2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)
This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person’s immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of reciprocal determinism which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person’s characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the behaviour takes place.
However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19].
The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (Figure 3). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people’s behaviour and in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.
Figure 3.
Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).
Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20, 21, 22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities to tackle the issue in question.
3. Health promotion as sociopolitical engagement
Health promotion generally implicates a huge element of politics and power dynamics in the sense that only political will and cognition can build discernible changes in health. Lobbying and advocacy are critical tools of health promotion and function within the political arena. The sociopolitical contexts and influences are especially recognizable in the public health sector in the developing world where political will and doggedness are often necessary to drive through even the most salutary change or innovation in the health sector. Also, political forces are equally dominant in the provision of crucial health infrastructure and facilities as well as the reasonable funding demanded by any effective public health system. As Harrison opines health promotion “requires concerted, sophisticated and integrated political action to bring about change and requires professionals concerned with public health to engage with the politics of systems and organizations” [5], 165.
Therefore, health promotion seeks to empower and transform communities by getting them involved in activities that influence public health especially through agenda setting, lobbying and advocacy, consciousness raising and social education [11, 22]. All these are accomplished on terms that are either defined or strictly affected by the socio-economic realities of the people themselves. By its emphasis on the community, health promotion has a heavy sociological frame that prioritizes the values of society as well as mobilization and solidarity in the quest for good and sustainable health. It thus makes assumption that individual members of the society would give equal weight to their own health and the health of their neighbors. In other words, it is often anchored on the uncanny assumption that the health of the individual member of a given society is intertwined with the health of the community as a collective. This means the reference point of health promotion is that one’s health is as good as the health of the members of the community or society as a whole, i.e., common health destiny. Therefore, such things as community empowerment, community competence and overwhelming sense of community are all apprehended as contributing to the health of the communities [23].
4. Approaches to health promotion
Traditionally there are five approaches utilized in health promotion. These are medical (the focus here is to make people free from medically defined diseases and afflictions; it is mainly anchored on prevention strategies and the role of the medical practitioner or expert in ensuring that the patients comply with recommendations); behavioural change (behaviour modification approach that recognizes that people’s behaviour and lifestyles can be changed in order to enable them attain good health, i.e., facilitate adoption of healthy lifestyle); educational (provision of information and knowledge that enable understanding of health issues and build awareness for informed decision-making and choice among people); client-centred (in this situation health practitioners work with clients in order to identify what they know about a given disease and take appropriate action; emphasis on perceiving the client as equal and building the clients self-empowerment that enable them make good choices and control their health outcomes); and societal change (the focus here is on the society or community rather than the individual and seeks to change or modify both the physical and social environments in order to make them consistent with or conducive to good health).
The conventional health promotion methods (modes of operationalizing health promotion and achieving its goals) include health education (the conscious and systematic effort at providing education or knowledge to people on particular and general aspects of health; it is about enabling people through proper and right knowledge on what to do and how to do it; it is empowering and improving people’s capacity to act with regard to their health issues and conditions), information, communication (the above three are often captured in the popular acronym IEC), social mobilization, mediation, community theater and advocacy and lobbying. However, while these methods are okay in differing contexts, a decision on the specific medium to use should be guided by both environment (community conditions) and the nature of the health issue involved. The use of more than one method in any given case is highly recommended especially in Africa where there are broad inequalities in access to social goods and the media. The increasing use of social media especially among young Africans calls attention to their deployment equally in core health promotion. Social media platforms like WhatsApp and blogs can be very potent in this regard.
5. Health promotion research in Africa
There is an undeniable need to give high priority to health promotion research in Africa. Such research should aim at enabling a realistic and focused achievement of the goals of health promotion. Broadly, health promotion aims inter alia at:
The prevention of communicable and non-communicable diseases
The reduction of risk factors associated with diseases
The fostering of lifestyles and conditions in the general population that are consistent with overall well-being or good health
The effective/maximal utilization of existing health services and stimulating demand for others where/when necessary
According to the WHO [24] Health Promotion Strategy for the African Region, the contributions of health promotion to the achievement of health objectives include increasing individual knowledge and skills especially through IEC; strengthening community action through the use of social mobilization; enabling the emergence of environments supportive and protective of health by making optimal use of mediation and negotiation; enabling the development of public policies, legislation and fiscal controls which enhance and support health and overall development using advocacy and lobbying; and making prevention and consumer needs the core focus of health services delivery. All these can be positively influenced by research and studies which evaluate the effectiveness of what has been done as well as explore new strategies suitable to the socio-environmental context in question.
However, while research is very critical to achieving the goals of health promotion, it should be concise and focus essentially on the priority health programmes which have been identified by the WHO for the continent. Some of such programmes include the Global Fund for Malaria, HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis, Immunization, Mental Health, the Tobacco Free Initiative and Reproductive Health as well as the fight against recurrent scourge of Ebola, etc. Such research should focus on identifying effective health promotion approaches and communication media to embody and convey the outcomes to communities through community participation; the extent or effectiveness of these means and seeking to still improve overall programme effectiveness and sustainability. Therefore, health promotion research should focus on ascertaining goals/outcomes of health promotion (to guide policy), provide reliable conditions associated with these outcomes or goals, precisely define the changes intended and delineate reliable mechanisms and indicators of M and E of health promotion strategies in specific country/community contexts.
The importance of research is essentially derived from the fact that it calls attention to the need for verification and evidence-based activities in health promotion. These are without doubt the ways of knowing if real empowerment and enabling has been achieved in the process. Thus,
Health promotion is about enabling people to improve their health; and secondly, evidence relevant to health promotion should bear directly on factors that support or prevent enablement and empowerment (determinants of health) activities that support enablement and empowerment (health promotion) and assessing whether these activities have been successful (evaluation of health promotion). [25], p. 357
The above clearly suggest that health promotion should be anchored on evidence or should rest on experience and reality regarding what works or what is possible and effective in any context. In this manner, “evidence-based health promotion involves explicit application of quality research evidence when making decisions” [26], p. 126. Research is even more foundational in health promotion since health promotion efforts need to be anchored on agreed definitions and values of health promotion. As Seedhouse contends the failure to be explicit about definitions and values generates conceptual confusion in research as well as sloppy practice [27].
The evaluation of health promotion which should be a core research activity may be based on the three main forms of evidence/knowledge associated with health promotion [28]: instrumental (controlling social and physical environments), interactive (understanding of diseases/health issues; lived experiences; solidarity) and critical (reflection and action; raising consciousness regarding causes and means of overcoming them). These three evidences are anchored on the given scientific/philosophical traditions, viz. instrumental (positivism, quantitative, experimental, scientific knowledge), interactive (constructivist, naturalistic, ethnographic/qualitative knowledge) and critical (materialist, structural and feminist theory).
There is also an overwhelming need for health promotion research to be aware of the difference between health promotion outcomes and health outcomes. Health outcomes crudely imply the consequences or benefits of healthcare delivery (e.g., reduction of mortality rate) related to a disease (which may be the case in spite of an increment in number of those affected by the disease). But health promotion outcomes signify the form of control and attitudinal re-orientation groups and individuals adopt in facing a given disease which may impact on the number of people affected by the disease and improve attitudes and behaviour towards those affected by the disease. Health promotion outcomes can be seen directly through community members’ perception and interpretations of a given health issue which makes the achievement of control possible.
Health promotion research should utilize both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition to complementing quantitative methods in health promotion research, qualitative research enables the researcher reach the heart of issues in engagement with community members. In Africa, where a good percentage of the population are still domiciled in the rural areas, qualitative approach offers the possibility of profound insights into the why and how of health behaviors which may not be possible or easily achieved with the quantitative or traditional biomedical approaches. As a result, “the increasing popularity of qualitative methods is as a result of perceived failure of traditional methods to provide insights into the determinants – both structural and personal – of whether people pursue or do not pursue health-promoting actions” [25], p. 359.
6. Challenges to health promotion in Africa
It is important to recognize that in spite of apparent good intentions, health promotion can actually generate negative or counterproductive effects when not well managed. Thus, “negative outcomes occur where professionally paternalistic and disempowering health policy decisions force health-related outcomes that are irrelevant to sustained community development and are not based on or resourced according to the social reality of the community” [11], p. 315. The above sentiments caution one against embarking on health promotion activities and initiatives that are not anchored on the health realities of the community concerned. Often, overzealous health professionals unintentionally betray the health priorities of communities by assuming knowledge of all there is to know about the health situations and needs of the people.
Perhaps a critical shortfall of some health promotion activities and processes is the adoption of what can be termed the pathogenic paradigm which over-relies on risk instead of emphasizing protective mechanisms. This essentially entails a focus on the failure of communities and individuals to avoid disease or their apparent susceptibility to diseases instead of seeking to unleash their potential and capacity to engender and sustain good health and development. It is an approach that relies too much on health practitioners and experts and hardly gives voice to the people and their own knowledge cum realities.
Generally health promotion in Africa suffers from some of the debilitating challenges which confront the practice of health promotion broadly in many countries in the continent. These challenges, among others, include:
Poor definition and rudimentary elaboration of expected health outcomes
Ambiguous elaboration of factors and conditions to be targeted in health promotions
Ambiguity of health promotion policies and guidelines
Lack of capacity (or inadequate capacity) to develop, implement and evaluate health promotion programmes
A general context of inadequate investment in health promotion
Underdeveloped sectoral collaboration
Low political will and commitment to health promotion programmes as well as institutional corruption and resource mismanagement
The above challenges have implications for research in health promotions in the continent. There is no gainsaying the need for health promotion to be evidence based because essentially it is the only way to make it responsive to the health needs and interests of the people.
7. Resituating and reinforcing health promotion in Africa
Health promotion combines varied but complementary indicators like legislation, health finance including fiscal measures and taxation, gender inclusiveness, mapping of priorities and organizational change. In spite of their differences, these issues are in reality intertwined or systematically connected in the sense that, for the public health system to function well and optimally, there should be a synergy between these indicators. Briefly:
7.1 Legislation
This revolves around having the political will to make and drive through policies and laws that improve and sustain healthcare delivery. It also involves public health sector governance and leadership which aim at ensuring that only competent and qualified people lead the sector and that activities are governed by a democratic and free process which place emphasis on human rights, dignity and self-worth of all stakeholders.
7.2 Finance
Without doubt efficient health promotion and by implication the entire health delivery system cannot function without finance. In fact, the extent and impact of health promotion depend to a significant extent on the availability of funds. The problem of finance is especially critical in developing nations in Africa where political corruption and competing needs whittle down whatever gets to health from the yearly appropriation of government. However, there is a need to understand that a lot needs to be done in terms of the fiscal policies in these nations in order to achieve the desire for good health and improved life expectancy. In other words, the process of fiscal policymaking and budgetary allocation should prioritize health promotion and health delivery in these countries.
7.3 Organizational change
There is no gainsaying the fact that the health system as a whole is dynamic especially so in Africa where apart from battling known ailments new ones (or novel presentation of the old ailments) spring up now and then. The above entails that the health system calls for dynamic organizational setting that is robust enough to deal with changes while making improvements in the system. There is apparently no denying the fact that health promotion as a critical component of health delivery would benefit from organizational change. This is particularly so in the face of the reality that health promotion in most of the continent is still below the expectation. This is not to deny that health promotion has worked well in specific instances like the HIV/AID scourge and maternal health. However, such grab and slash system which focuses on only one of such delimited issues in the system cannot be seen as either robust or effective in the long run.
7.4 Gender inclusiveness
There is an obvious need to ‘en-gender’ health promotion as a very critical issue in Africa. This would entail ensuring that those involved in health promotion ensure that in all key phases of health promotion (planning, implementation and evaluation) women and men should be equal partners and collaborators. Gender, in this case, while calling attention to the needs of women, should also ensure that the men are not left behind even in approaching health issues traditionally seen as the concerns of women. Typical example here is in the area of family planning or reproductive health which demands the active collaboration or participation of both men and women to achieve desired results.
7.5 Mapping of priorities
For the WHO [24], the priority interventions in Africa in respect of health promotions include capacity building, development of plans, incorporation of health promotion components in non-health sectors and strengthening of priority programmes using health promotion interventions. These essentially mean pursuing health promotion through capacity building, action planning, advocacy and multisectoral orientation. They are also in tune with relating to the determinants of health promotion in the continent. These include socio-economic conditions and physical (environment), biological, and behavioral lifestyles which impact on health in Africa. Countries can be encouraged to map out their priorities taking into consideration such factors as disease and financial burdens, threats, intervention tools and agencies, acuity, management capabilities, persistent challenges, etc.
8. Conclusion and recommendations
Generally, there is a need for stepping up health promotion research in Africa in the areas of family and reproductive health targeting such issues as VVF, antenatal care, diabetes, cardiovascular issues, new disease forms/resurgence of old diseases (including Ebola), etc. especially in terms of communicating with those who are marginal to the formal sector of the society or who are less privileged by virtue of education, economic opportunities or physical/mental challenges, etc. in both urban and rural contexts. Health promotion can profit from an acute awareness of the fact that what works in one socio-geographical setting may not work in another since no two societies are exactly the same. This would entail designing programmes that even where the general principles or goals remain the same embody recognition of the socio-geographical peculiarities of the society/community concerned.
Given the usual paucity of funds in the continent, it makes sense that to minimize cost and save time, there should be incorporation of both needs assessment and evaluation into ongoing health promotion activities. This approach offers a smart way of pursuing health promotion goals without elaborate budget.
In spite of country differences and specific structural challenges, there is a need to build a culture of sharing and documenting outcomes and evidences of health promotion between different countries and organizations. This is a step towards achieving the desirable goal of multinational coordination especially for infectious diseases and epidemics. Equally, African nations need to invest more in capacity building for media and theater practitioners in both private and public sectors on health promotion. There is no gainsaying the media’s crucial role in health information dissemination. Actually, health promotion is largely media driven and should be programmed as such.
In addition to media practitioners, there should be health programme or intervention specific to health promotion capacity building for different cadres of public sector workers. Such capacity building or training should be anchored on acute awareness of current research trends and best practices globally. There should also be increased attention to the need for specific health promotion for under-represented health issues and priority to non-communicable diseases should be targeted. It should also improve capacity on how to incorporate methods of targeting members of the society marginal or vulnerable within each country context.
\n',keywords:"health promotion, public health, challenges, Africa, health education, theories",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71667.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71667.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71667",totalDownloads:1525,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:68,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"April 5th 2020",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:"April 5th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter examines the place and role of health promotion in the drive for sustainable and effective public health delivery in Africa. It conceptualizes health promotion from a multifaceted and multi-professional perspective hinged on the empowerment of communities and individuals to play active roles and adopt behaviour consistent with the goals of good health. The paper drawing on documentary data sees health promotion as critical to the achievement of health goals in the continent and equally reflects on the theories of health promotion, strategies for health promotion and challenges to health promotion in Africa. It argues that health promotion in the continent can be strengthened through such measures as appropriate legislations, robust funding, gender inclusiveness, stepping up research, regular needs assessment and evaluation, setting needs-driven priorities and building capacity of health promotion to target vulnerable and marginal members of the society, among others.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71667",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71667",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities"},signatures:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",authors:[{id:"293469",title:null,name:"Edlyne Eze",middleName:null,surname:"Anugwom",fullName:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",slug:"edlyne-eze-anugwom",email:"akommiri@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293469/images/9729_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Nigeria, Nsukka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction: conceptualizing health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theories and models of health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The ecological models of health promotion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 The health belief model (HBM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Health promotion as sociopolitical engagement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Approaches to health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Health promotion research in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Challenges to health promotion in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Resituating and reinforcing health promotion in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.1 Legislation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.2 Finance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.3 Organizational change",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"7.4 Gender inclusiveness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.5 Mapping of priorities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tannahill A. Health promotion – Caring concern. Journal of Medical Ethics. 1984;10:196-198'},{id:"B2",body:'World Health Organization. Health Promotion: A Discussion Document on Concepts and Principles. Geneva: WHO; 1984'},{id:"B3",body:'World Health Organization. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Geneva: WHO; 1986'},{id:"B4",body:'Macdonald G, Davies J. Reflection and vision: Proving and improving the promotion of health. In: Macdonald G, Davies J, editors. Quality, Evidence and Effectiveness in Health Promotion: Striving for Certainties. 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Promoting Health: Politics and Practice. London: Sage; 2002. pp. 5-12'},{id:"B11",body:'Whitehead D. Health promotion and health education: Advancing the concepts. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2004;47(3):311-320'},{id:"B12",body:'Caplan R, Holland R. Rethinking health education theory. Health Education Journal. 1990;49(1):10-12'},{id:"B13",body:'McLeroy KR, Bibeau D, Steckler A, Glanz K. An ecological perspective on health promotion programmes. Health Education Quarterly. 1988;15:351-375'},{id:"B14",body:'Sallis JF, Owen N. Ecological Models. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Lewis FM, editors. Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. 2nd ed. San Francisco: John Wiley; 1997. pp. 403-424'},{id:"B15",body:'Stokols D. Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Towards a social ecology of health promotion. The American Psychologist. 1992;47(1):6-22'},{id:"B16",body:'Hancock T. Health, human development and the community ecosystem: Three ecological models. 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Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2003;18(7):558-567'},{id:"B21",body:'Parker E. Application of health promotion theories and models for environmental health. Health Education and Behaviour. 2004;31(4):491-509. DOI: 10.1177/1090198104265601'},{id:"B22",body:'Whitehead D. Incorporating socio-political health promotion activities in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2003;12:668-677'},{id:"B23",body:'Edmondson R. Social capital: A strategy for enhancing health? Social Science & Medicine. 2003;57:1723-1733'},{id:"B24",body:'World Health Organization. Health Promotion: A Strategy for the African Region. Geneva: WHO; 2001'},{id:"B25",body:'Raphael D. The question of evidence in health promotion. Health Promotion International. 2000;15(4):356-367'},{id:"B26",body:'Wiggers J, Sanson-Fisher R. Evidence-based health promotion. In: Scott D, Weston R, editors. Evaluating Health Promotion. Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes; 1998. pp. 31-49'},{id:"B27",body:'Seedhouse D. Health Promotion: Philosophy, Prejudice and Practice. New York: John Wiley; 1997'},{id:"B28",body:'Park P. What is participatory research? A theoretical and methodological perspective. In: Park P, Brydon-Miller M, Hall B, Jackson T, editors. Voices of Change: Participatory Research in the United States and Canada. West Port CT: Bergin and Garvey; 1993. pp. 1-20'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",address:"akommiri@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
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1. Introduction
Boron (B) is an element that is found in ultratrace amounts in mammalian cells and consists of two stable isotopes, boron-10 (10B) and boron-11 (11B), with a natural abundance ratio (10B/11B = 19.9/80.1). The most important properties of boron compounds with respect to biological and medical sciences would be: (1) 11B atoms have a higher NMR sensitivity (16.5% for 11B and 2.0% for 10B relative to 1H NMR), thus permitting the detection of B-containing drugs themselves and analytes that react with B-containing probes in living systems [1]; and (2) the 10B nucleus possesses a high reactivity with thermal neutrons resulting in the generation of two radioactive species (4He and 7Li particles), which induce the excitation and ionization of molecules within short path lengths [2]. For the above reasons, boron compounds can be useful in biological applications for the treatment and diagnosis of cancer and other diseases [3].
In 1936, Locher proposed the concept of boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) based on the aforementioned nuclear reaction between 10B and thermal neutrons [4]. Because the destructive effect of the two heavy particles (4He and 7Li particles) that are generated by the decomposition of 10B lies within 5–9 μm, which is close to the size of living cells, single-cell treatment would be possible by the achievement of cancer-specific delivery of 10B and irradiation with a sufficient intensity of thermal neutrons [5, 6, 7].
BNCT systems have been installed in clinical facilities as a method for the noninvasive treatment of certain types of cancers such as recurrent head and neck cancer and malignant gliomas [8]. The selective and efficient accumulation of boron into tumor tissues is one of the important clues for successful BNCT and, as described below, two boron compounds have been approved for use as BNCT drugs. In addition, monitoring the distribution of boron in patients is required for planning treatment protocols to determine the irradiation doses and positions of the patient [9].
In this review, we introduce the applications of boron compounds to 11B NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance)/MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) probes for the sensing of intracellular metal ions and BNCT agents for use in the treatment of cancer. The d-block metal ion probes take advantage of changes in the chemical shift in 11B NMR spectra due to the cleavage of the carbon-boron bond in phenylboronic acid-pendant cyclen (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane) and the decomposition of the ortho-carborane moieties of carborane-metal chelator hybrids upon complexation with metal ions in aqueous solution at neutral pH. In the second half of this review, the development of novel BNCT agents bearing sugar and macrocyclic polyamine scaffolds is described.
2. 11B NMR and MRI probes for metal ions in solutions and in living cells based on carbon-boron bond cleavage and the decomposition of ortho-carboranes upon metal complexation of chelator units
2.1 General
Biologically essential d-block metal ions such as zinc (Zn2+), copper (Cu2+), manganese (Mn2+), and iron (Fe2+) are involved in a variety of physiological processes in living systems as cofactors for various enzymes, intracellular second messengers, and related processes [10]. It was reported that a metal imbalance in cells and tissues causes a number of disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Willson’s disease, etc. [10]. Therefore, the development of fluorescence-based probes for the detection of these intracellular metal ions has contributed to our understanding of their functions and metabolism in living cells, while some limitations to detecting their emission from tissues remain due to their impermeability [10, 11, 12].
It is well known that MRI is one of the useful noninvasive methods for in vivo visualization and that it permits three-dimensional images of organisms and drug distributions to be obtained [13]. Although MRI is powerful method, there are only a few examples of MRI probes such as Gd3+-based contrast agents [14, 15].
2.2 Development of d-block metal ions probes based on the cleavage of C–B bonds in B-containing probes
It is well established that macrocyclic polyamine ligands such as 1,4,7-triazacyclononane ([9]aneN3) 1, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane ([12]aneN4, cyclen) 2, and 1,4,7,10,13-pentaazacyclopentadecane ([15]aneN5) 3 are able to form more stable complexes 4–6 with metal ions such as Cu2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ in aqueous solution (Figure 1) than metal complexes of linear polyamine types [16, 17]. In addition, metal ions in these complexes, especially the Zn2+ ion in Zn2+-cyclen complex (5), possess strong Lewis acidity and the deprotonated Zn2+-bound H2O (HO−) functions as a nucleophile and a base in aqueous solution at neutral pH [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
Figure 1.
The structures of 9-, 12-, and 15-membered macrocyclic polyamines 1–3 and their metal complexes 4–6.
Bendel and coworkers reported that 11B NMR/MRI would be a potential technique for the imaging of boron agents in the body [24, 25]. However, a functional system for achieving this has not been established yet. In this context, we hypothesized that the sp2 boron in 7 and 8 would be changed to the sp3 boron due to the formation of metal complexes 9a and 10a and the following interaction of metal-bound H2O (OH−) with boron at neutral pH, resulting in change in the 11B NMR signals (Figure 2) [26]. However, the products obtained after the addition of Zn2+ to 7 (L1) (Figure 3a) were 11a (ZnL3) and boric acid (B(OH)3), as confirmed by an X-ray structure analysis (Figure 3b). The findings strongly indicated that the Zn2+-bound H2O (9a and 10a) is efficiently deprotonated due to the double activation by Zn2+ and B to produce the Zn2+-bound HO− (9b and 10b), which hydrolyzes the C–B bond. The hydrolytic cleavage of the C–B bond of 7 (L1) was also observed by the measurement of 11B NMR upon the addition of Zn2+, in which the 11B NMR signal of 7 (L1) at 31.1 ppm was shifted to 19.4 ppm that corresponds to B(OH)3.
Figure 2.
The C–B bond hydrolysis of phenylboronic acid-pendant 12-membered tetraamine (cyclen) to produce inorganic boric acid.
Figure 3.
X-ray crystal structures of (a) 7 (L1) and (b) 11a (ZnL3) with B(OH)3.
The 11B NMR spectral change of 7 (L1) was promoted by Cu2+, Fe2+, Co2+, and Ni2+ but not by Ca2+ and Mg2+ (Table 1). Hydrolysis of the C–B bond of 7 (L1) with Cd2+ was faster than that with Zn2+, possibly due to the strong nucleophilicity of the Cd2+-bound HO– [27]. Meanwhile, the C–B bond cleavage of 7 (L1) by Mn2+ and Fe3+ was slow.
11B NMR spectral change of 7 (L1) (20 mM) upon the addition of d-block metal ions (20 mM) in 1 M HEPES buffer at pD 7.4 and 25 °C [26].a
All data are referenced to external BF3·Et2O in CDCl3 (δ = 0 ppm).
Δδ = δ (7 (L1) with metal ions) – δ (7 (L1)).
Approximate reaction time for the completion of C–B bond cleavage.
The intracellular uptake of boron in 7 and 8 into Jurkat T cells was determined by ICP-AES, and the results indicated that the uptake of 8 was higher than that of 7, possibly due to the hydrophobicity of the boronic ester group. The Zn2+-induced C–B bond cleavage of 8 (L2) by intracellular Zn2+ was observed in living cells. The Jurkat T cells were sequentially treated with 8 (L2) and Zn2+ complex of pyrithione (Zn2+ ionophore to transfer Zn2+ into cells) for 20 min and 1 h, respectively. The cells were washed with CS-RPMI and PBS and then transferred to a quartz NMR tube, whose 11B NMR spectra were measured in D2O containing PBS. As shown in Figure 4, the 11B signal for B(OH)3 (ca. 19 ppm) in Jurkat T cells was observed with a positive correlation to the concentrations of Zn2+-pyrithione complex, indicating the successful detection of the intracellular Zn2+ ions. It should be noted that the 11B signal for 8 (ca. 31 ppm) in the absence of Zn2+ was observed as a broad signal.
Figure 4.
In-cell 11B NMR spectra of 8 (L2) in the absence of Zn2+–pyrithione (ionophore) and in the presence of Zn2+–pyrithione (BF3·Et2O was used as an external references). The Jurkat T cells (4 × 108 cells) were incubated with 33 μM 8 (L2) in culture medium at 37 °C for 1 h, and then (a) DMSO (as negative control), (b) 2.5 μM Zn2+–pyrithione, and (c) 10 μM Zn2+–pyrithione at 37 °C for 20 min.
2.3 Development of Cu2+ ion probes based on decomposition reaction of ortho-carborane–metal chelator hybrids
It is known that the reaction of the o-carborane 12 with Brønsted or Lewis bases affords the corresponding nido-form 13 and B(OH)3 and that the further degradation of 13 proceeds slowly under harsh conditions such as in acidic solutions and/or at high temperatures (Figure 5) [28]. On the other hand, we found that o-carborane derivatives such as 12, 14, and 15a–c generate 4–9 equiv. of B(OH)3 upon the reaction with Cu2+ and Mn2+ via the corresponding nido-forms 12’, 14’, and 15a’–c’ under physiological conditions (Figure 6a) [29]. Our studies also indicated that the modification of nido-o-carborane (16 (L5)) with N,N,N’-trimethylethylenediamine (TriMEDA) as a chelator unit facilitates the Cu-promoted decomposition of the molecule (Figure 6b) via the Cu2+-complex 17 (CuL5) to produce 9 B(OH)3 in aqueous solution [30].
Figure 5.
Decomposition of o-carborane 12 in the presence of a Brønsted or Lewis base.
Figure 6.
Decomposition of o-carborane-pendant chelators (a) the 11B NMR/MRI detection of Cu2+ ion based on decomposition reaction of o-carborane derivatives and (b).
Changes in the 11B NMR spectra of 16 (L5) in the presence of various d-block metal ions are shown in Figure 7. A strong 11B signal at ca. 20 ppm corresponding to B(OH)3 was observed in the presence of Cu2+, while, in the presence of other metal ions, the change was negligible. These results showed good agreement with the results of an azomethine-H assay, which also indicate the Cu2+ selectivity.
Figure 7.
Decomposition of 16 (L5) (1.4 mM) in the presence of Cu2+, Cu+, Cu++NaAsc, Mg2+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ (2 mM) in DMSO/0.5 M HEPES buffer (pH 7)/D2O (5:4:1, 0.5 mL in total) at 37 °C after incubation for 4 h measured by 11B{1H} NMR. For 11B{1H} NMR experiments, 2.5% BF3·Et2O in CDCl3 was used for an external reference.
As shown in Figure 8, the oxidation potentials of 12′, 14′, and 16 are +0.57, +0.51, and +0.38 V (vs Ag/AgCl), respectively (determined by cyclic voltammetry), which are less positive than +0.7 V (vs Ag/AgCl) for [Cu(TMEDA)]+/[Cu(TMEDA)]2+ . These data may explain the reasons why 12′, 14′, and 16 are oxidized by Cu(TMEDA)]2+ complex. More efficient oxidation of 16 by Cu2+ than that of 12′ and 14′ is possibly due to the order of oxidation potentials (+0.38 V for 16 vs +0.57 and +0.51 V for 12′ and 14′) and the close contact between the o-carborane unit and stable Cu2+-TMEDA complex part in 17 and 18 (Figure 6).
Figure 8.
Summary of the oxidation potentials of 12′, 14′, and 16 (nido-form) with redox potentials of Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn.
In addition, the chemical yields of B(OH)3 from 16 (L5) with Cu+ were decreased when antioxidants (sodium ascorbate, NaAsc) were added to the reaction mixture. According to these results and DFT calculations, a proposed mechanism for the decomposition of o-carborane moieties by Cu2+ is shown in Figure 9. Initially, the nido-form 20 is generated from the closo-form 19 by reaction with a nucleophile such as HO−. Following the oxidation of the electronegative B10 (B at the 10 position) of 20 by Cu2+, the closo-form 21 is produced by a ring-closure reaction. The unstable intermediate 21 would react with H2O at the B9 position and is then completely decomposed to 9 equiv. of B(OH)3 and other products via the transition state 22.
Figure 9.
Proposed mechanism for the decomposition reaction (arrows indicate positively charged boron atoms, which are susceptible to attack by H2O or HO−).
11B MRI experiments were conducted by using an aqueous solution of B(OH)3 (10 mM) and Cu(bpy) (1 mM) in a larger vial (Sout) and a o-carborane analogue 14 (Figure 6) (1 mM) in a smaller vial (Sin) that was nested in the larger vial (Figure 10). To detect these boron compounds separately, BF1 (the basic transmitter frequency) values for B(OH)3 and 14 are set ca. 128.392 and 128.387 MHz, respectively, because they have different chemical shifts (a-i and b-i in Figure 10). Besides, 11B NMR images are obtained by using a two-dimensional ultra-short echo time sequence (UTE2D) with TE (echo time) of 199 μsec and TR (repetition time) of 30 msec. The 11B signals for both B(OH)3 and the o-carborane derivatives 14 were clearly observed, as shown in Figure 10 (a-ii and b-ii).
Figure 10.
11B MRI images differentiating B(OH)3 and 14. Curves (a-i) and (b-i) show typical 11B NMR spectra of solutions in two vials (inside vial contains 1 mM 14 and outside contains 10 mM B(OH)3). Images (a-ii) and (b-ii) show 11B MRI of the inside vial (Sin) containing 1 mM 14 and the outside vial (Sout) including 10 mM B(OH)3 + 1 mM Cu(bpy). Both 11B NMR images were acquired by a two dimensional ultra-short echo time sequence (UTE2D) with TE = 199 μsec and TR = 30 msec.
The detection of Cu2+ by a 11B NMR probe 16 (L5) (2 mM) was carried out by the measurement of 11B MRI and NMR at the increasing concentrations of Cu2+ (0, 0.02, 0.1, 0.2, 1.0, and 2.0 mM) in aqueous solution at neutral pH. The 11B MRI/NMR signals of B(OH)3 were successfully observed, and the signal intensities were increased in a dose-dependent manner due to the Cu2+-promoted decomposition of 16 (L5), as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11.
11B MRI and 11B{1H} NMR (128 MHz) spectra of 16 (L5) (2 mM) in DMSO/0.5 M HEPES buffer (pH 7)/D2O (5:4:1, 0.5 mL in total) after incubation with various concentrations (0 (a), 0.02 (b), 0.1 (c), 0.2 (d), 1 (e), 2 mM (f)) of Cu2+ at 37 °C for 8 h (A 2.5% solution of BF3·Et2O in CDCl3 was used as the external reference). 11B NMR images were acquired by a two dimensional ultra-short echo time sequence (UTE2D) with BF1 values ≈ 128.392 MHz, TE = 199 μsec and TR = 30 msec.
3. Design and synthesis of boron-containing agents for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT)
3.1 General
As described in the Introduction, BNCT is one of the powerful cancer treatment methods utilizing two heavy particles, 4He and 7Li, which are produced from 10B by a neutron capture reaction [10B (n, α)7Li] and induce the damage of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, and so on within a short range of 5–9 μm [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. For this BNCT to be achieved, the development of cancer-specific 10B carriers is urgently needed. To date, only two boron compounds, namely disodium mercaptoundecahydrododecaborate (BSH) 23 and L-4-boronophenylalanine (BPA) 24 (used as a complex with D-fructose), have been approved for use as BNCT agents in clinical settings (Figure 12) [31, 32], but they are not sufficiently effective for the treatment of various tumor types. Because more selective and more efficient BNCT agents are required, the design and synthesis of new boron carriers based on sugar and macrocyclic polyamine scaffolds were conducted.
Figure 12.
Structures of representative BNCT agents.
3.2 Design and synthesis of boron-containing sugars for BNCT
Sulfoquinovosyl acylglycerol (SQAG) 25 was isolated from sea algae and characterized by Sakaguchi et al., and 25 and its derivative sulfoquinovosyl acylpropanediol (SQAP) 26 were reported to be accumulated in cancer cells and exhibit weak toxicity against normal cells (Figure 13a) [33]. Because the modification of the long alkyl chain of SQAG has negligible effect on its biological activity, the design and synthesis of SQAP derivatives 27 and 28 containing a boron cluster unit and iodine atoms as BNCT agents and imaging agents for X-ray computed tomography (CT) were conducted [34, 35].
Figure 13.
Structures of (a) SQAG and SQAP derivatives and (b) 2-boryl-1,2-dideoxy-D-glucose derivatives.
The synthesis route for preparing SQAG analogues 27 and 28 is presented in Figure 14. The intermediate 32 was obtained by the α selective glycosylation of 30 with 31 in CH2Cl2/tert-butyl methyl ether (1/3), followed by the oxidation of thioacetate and the deprotection of p-methoxybenzyl (PMB) group. The condensation of 32 with a long chain fatty acid unit and subsequent deprotection of the benzyl groups could give the desired product 35, which would be ideal for the synthesis of SQAP analogues containing base-sensitive functional groups such as carborane. Furthermore, the conversion of a nucleophile (-OH) of 32 to a leaving group (-OMs) enables the introduction of various acyl moieties by SN2 reaction to give 35, which corresponds to 27 and 28. This novel synthesis route, as presented in Figure 14, would be useful for preparing a wide variety of SQAP derivatives.
Figure 14.
The synthetic route of SQAP derivatives developed by Aoki et al.
The design and synthesis of 2-boryl-1,2-dideoxy-D-glucose derivatives 29a–e were also carried out (Figure 13b) [36]. It is well known that cancer cells exhibit high glucose consumption and upregulation of glucose transporters (GLUTs) for rapid growth and proliferation, a process that is known as the Warburg effect [37]. It was also reported that hydrogen bonding interactions between the hydroxy groups of D-glucose and amino acid residues of GLUT trigger the intracellular uptake of glucose, and that the modification of D-glucose with bulky moieties at the C2 and C6 positions is tolerated [38]. In clinical applications, for instance, the D-glucose analogue, 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose, has been used for the diagnosis of cancer by means of positron emission tomography (PET) based on the aforementioned issues [39].
We therefore performed the regio- and stereoselective hydroboration of D-glucal 36 at the C1-C2 double bond, esterification with a diol, and deprotection of the hydroxy groups to provide 29a–e via the intermediate 37 (Figure 15). Although hydroboration is one of traditional methods for the conversion of alkenes into alcohols such as 38 after the treatment of a boryl intermediate such as 37 with H2O2/NaOH, 37 was directly converted into 29. Further investigations of their biological activity indicated that these sugar derivatives exhibit the moderate intracellular uptake against cancer cell lines through GLUT1, while their BNCT activity was not satisfying.
Figure 15.
Synthesis of 2-boryl-1,2-dideoxy-D-glucose derivatives 29a–e via the hydroboration of the protected D-glucal 36.
3.3 Design and synthesis of boron-containing macrocyclic polyamines for BNCT
It is known that natural polyamines play multiple roles in cellular functions, including gene expression and the stabilization of chromatin structure, and that the activated polyamine transport system and biosynthesis in cancer cells are related to the increase in polyamine concentrations and proliferation activity [40, 41]. Therefore, it is expected that polyamines would be desirable scaffolds for cancer selective and DNA-targeting boron delivery agents [42, 43].
Kimura and coworkers reported that Zn2+–cyclen complexes 39 selectively recognize thymidine (dT) units in DNA to form a stable complex 40 in aqueous solution at neutral pH by coordination bonding between the deprotonated imide part of dT (dT–) and Zn2+ and by hydrogen bonding between the NH of cyclen and the imide oxygens of dT– (Figure 16a) [44, 45, 46, 47]. In addition, the bis(Zn2+–cyclen) complexes 41 strongly bind two adjacent thymidine (thymidyl(3´–5´)thymidine, d(TpT)) 42, yielding a very stable 1:1 complex 43 (Figure 16b) [48, 49, 50, 51]. The dissociation constants (Kd) were reported to be 0.3 mM for 40 (1:1 complex of dT– with 39) and 0.6 μM for 43 (1:1 complex of d(T–pT–) with 41), respectively, at physiological pH in aqueous solution [52, 53, 54].
Figure 16.
Complexation of (a) Zn2+–cyclen 39 with the deprotonated form of thymidine (dT–) and (b) bis(Zn2+–cyclen) 41 with d(T−pT−) 42 in aqueous solution at neutral pH.
In this context, we designed and synthesized some novel DNA-targeting BNCT agents containing macrocyclic polyamine scaffolds such as [9]aneN3, [12]aneN4, and [15]aneN5 and their Zn2+ complexes, which contain phenylboronic acid units, as shown in Figures 17 and 18 [55, 56]. It was assumed that these boron-containing macrocyclic polyamine monomers 44–49 (L6–L12) and their Zn2+ complexes 50–52 (ZnL6–ZnL12) would be efficiently transferred into cancer cells and that thermal neutron irradiation would induce effective DNA damage in cancer cells due the 10B atoms being located in close proximity to DNA molecules (Figure 17). We also expected that the interaction of homo- and heterodimer of macrocyclic polyamines 53–62 (L13–L22) and their corresponding monozinc(II) complexes 63–68 (ZnL13–ZnL21) and dizinc(II) complexes 69–78 (Zn2L13–Zn2L22) with DNA would be stronger than that of monomeric polyamines, resulting in efficient DNA damage upon thermal neutron irradiation (Figure 18). These mono- and dimeric macrocyclic polyamines were first prepared with boron in a natural abundance ratio (10B/11B = 19.9/80.1) to evaluate their cytotoxicity and intracellular uptake in several cancer cell lines, and some of the promising compounds were synthesized in the corresponding 10B-enriched forms for the BNCT experiments. It should also be noted that these compounds possess macrocyclic polyamine units at the m- or p-position, but not at the o-position, of the C–B bonds to avoid the C–B hydrolysis upon metal complexation, as described in Figures 2 and 3.
Figure 17.
Structures of B-containing macrocyclic polyamine monomers and their Zn2+ complexes.
Figure 18.
Structures of B-containing macrocyclic polyamine dimers 53–62 (L13–L22) and their Zn2+ complexes 63–78 (ZnL13–ZnL21 and Zn2L13–Zn2L22).
The results of biological studies suggested that the boron-containing macrocyclic polyamine monomers 47b (L7), 48b (L9), and 49a (L10) have a weak cytotoxicity against normal cells and are efficiently transferred into cancer cells such as A549 and HeLa S3 cells, possibly via a polyamine transport system. In addition, it was found that ditopic macrocyclic polyamines possess much less cytotoxicity than that of the monomers and moderate uptake activity into cancer cells. Therefore, some of the more promising compounds were selected and their 10B-enriched forms (>99% of 10B) were prepared for BNCT experiments.
In vitro neutron irradiation experiments using A549 cells in the presence of the 10B-enriched 10B-47b (L7), 10B-48b (L9), and 10B-49a (L10) were performed at the Institute for Integrated Radiation and Nuclear Science, Kyoto University, and the BNCT effect of these drugs was evaluated by colony formation assays. It was found that 10B-47b (L7), 10B-48b (L9), and 10B-49a (L10) showed higher cytotoxic effects than 10B-BSH 23 and 10B-BPA 24 and that the BNCT effect of 10B-enriched dimers is nearly the same as 10B-BPA (Figure 19). The BNCT effect of 10B-47b (L7) and 10B-50b (ZnL7) is almost identical and that of 10B-50b (ZnL7) is even better, although the intracellular uptake of the Zn2+ complexes is generally lower than that of the corresponding Zn2+-free ligands. It is possibly due to weak complexation of the 9-membered ring of 10B-47b (L7) with Zn2+. In addition, 12- and 15-membered macrocycles 10B-48b and 10B-49a effectively inhibited the proliferation of cancer cells upon irradiation with thermal neutrons, while their intracellular uptake was lower than that of the [9]aneN3-type 47b.
Figure 19.
BNCT effect of macrocyclic polyamine monomers 23, 24, 47b, 10B-47b, 48b, 10B-48b, 49a, 10B-49a, 10B-50b,10B-51b, and 10B-52a (30 μM) against A549 cells was examined by a colony formation assay: (a) control (in the absence of a boron compound) (○), 23 (●), 24 (◇), 47b (◆), 10B-47b (□), and 10B-50b (■). (b) Control (○), 48b (●), 10B-48b (◇), 49a (◆), and 10B-49a (□), and 10B-51b (■), and 10B-52a (×). After treatment with the boron compound for 24 h, the cells were irradiated with thermal neutrons for 0, 15, 30, and 45 min and then incubated without neutron irradiation for 7 days.
According to the results of biological evaluations and DNA interaction studies using double-stranded calf-thymus DNA, it was concluded that metal-free monomers would be efficiently taken up by cancer cells and then form complexes with intracellular Zn2+. Both the cationic metal-free macrocycles and their Zn2+ complexes would bind to DNA via electrostatic interactions between cationic macrocyclic polyamine moieties and anionic double-stranded DNA (79 in Figure 20), or via the selective recognition of Zn2+-complexes such as 10B-51b with dT− units in DNA as depicted in Figure 16 (and 80 in Figure 20), resulting in effective DNA damage upon thermal neutron irradiation (Figure 20). These findings suggest that 10B delivery agents equipped with monomeric [12]aneN4- and [15]aneN5-type macrocycles are preferable for use in BNCT.
Figure 20.
Proposed scheme for BNCT effect of 10B-47b, 10B-48b, 10B-49a and their Zn2+ complexes.
4. Conclusion
In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the design and synthesis of 10B and/or 11B containing agents for biomedical applications such as 11B NMR probes and BNCT agents. We developed the d-block metal ion probes based on changes in 11B NMR signals due to the hydrolysis of C–B bond in 7 (L1) and 8 (L2) and the decomposition of o-carborane moieties in derivatives such as 14 and 16 (L5) upon complexation with metal ions in aqueous solution at physiological pH. Some novel BNCT agents based on sugar and macrocyclic polyamine scaffolds were also designed and synthesized. The findings indicate that 10B-enriched monomeric macrocyclic polyamines 10B-48b (L9) and 10B-49a (L10) exhibit potent BNCT activity upon thermal neutron irradiation, possibly due to interaction with DNA, resulting in the efficient damage of DNA molecules that are in close proximity to the boron compounds.
We believe that this review provides useful information for the future design and synthesis of novel boron-containing compounds and their applications for the treatment and diagnosis of cancer and other diseases, as well as in related research fields.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank our collaborators and coworkers for their contributions to work described in this review. We appreciate Dr. Motoo Shiro (Rigaku Co. Ltd.), Prof. Reiko Kuroda (Chubu University), and Dr. Yasuyuki Yamada (Nagoya University) for their great assistance and helpful discussion. Financial supports from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) of Japan, the Uehara Memorial Foundation, the Tokyo Ohka Foundation for the Promotion of Science and Technology, Kanagawa, Japan, the Tokyo Biochemical Research Foundation, Tokyo, Japan, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), and Tokyo University of Science are gratefully acknowledged.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"boron-10 (10B), boron-11 (11B), magnetic resonance imaging, metal probes, decomposition reactions, carborane, boron neutron capture therapy, macrocyclic polyamines, sugars",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82908.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82908.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82908",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82908",totalDownloads:6,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 4th 2022",dateReviewed:"June 21st 2022",datePrePublished:"August 1st 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"August 1st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Boron (B), an element that is present in ultratrace amounts in animal cells and tissues, is expected to be useful in many scientific fields. We have found the hydrolysis of C–B bond in phenylboronic acid-pendant cyclen (cyclen = 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane) and the full decomposition of ortho-carborane attached with cyclen and ethylenediamines in aqueous solution at neutral pH upon complexation with intracellular metals. The change in the chemical shift of the 11B signals in 11B-NMR spectra of these boron-containing metal chelators can be applied to the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of metal ions in solutions and in living cells.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82908",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82908",signatures:"Shin Aoki, Hiroki Ueda, Tomohiro Tanaka, Taiki Itoh, Minoru Suzuki and Yoshinori Sakurai",book:{id:"11762",type:"book",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Chatchawal Wongchoosuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-465-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-464-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-466-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"34521",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chatchawal",middleName:null,surname:"Wongchoosuk",slug:"chatchawal-wongchoosuk",fullName:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. 11B NMR and MRI probes for metal ions in solutions and in living cells based on carbon-boron bond cleavage and the decomposition of ortho-carboranes upon metal complexation of chelator units",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 General",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Development of d-block metal ions probes based on the cleavage of C–B bonds in B-containing probes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Development of Cu2+ ion probes based on decomposition reaction of ortho-carborane–metal chelator hybrids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Design and synthesis of boron-containing agents for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 General",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Design and synthesis of boron-containing sugars for BNCT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Design and synthesis of boron-containing macrocyclic polyamines for BNCT",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Heřmánek S. 11B NMR spectra of boranes, main-group heteroboranes, and substituted derivatives. factors influencing chemical shifts of skeletal atoms. Chemical Reviews. 1992;92:325-362'},{id:"B2",body:'Rinard PM. Neutron interactions with matter. In: Reilly D, Ensslin N, Smith H, Kreiner S, editors. Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials. Washington: Nuclear Regulatory Commission; 1991. pp. 357-377'},{id:"B3",body:'Morin C. The chemistry of boron analogues of biomolecules. Tetrahedron. 1994;50:12521-12569. DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4020(01)89389-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Locher GL. Biological effects and therapeutic possibilities of neutrons. The American Journal of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy. 1936;36:1-13'},{id:"B5",body:'Soloway AH, Tjarks W, Barnum BA, Rong FG, Barth RF, Codogni IM, et al. The chemistry of neutron capture therapy. Chemical Reviews. 1998;98:1515-1562. DOI: 10.1021/cr941195u'},{id:"B6",body:'Salt C, Lennox AJ, Takagaki M, Maguire JA, Hosmane NS. Boron and gadolinium neutron capture therapy. Russian Chemical Bulletin. 2004;53:1871-1888. DOI: 10.1007/s11172-005-0045-6'},{id:"B7",body:'Barth RF, Coderre JA, Vicente MGH, Blue TE. Boron neutron capture therapy of cancer: Current status and future prospects. Clinical Cancer Research. 2005;11:3987-4002'},{id:"B8",body:'Suzuki M. Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT): A unique role in radiotherapy with a view to entering the accelerator-based BNCT era. International Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2020;25:43-50. DOI: 10.1007/s10147-019-01480-4'},{id:"B9",body:'Dai Q , Yang Q , Bao X, Chen J, Han M, Wei Q. The development of boron analysis and imaging in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). Molecular Pharmaceutics. 2022;19:363-377. 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Chemical Reviews. 1999;99:2293-2352'},{id:"B15",body:'Xu Z, Liu C, Zhao S, Chen S, Zhao Y. Molecular sensors for NMR-based detection. Chemical Reviews. 2019;119:195-230. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00202'},{id:"B16",body:'Kodama M, Kimura E. Equilibria and kinetics of complex formation between zinc(II), lead(II), andcadmium(II), and 12-, 13-, 14-, and 15-memberd macrocyclic tetraamines. Journal of the Chemical Society Dalton Transactions. 1977:2269-2276. DOI: 10.1039/DT9770002269'},{id:"B17",body:'Kodama M, Kimura E. Equilibria of Complex formation between several bivalent metal ions and macrocyclic tri- and penta-amines. Journal of the Chemical Society Dalton Transactions. 1978:1081-1085. DOI: 10.1039/DT9780001081'},{id:"B18",body:'Kimura E. Macrocyclic polyamines with intelligent functions. Tetrahedron. 1992;48:6175-6217. DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4020(01)88212-0'},{id:"B19",body:'Kimura E. Model studies for molecular recognition of carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase. 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DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76369'},{id:"B32",body:'Hu K, Yang Z, Zhang L, Xie L, Wang L, Xu H, et al. Boron agents for neutron capture therapy. Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 2020;405:213139. DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2019.213139'},{id:"B33",body:'Ohta K, Mizushina Y, Yamazaki T, Hanashima S, Sugawara F, Sakaguchi K. Specific interaction between an oligosaccharide on the tumor cell surface and the novel antitumor agents, sulfoquinovosylacylglycerols. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2001;288:893-900. DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.5852'},{id:"B34",body:'Brahmi MM, Portmann C, D’Ambrosio D, Woods TM, Banfi D, Reichenbach P, et al. Telomerase inhibitors from cyanobacteria: Isolation and synthesis of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerols from Microcystis aeruguinosa PCC 7806. Chemistry--A European Journal. 2013;19:4596-4601. DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203296'},{id:"B35",body:'Tanaka T, Sawamoto Y, Aoki S. Concise and versatile synthesis of sulfoquinovosyl acyl glycerol derivatives for biological applications. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2017;65:566-572. DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c17-00135'},{id:"B36",body:'Itoh T, Tamura K, Ueda H, Tanaka T, Satoh K, Kuroda R, et al. Design and synthesis of boron containing monosaccharides by the hydroboration of D-glucal for use in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 2018;26:5922-5933. DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.10.041'},{id:"B37",body:'Heiden MGV, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. Understanding the Warburg effect: The metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science. 2009;324:1029-1033. DOI: 10.1126/science.1160809'},{id:"B38",body:'Calvaresi EC, Hergenrother PJ. Glucose conjugation for the specific targeting and treatment of cancer. Chemical Science. 2013;4:2319-2333. DOI: 10.1039/C3SC22205E'},{id:"B39",body:'Patching SG. Role of facilitative glucose transporter GLUT1 in [18F]FDG positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of human diseases. Journal of Diagnostic Imaging in Therapy. 2015;2:30-102'},{id:"B40",body:'Nowotarski SL, Woster PM, Casero RA. Polyamines and cancer: Implications for chemoprevention and chemotherapy. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 2013;15:e3. DOI: 10.1017/erm.2013.3'},{id:"B41",body:'Murray-Stewart TR, Woster PM, Casero RA. Targeting polyamine metabolism for cancer therapy and prevention. The Biochemical Journal. 2016;473:2937-2953. DOI: 10.1042/BCJ20160383'},{id:"B42",body:'Hosmane NS, Maguire JA, Zhu Y, Takagaki M. Boron and Gadolinium Neutron Capture Therapy for Cancer Treatment. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing; 2012. p. 272'},{id:"B43",body:'Zhuo JC, Cai J, Soloway AH, Barth RF, Adams DM, Ji W, et al. Synthesis and biological evaluation of boron-containing polyamines as potential agents for neutron capture therapy of brain tumors. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 1999;42:1282-1292. DOI: 10.1021/jm960787x'},{id:"B44",body:'Shionoya M, Kimura E, Shiro M. A new ternary zinc(II) complex with [12]aneN4 (= 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane) and AZT (= 3’-azido-3’-deoxythymine). highly selective recognition of thymidine and its related nucleosides by a zinc(II) macrocyclic tetraamine complex with novel complementary associations. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1993;115:6730-6737'},{id:"B45",body:'Kimura E, Ikeda T, Aoki S, Shionoya M. Macrocylic zinc(II) complexes for selective recognition of nucleobases in single- and double-stranded polynucleotides. Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 1998;3:259-267. DOI: 10.1007/s007750050230'},{id:"B46",body:'Kikuta E, Murata M, Katsube N, Koike T, Kimura E. Novel recognition of thymine base in double-stranded DNA by zinc(II)–macrocyclic tetraamine complexes appended with aromatic groups. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1999;121:5426-5436. DOI: 10.1021/ja983884j'},{id:"B47",body:'Kimura E, Kikuta E. Why zinc in zinc enzymes? From biological roles to DNA based-selective recognition. Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 2000;5:139-155. DOI: 10.1007/s007750050359'},{id:"B48",body:'Aoki S, Sugimura C, Kimura E. Efficient inhibition of photo[2 + 2]cycloaddition of thymidilyl(3´–5´)thymidine and promotion of photosplitting of the cis-syn- cyclobutane thymine dimer by dimeric zinc(II)–cyclen complexes containing m- and p-xylyl spacers. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1998;120:10094-10102. DOI: 10.1021/ja981788c'},{id:"B49",body:'Kimura E, Kikuchi M, Kitamura H, Koike T. Selective and efficient recognition of thymidylylthymidine (TpT) by bis(ZnII–cyclen) and thymidylylthymidylylthymidine (TpTpT) by tris(ZnII–cyclen) at neutral pH in aqueous solution. Chemistry--A European Journal. 1999;5:3113-3123. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-3765(19991105)5:11<3113::AID-CHEM3113>3.0.CO;2-L'},{id:"B50",body:'Aoki S, Kimura E. Highly selective recognition of thymidine mono- and diphosphate nucleotides in aqueous solution by ditopic receptors zinc(II)–bis(cyclen) complexes (cyclen = 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane). Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2000;122:4542-4548. DOI: 10.1021/ja994537s'},{id:"B51",body:'Kikuta E, Aoki S, Kimura E. A new type of potent inhibitors of HIV-1 TAR RNA–Tat peptide binding by zinc(II)–macrocyclic tetraamine complexes. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2001;123:7911-7912. DOI: 10.1021/ja0108335'},{id:"B52",body:'Kimura E, Kikuta E. Macrocyclic zinc(II) complexes for selective recognition of nucleobases in single- and double-stranded polynucleotides. Progress in Reaction Kinetics and Mechanism. 2000;25:1-64. DOI: 10.3184/007967400103165119'},{id:"B53",body:'Aoki S, Kimura E. Zinc–nucleic acid interaction. Chemical Reviews. 2004;104:769-788. DOI: 10.1021/cr020617u'},{id:"B54",body:'Kimura E. Evolution of macrocyclic polyamines from molecular science to supramolecular science. Bulletin of Japan Society of Coordination Chemistry. 2012;59:26-47. DOI: 10.4019/bjscc.59.26'},{id:"B55",body:'Ueda H, Suzuki M, Kuroda R, Tanaka T, Aoki S. Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of boron-containing macrocyclic polyamines and their zinc(II) complexes for boron neutron capture therapy. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2021;64:8523-8544. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00445'},{id:"B56",body:'Ueda H, Suzuki M, Sakurai Y, Tanaka T, Aoki S. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of boron-containing macrocyclic polyamine dimers and their zinc(II) complexes for boron neutron capture therapy. European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry. 2022;2022:e202100949. DOI: 10.1002/ejic.202100949'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shin Aoki",address:"shinaoki@rs.tus.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
Research Institute for Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
Research Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
Institute for Integrated Radiation and Nuclear Science, Kyoto University, Japan
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Through this chapter, we present current emerging trends in IoT in different industry sectors as well as discuss the key privacy challenges impeding the growth of IoT to reach its potential in the smart home context. The majority of the existing literature on IoT smart home platforms focuses on functionalities provided by smarter connected devices; however, it does not address the concerns from a consumer’s viewpoint. Thus, the key questions are: What are the privacy concerns related to IoT, particularly from a “smart home device” consumer viewpoint? What are the existing remedial approaches for privacy management? This chapter proposes a framework to assist smart home user and IoT device manufacturer to make informed privacy management decisions. The findings of this research intend to help practitioners and researchers interested in the privacy of IoT-enabled smart systems.",book:{id:"7602",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",fullTitle:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications"},signatures:"Avirup Dasgupta, Asif Qumer Gill and Farookh Hussain",authors:[{id:"277383",title:"Mr.",name:"Avirup",middleName:null,surname:"Dasgupta",slug:"avirup-dasgupta",fullName:"Avirup Dasgupta"},{id:"278569",title:"Dr.",name:"Asif",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",slug:"asif-gill",fullName:"Asif Gill"},{id:"278570",title:"Dr.",name:"Farookh",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"farookh-hussain",fullName:"Farookh Hussain"}]},{id:"60331",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75137",title:"IoT Standardization: The Road Ahead",slug:"iot-standardization-the-road-ahead",totalDownloads:1894,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging area of the modern technology which impacts use cases across governance, education, business, manufacturing, entertainment, transportation, infrastructures, health care, and so on. Creating a generalized framework for the IoT with heterogeneous devices and technology support requires interoperability across products, applications, and services that preclude vendor lock-in. Global standardization of the IoT is the only solution to this. Though standardization efforts in the IoT are not new with many national and international standard bodies working today, there are many open areas to debate and standardize—like reconciling country-specific efforts, empowering local solutions, etc. This chapter brings a holistic view of the existing IoT standards, discusses their interlinking, and enumerates the pain points with possible solutions. It also explains the need for country-specific standardization with the example of an Indian Standard Development Organization (SDO), vis-à-vis global initiatives, as a driver for societal uplifting and economic growth.",book:{id:"6462",slug:"internet-of-things-technology-applications-and-standardization",title:"Internet of Things",fullTitle:"Internet of Things - Technology, Applications and Standardization"},signatures:"Arpan Pal, Hemant Kumar Rath, Samar Shailendra and Abhijan\nBhattacharyya",authors:[{id:"10128",title:"Dr.",name:"Arpan",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"arpan-pal",fullName:"Arpan Pal"},{id:"223339",title:"Dr.",name:"Samar",middleName:null,surname:"Shailendra",slug:"samar-shailendra",fullName:"Samar Shailendra"},{id:"225110",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemant Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",slug:"hemant-kumar-rath",fullName:"Hemant Kumar Rath"},{id:"225112",title:"Mr.",name:"Abhijan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"abhijan-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Abhijan Bhattacharyya"}]},{id:"67035",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86014",title:"IOT Service Utilisation in Healthcare",slug:"iot-service-utilisation-in-healthcare",totalDownloads:1913,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Utilising the new trend technologies in healthcare sector could offer alternative ways in managing the patients’ health records and also improve the healthcare quality. As such, this chapter provides an overview of utilising the Internet of Things (IoT) technology in healthcare sector as an emerging research and practical trend nowadays. The main benefits and advantages have been discussed in this chapter. On the other hand, it has been found that most of the hospitals in different countries are still facing many issues regarding their health information exchange. Recently, various studies in the area of healthcare information system mentioned that the fragmentations of the health information are one of the most important challenges with the distribution of patient information records. Therefore, in this chapter, we gave an in detail overview regarding the current issues facing the health sector in line with the IoT technologies. Additionally, a full description of advantages and disadvantages has been highlighted for using IoT in healthcare that can be considered as solutions for the mentioned issues.",book:{id:"7602",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",fullTitle:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications"},signatures:"Mohammed Dauwed and Ahmed Meri",authors:[{id:"248015",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Meri",slug:"ahmed-meri",fullName:"Ahmed Meri"},{id:"276426",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed Dauwed",slug:"mohammed-ahmed-dauwed",fullName:"Mohammed Ahmed Dauwed"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65877",title:"Smart Home Systems Based on Internet of Things",slug:"smart-home-systems-based-on-internet-of-things",totalDownloads:5910,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Smart home systems achieved great popularity in the last decades as they increase the comfort and quality of life. Most smart home systems are controlled by smartphones and microcontrollers. A smartphone application is used to control and monitor home functions using wireless communication techniques. We explore the concept of smart home with the integration of IoT services and cloud computing to it, by embedding intelligence into sensors and actuators, networking of smart things using the corresponding technology, facilitating interactions with smart things using cloud computing for easy access in different locations, increasing computation power, storage space and improving data exchange efficiency. In this chapter we present a composition of three components to build a robust approach of an advanced smart home concept and implementation.",book:{id:"7602",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",fullTitle:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications"},signatures:"Menachem Domb",authors:[{id:"222778",title:"Prof.",name:"Menachem",middleName:null,surname:"Domb",slug:"menachem-domb",fullName:"Menachem Domb"}]},{id:"74005",title:"Smart Home Monitoring System Using ESP32 Microcontrollers",slug:"smart-home-monitoring-system-using-esp32-microcontrollers",totalDownloads:979,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter deals with the implementation of our own monitoring system with home security. The system is designed using IoT modules and uses ESP32 microcontrollers. The chapter describes the design of the system, its hardware components, software implementation, security solutions, communication, the collecting and monitoring of processed data, as well as the quantification of costs for the production and deployment of this system. The proposed system secures a house by detecting an intruder in the building, triggering an alarm and capturing it all with camera images, and then sending data to the owner’s smart mobile phone. The secondary task of the system is to collect data from sensors for monitoring the temperature of an object and presenting it via a web server.",book:{id:"10419",slug:"internet-of-things",title:"Internet of Things",fullTitle:"Internet of Things"},signatures:"Marek Babiuch and Jiri Postulka",authors:[{id:"334513",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Babiuch",slug:"marek-babiuch",fullName:"Marek Babiuch"},{id:"334717",title:"MSc.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Postulka",slug:"jiri-postulka",fullName:"Jiri Postulka"}]},{id:"69788",title:"Introductory Chapter: Internet of Things (IoT) Importance and Its Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-internet-of-things-iot-importance-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"7602",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",fullTitle:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications"},signatures:"Yasser Ismail",authors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}]},{id:"67035",title:"IOT Service Utilisation in Healthcare",slug:"iot-service-utilisation-in-healthcare",totalDownloads:1919,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Utilising the new trend technologies in healthcare sector could offer alternative ways in managing the patients’ health records and also improve the healthcare quality. As such, this chapter provides an overview of utilising the Internet of Things (IoT) technology in healthcare sector as an emerging research and practical trend nowadays. The main benefits and advantages have been discussed in this chapter. On the other hand, it has been found that most of the hospitals in different countries are still facing many issues regarding their health information exchange. Recently, various studies in the area of healthcare information system mentioned that the fragmentations of the health information are one of the most important challenges with the distribution of patient information records. Therefore, in this chapter, we gave an in detail overview regarding the current issues facing the health sector in line with the IoT technologies. Additionally, a full description of advantages and disadvantages has been highlighted for using IoT in healthcare that can be considered as solutions for the mentioned issues.",book:{id:"7602",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",fullTitle:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications"},signatures:"Mohammed Dauwed and Ahmed Meri",authors:[{id:"248015",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Meri",slug:"ahmed-meri",fullName:"Ahmed Meri"},{id:"276426",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed Dauwed",slug:"mohammed-ahmed-dauwed",fullName:"Mohammed Ahmed Dauwed"}]},{id:"75630",title:"Internet of Things Security and Privacy",slug:"internet-of-things-security-and-privacy",totalDownloads:495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The Internet of Things is becoming more and more popular with time. The extremely low cost of sensors is putting the growth of the Internet of Things on steroids. Many industries such as healthcare, construction, agriculture, and transportation are increasingly leveraging this technology. However, security and privacy are two big concerns when it comes to the future of the Internet of Things. Since most of these “things” that are connected to the Internet are simple devices with limited hardware capabilities, it is nearly impossible to harden them via traditional resource-heavy defenses. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of securing the Internet of Things networks, layout the challenges of the Internet of Things security, and briefly discuss potential solutions in the literature.",book:{id:"10419",slug:"internet-of-things",title:"Internet of Things",fullTitle:"Internet of Things"},signatures:"Ahmad J. 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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 8th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. 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