Influence of the active compound incorporation on properties of polymeric solution.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"701",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases - From Bench to Bedside - Research Aspects",title:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases",subtitle:"From Bench to Bedside - Research Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cervical cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women worldwide, and infection with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) has been identified as the causal agent for this condition. The natural history of cervical cancer is characterized by slow disease progression, rendering the condition, in essence, preventable and even treatable when diagnosed in early stages. Pap smear and the recently introduced prophylactic vaccines are the most prominent prevention options, but despite the availability of these primary and secondary screening tools, the global burden of disease is unfortunately still very high. This book will focus on epidemiological and fundamental research aspects in the area of HPV, and it will update those working in this fast-progressing field with the latest information.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-855-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6725-9",doi:"10.5772/1210",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"human-papillomavirus-and-related-diseases-from-bench-to-bedside-research-aspects",numberOfPages:420,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dbaf0635e78a5900e85513add5bea345",bookSignature:"Davy Vanden Broeck",publishedDate:"January 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/701.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40856,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"93213",title:"Dr.",name:"Davy",middleName:null,surname:"Vanden Broeck",slug:"davy-vanden-broeck",fullName:"Davy Vanden Broeck",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93213/images/2523_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Davy Vanden Broeck, MSc, PhD obtained this MSc degree Biochemistry from Antwerp University (Belgium) with judicium Cum Laude. Afterwards he pursued a PhD in Biomedical Sciences (Antwerp University). Later, he joined the International Centre for Reproductive Health (ICRH) and research efforts focused on sexually transmitted viruses. Finally, he obtained two consecutive post-doc grants at Ghent University (Ghent, Belgium), with specific focus on papilloma virus research.\nCurrently, Dr. Vanden Broeck holds the position of professor Molecular Virology and heads the ICRH HPV/cervical cancer research team. Within this team, multi-disciplinary research is performed on the prevention of cervical cancer (vaccine, screening), as well as clinical/translational aspects of cervical cancer research, but equally fundamental research forms part of the research agenda.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"26625",title:"Epidemiology of Mucosal Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infections Among Adult and Children",doi:"10.5772/29583",slug:"epidemiology-of-mucosal-human-papillomavirus-hpv-infections-among-adult-and-children",totalDownloads:2491,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Helen Trottier",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/26625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/26625",authors:[{id:"78452",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"Trottier",slug:"helen-trottier",fullName:"Helen Trottier"}],corrections:null},{id:"26626",title:"Human Papillomavirus Type Distribution in Southern China and Taiwan",doi:"10.5772/28989",slug:"human-papillomavirus-type-distribution-in-southern-china-and-taiwan",totalDownloads:1973,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chung-Yung Chen and Chin-Hung Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/26626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/26626",authors:[{id:"76113",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yung",surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yung-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yung Chen"},{id:"81751",title:"Mr.",name:"Chin-Hung",surname:"Wang",slug:"chin-hung-wang",fullName:"Chin-Hung Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"26627",title:"Human Papillomavirus Worldwide Distribution in Women Without Cervical Cancer",doi:"10.5772/27116",slug:"human-papillomavirus-worldwide-distribution-in-women-without-cervical-cancer",totalDownloads:4598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"I. 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The integration of experimental methods with computational methods is invaluable both in the development of promising new bioactive compounds and in the molecular characterization of protein-ligand or protein-protein interactions. Molecular docking, in one of these molecular modeling methods, is a unique approach to revealing key interactions in important molecular recognition processes and to accurately predict receptor-ligand binding free energies. Today, the molecular docking method has not only enabled the discovery of new drugs and therapeutic agents but also opened different windows to the submicroscopic world of interacting partner molecules by providing a unique atomistic perspective in the explanation of important intermolecular phenomena.
\r\n\r\n\tThe topics covered in this book are mainly:
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
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During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. 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The history of craniofacial surgery is not new but began with ancient humans drilling holes in the cranial vault (trephination).
In Europe, and especially in France, 40 out of 120 prehistoric skulls were found with drill holes in the skulls. This technique is currently practiced to reduce intracranial pressure and the evacuation of supradural hematoma from the middle meningeal arteries [1, 2].
Craniofacial anomalies have been known throughout history and both Hippocrates and Homer have touched upon the subject. Surgery was possible with the invention of general anesthesia in the mid-nineteenth century and was helped later with the discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming of St. Mary’s Hospital, Paddington, London, during the Second World War.
Surgeons like Sir Harold Gillies (UK), Hippolyte Morestin (France), and Jan F. Esser (Netherland) were pioneering the specialties of plastic surgery while dealing with war-injured soldiers [3].
In ancient times, reconstructive craniofacial procedures of the soft tissue were performed to reconstruct the nose or ears. Sushruta and other Indian doctors were practicing reconstruction of noses and ear lobes in 600 BC [2].
In India during Sushruta’s time, it was common practice for criminals to have their noses amputated because the procedure was considered to be a symbol of reputation and respect. Groups of potters known as Koomas developed a technique of nasal reconstruction to help people with these problems [4].
In Iraq during the Iraqi/Iranian War (1980–1988), young soldiers who avoided front line duty were punished by the Saddam regime by cutting part of their ears or making a symbol on their forehead. This prevented doctors from repairing the created defect and deformity; it was a very depressing procedure for young people and many of them attempted suicide.
Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna was a genius surgeon, and in 1597 was chosen to reconstruct a deformed nose. He did reconstruction of the nose by elevating the pedicle bicipital arm flap as tube pedicle and mobilizing the flap for reconstruction of the nose deformity. This technique required 14 days of immobilization of the arm to attach the face, followed by division and inset of the flap from the arm [5].
The author believes that this technique was the first to use the tube pedicle flap in reconstructive surgery.
Advancements in craniofacial and maxillofacial surgery have been more recently carried out by great surgeons like Paul Tessier, Hugo Obwegeser, Norman Rowe, and Joseph Converse.
Craniofacial surgery formally developed in 1967 after a meeting of well-known international surgeons with Paul Tessier because of pressure on him from French plastic surgeons. Tessier requested them to observe and follow up his cases and to recognize his work on craniofacial deformities at Foch hospital in Paris, where the meeting took place.
Norman Rowe and J.C. Mustardé from Britain, Joseph Converse from the United States, Hugo Obwegeser from Switzerland, and Zur Hausen from Germany were members of the group who spent 2 weeks in Foch hospital examining, observing and following up on 50 of Tessier’s cases. Most cases were comprised of poor people from Italy. After 2 weeks Paul Tessier ask the invited committee am I entitled to practice this kind of subspecialties, all of them recognized him pioneered by a man who was recognized as the master of craniofacial surgery. This story was related to the author by Professor Hugo Obwegeser in 1981 during his first visit to Baghdad as my guest.
Paul Tessier made a revolutionary approach to the surgery of deformed skulls and orbital skeletons and was considered to be an expert in this field.
The outstanding pioneering work of Paul Tessier emerged as new specialties of craniofacial surgery. Hugo Obwegeser performed his first Le Fort I osteotomy of the maxilla and sagittal split osteotomy of the ascending ramus of the mandible for correction of the malformation of jaw relationship in 1960. He did this by advancing, pushing back, or rotating the lower jaw for correction of Class III and II skeletal jaw deformities and open bite. The lower jaw was mobilized by pushing backward and forward or rotating the lower jaw to correct the open bite, and a downward movement of the maxilla and application of bone graft in the gap were created by this procedure.
Paul Tessier spent a year training in Rocks down house in Britain with the great British surgeon Sir Harold Gillies. Sir Harold’s nurse asked Sir Harold to correct her face, which was deformed because of Crouzon disease. He performed the first Le Fort III operation by advancing the face forward; however, 2 weeks later she relapsed and Sir Harold said he would never repeat the procedure.
Tessier was watching the operation; he learned the technique and studied the failure points of Sir Harold Gillies’ procedure. Tessier discovered that by using a bone graft inserted in the gaps created by Gillies’ osteotomy through Le Fort III operation it would make the skeleton more stable and free from relapse; these observations contributed to the success of Tessier’s technique.
After the Second World War, Sir Harold Gillies expanded the field of congenital malformation. In 1949 he performed the first Le Fort III osteotomy based on facial injuries, which was discovered by French surgeon René Le Fort in 1901.
In the past there was a great deal of controversy regarding the complicated surgery of craniofacial deformities as advocated by Tessier; an operation time of up to 16–18 h and blindness were reported. Kenneth E. Salyer in the mid-1970s advocated less complicated surgery by advancing a frontal-orbital block in children and letting the brain and skull grow and operate without the pressure of cranial sutures [6].
One advantage of craniofacial surgery is the prenatal diagnosis of pre-pediatrics malformation by ultrasound, such as a cleft palate, Pierre Robin syndrome, and facial cleft and the possibilities of using intrauterine microsurgery [1].
The exciting progress in craniofacial surgery by using the bone grafting and distraction technique and advancement of radiological diagnostic tools such as ultrasound and three-dimensional CT scanning and MRI have advanced the design of instrumentation for this type of surgery.
Paul Tessier in 1976 classified facial clefts as neither based on theory nor on embryological definition but on an observation made during clinical examination and operative dissection. These clefts were distributed both around the orbit and eyelids and around the lips and maxilla, and certain clefts are common to these two regions; the cleft of soft tissue and bony clefts do not always exactly coincide [6].
Cooperation is required between the orthodontist and the craniomaxillofacial surgeon during different phases of treatment. The treatment plan starts with the orthodontist who aligns the teeth followed by surgical correction after proper planning, which may be followed by orthodontic treatment for final alignment of the teeth and occlusion.
The distraction technique was advocated by a genius Russian orthopedic surgeon Ilizarof [7] for the elongation of short limbs in children and this technique was later applied to the lower jaw with first arch deformity by McCarthy et al. [8].
Distraction is defined as the process of generating new bone by stretching distraction osteogenesis, traction on living stimulate, and maintaining regeneration and growth by inducing a proliferation of precursor cells. This is defined as neoformed bone and adjacent soft tissue after gradual and controlled displacement of fragment bone and adjacent tissue after gradual and controlled displacement of bone fragment obtained by surgical osteotomy [9].
The distraction technique passes through three phases: the surgical phase, the latent period phase, and the consolidation phase. The most critical phase is the latent period phase. An experimental study was conducted on rabbits to understand the cellular changes associated with the distraction technique. This was achieved by using a bilateral distractor. The hand bone lengthening apparatus was adjusted with 1.5-mm Kirschner wire and was passed through both mandibular bodies. Rhythmic distraction of both corpectomies of the bone using an osteotome was carried out at a rate of 1 mm/day at a rhythm of 0.5 mm twice daily, preceded by a latent period of 7 days. The period for distraction lasted 10 days and an immediate postoperative antibiotic of 1 mL/10-kg IM penicillin streptomycin was prescribed once daily. The segments were held by an external fixator for 6 weeks until consolidation was completed. Bone regeneration was evaluated radiologically for periods of 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 6 weeks. At the end of the experiment a length of 10 mm was achieved.
Histological examination of the distracted jaw showed mature bone trabeculae in the fibrovascular zone and mesenchymal stem cells with heavy fibroblasts oriented with distraction tension, with blood vessels oriented in the same direction. These changes occurred due to the effect of platelet growth factor (PGF), which was released from platelets from bone marrow of osteotomized bone. Newly formed trabeculae lined by a chain of osteoblasts was also noticed.
Bone regeneration by distraction osteogenesis is a highly complicated and organized process. In the above experiment bone regeneration was observed during distraction based on the pattern of a membranous type of bone proceeded by formation of granulation tissue and release of PGF and mesenchymal stem cells from the bone marrow of osteotomized bone segments and from the overlying periosteum [9].
Bone grafting plays another important role in the successful technique of craniofacial surgery and is considered an important factor in advanced craniofacial surgery by inserting a bone graft in the site of osteotomy to prevent relapse. This might be used in orbital reconstruction and skull defects.
Bone grafting is an interesting topic practiced by craniomaxillofacial surgeons. It is a surgical technique used to fix a problem by using transplanted bone to repair and build or replace missing bone, for example lost pieces of bone caused by a road traffic accident or in post-traumatic missile war injuries or after tumor surgery, by filling the gap of osteotomized bone in craniomaxillofacial surgery and orthopedic surgery. The most common type of bone graft practiced by the author is an autogenous cortico-cancellous type or a cancellous type of bone, with the donor area being the iliac crest [10].
Bone grafting is possible because bone tissue can regenerate completely once the space is provided for it to grow as natural bone.
Bone grafting is a complicated technique requiring highly experienced surgeons with high skill and knowledge of the pathology of bone grafting. The greatest advances in bone grafting occurred during the last four or five decades.
The mechanism of bone grafting was not fully understood by most surgeons and cases of failed procedures were reported. Recently experimental studies on rabbits were conducted by reconstructing the mandible by bone graft from the iliac crest of rabbit after excision of a piece of bone from the mandible. The aim was to study and understand the cellular changes that occur between the free bone graft and the recipient stump of bone of the mandible. Cellular changes were tested in three stages of bone formation after 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 8 weeks.
It was observed that the cytological changes of bone grafting showed the formation of granulation tissue with mesenchymal stem cells derived from bone marrow of boney segments of the mandible and from the periosteum and covering muscle with release of PGF with large numbers of fibroblasts and tiny small blood vessels. Osteoblast was noticed with chondrocyte and osteoid tissue [11, 12].
It was concluded from experimental studies and research on distraction and bone grafting that cellular changes that occur in bone grafting and distraction with these different surgical techniques are the same, with the presence and release of PGF and mesenchymal stem cells. The only differences are the distraction caused by expansion stress of the periosteum and muscles and the bone graft by rigid fixation, and decortication of both graft and stump of the bones [12].
Another revolutionary work was carried out by David Poswillo in 1974, [13]. He presented his experimental studies on
It is hoped that this introduction presents the author’s views on the history and advancements made in craniofacial surgery during the last five decades.
Packaging is one of the most useful tools used by the food industry to protect several foodstuffs against contamination and spoilage. Traditionally, materials such as plastic, glass, metals, paper and board have been used for developing food packages [1, 2]. However, the interest by polymeric materials have enormously increased because they exhibit several advantages, such as low-cost, low-weight and good mechanical, barrier and optical properties [3, 4]. Therefore, processed and non-processed foods are daily packaged into plastic materials in order to avoid their contamination by odors, dust and microorganisms, as well as their deterioration by temperature, humidity, light, shocks, physical damage, among others [5, 6]. Despite of several benefits that packaging industry offers to food, oxidation and microbial spoilage are the principal mechanisms that entail a great loss of fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy and bakery products during their production, transport, processing, storage, and marketing [5]. In this context, during the last decades, the packaging area has centered its aims to the development of materials able to maintain or improve the properties of food, and therefore, extend its shelf-life. Several studies have developed different functional materials which in turn have allowed the surging of active food packaging in the last years. Thus, Figure 1 shows a comparison between the number of indexed articles about “Food packaging” and “Active food packaging”, published in the Web of Science (WOS) data basis. This figure shows the growing interest in food packaging research area during the last two decades, evidencing that active food packaging has been specifically leading during the last 5 years when compared to traditional food packaging published research.
Articles related to traditional food packaging and active food packaging in the last two decades (data obtained from Web of Science data basis).
Active food packaging is considered a system of positive interaction between the food, the packaging material and the environment with the aim of preserving the properties of food and avoiding its deterioration during transport and storage [7]. In this way, compounds or substances with an active function (active compounds) have been incorporated into polymers in order to obtain active materials [6]. Natural and synthetic active compounds, such as plant extracts, essential oils, peptides, enzymes, organic acids, salts, metals ions, metal oxides, nanoparticles, among others, have afford to the packaging materials different functionalities, such as: (i) releasing/emitting of antioxidants, antimicrobial, sulfur dioxide, preservatives, ethanol and flavors; (ii) absorbing/scavenging of carbon dioxide, oxygen ethylene, flavors, moisture, UV light; and (iii) controlling the microbial, temperature and quality of foods [8, 9].
The design of active packaging systems has been mainly focused on the characteristics of the active compound and packaged food. Figure 2 shows the five mechanisms for generating an active packaging system through [7, 10]:
Incorporation external devices (labels, pads or sachets loaded with some active compound) into the package able to release or absorb substances.
Coating of active compound onto inner surface of packaging material. This system is useful for heat-sensitive compounds or incompatible and immiscible with polymeric matrix.
Immobilization of active compound in the inner layer of packaging material through ion or covalent linkages. It is important the presence of functional groups on active compound and polymer to get the immobilization.
Direct addition of the active compound into the packaging material matrix [11].
By using polymers with some active function (e.g., chitosan) to develop composites or multilayer materials.
Routes for obtaining an active packaging system.
Most polymeric materials that have been part of above-mentioned active packaging systems have been obtained through traditional techniques, such as melting based processes (melt blending, hot pressing, cast extrusion, injection molding), casting, coating [12]. For example, the extrusion technique was recently used by producing active labels based on low-density polyethylene films loaded with different essential oils and vegetable oils [13]. In this work, fresh beef was packaged into commercial trays with modified atmosphere (70% O2 + 30% CO2), and the active labels were placed on the top of the tray in order to protect the food. Results demonstrated a great effectivity of active packaging system because the shelf-life of fresh meat was extended by 22%. On the other hand, casting technique has been also a useful tool for producing active food packaging systems. In this context, Sooch and Mann developed an active package from gelatin and copper nanoparticles doped with titanium dioxide. Tomatoes were wrapped with these packaging materials, and the shelf-life of vegetables was extended by 18 days [14]. Likewise, multilayer materials for active packaging of meat products have been also developed through coating technique. Bilayer films composed by poly(lactic) acid (PLA), as substrate, and chitosan or blends of chitosan/caseinate enriched with rosemary essential oil, as coating, were recently used for protecting fresh minced chicken meats. In this case, oxidation process and color changes of food were not shown for 14 days because the food was in direct contact with active materials [15].
On the other hand, non-traditional techniques as carbon dioxide supercritical impregnation and atomic layer deposition (ALD) have been also employed for developing active materials. However, the application of such technologies in food has been not already evaluated. Villegas et al. impregnated cinnamaldehyde through supercritical carbon dioxide into PLA film in order to obtain an antibacterial material. Active film showed a strong and effective antibacterial activity against
As the technology has been progressed, in the last decade, a novel technique known as electrospinning has been used for developing polymeric materials that posteriorly play a fundamental role in the active packaging system.
Electrospinning is an efficient and novel technique that consists in the application of an electric field to a polymeric solution in order to produce thinner structures known as “fibers” [11]. As Figure 3 shows, the electrospinning is composed by three main components: (i) a high voltage source composed by two electrodes that are connected to the output of a metal needle and to collector, (ii) an injection pump that impulses the polymeric solution through plastic tube to metal needle, and (iii) a collector. To obtain the fibers, it is necessary that the surface tension of the drop formed in the tip of the needle be overcome by the force of the electric field. On this way, the polymeric solution is continuously stretched to produce a jet with a conical structure named “Taylor’s cone”, where the solvent is evaporated to obtain the fibers [12].
Electrospinning system.
Characteristics of the fibers depend on the control of the electrospinning parameters. In this context, a change of the properties of the polymeric solution (polymer concentration, viscosity, electrical conductivity, type of solvent) or the operational parameters (flow rate, voltage and the height also known as the distance between the tip of the needle and the collector) can affect the size and morphology of the fibers [20]. This fact will be detailed in the following section.
The concentration of the polymer is one of the main parameters that affects the size and the morphology of the fibers, and it is closely related to the viscosity of the solution. If the solution concentration is very low, the jet cannot be continuously stretched, and thus, uniform fibers cannot be obtained. This fact in turn can produce a decrease in the diameter of the fibers and the presence of beads in their surface. On the contrary, an increase of the concentration can result in thicker structures, and in some cases, the non-formation of the fibers due to high viscosity of the solution. A recent study evidenced the decrease of the diameter and the presence of beads in polycaprolactone (PCL) nanofibers when the polymeric concentration decreased from 13 to 8 wt% [21]. A similar result was also obtained in the processing of cellulose acetate (CA) and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) nanofibers. In both cases, the use of CA and PVC concentrations at 12 wt% resulted in thinner and beaded fibers, while an increase to 16 wt% produced structures with smooth surfaces and large diameters [22].
The increase of electrical conductivity in the polymeric solution has been mainly related with the increase of the concentration of the polymer, favoring the electrospinning process and the formation of the fibers. For example, gelatin nanofibers were only obtained with acid solutions at high gelatin concentrations. The low electrical conductivity obtained with the lowest gelatin solution (7 wt%) did not allow to produce fibers. On the contrary, the increase of polymeric solution concentration to 20 wt% produced an increase of electrical conductivity and the formation of nanofibers [23].
The type of solvent has an important role during the electrospinning process. It is stretched related with the surface tension of the solution, and several investigations have shown changes of this parameter by the use of different solvents or the mix of them. This fact in turn has derived in different morphologies and sizes of fibers. Thus, the combination of formic acid (FA) and dichloromethane (DCM) at different ratios as solvent system for producing PCL nanofibers produced changes on the diameter of the structures. A higher amount of FA produced an increase of electrical conductivity solution, while an increase of the amount of DCM increased its surface tension. These effects in turn produced fibers with diameters between 1.5 μm and 220 nm [21]. Likewise, the use of the following solvent systems: acetone/N,N-dimethylacetamide, acetone/N,N-dimethylformamide and tetrahydrofuran/dimethylformamide at different ratios changed the morphology of PCL nanofibers. Beaded, beaded-free, thin, thick and smooth nanofibers were obtained with these different combinations, and this fact could be associated to the changes on the surface tension of polymeric solutions [22].
The flow rate is considered a key parameter because controls the diameter of the fibers, the trajectory of jet, initial droplet shape, maintenance of Taylor’s cone and the collection area. A high flow rate produces larger droplets in the tip of the needle and favors the formation of thicker and beaded fibers due to minimum solvent evaporation. On the contrary, a low flow rate facilitates the evaporation of solvent, obtaining uniform and smooth structures [24]. This effect has been observed when a poly(vinylidenefluoridene-hexafluoropropylene) solution was electrospun at different flow rates. An increase of flow rate from 0.1 to 0.7 mL/h produced an increase of fiber diameter [25]. The same result was also obtained when the flow rate of a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) solution increased from 0.75 to 1.5 mL/h [19].
The distance between the needle and the collector has a great effect on the diameter and the shape of the fibers. A small distance avoids the total evaporation of the solvent, and thus, the collection of wet and thicker fibers can occur. In this way, the presence of beads or the formation of ribbon-flat fibers have been the most common results. On the contrary, a high distance can improve the stretching of the jet and favor the formation of uniform and thinner structures. Furthermore, the increase of distance can also increase the needed voltage to produce the fibers [19, 26]. A recent study obtained thinner polyacrylonitrile nanofibers when increased the collection distance from 15 to 45 cm [27]. Similarly, the increase of collection distance from 8.5 to 10 cm produced smaller diameter in PVOH nanofibers [19].
Despite of several studies have demonstrated that voltage has a minimum impact on the diameter and morphology of fibers, it is an important parameter to be considered during processing of electrospun materials. This fact is due to its increase can produce change the diameter of fibers and produce the presence or absence of beads in the structures [26]. Some studies have evidenced the effect of this parameter on such characteristics [23, 27].
As it was earlier mentioned, electrospinning is able to produce smaller and thinner mats composed by fibers with high aspect ratio. In order to functionalize these mats, active compounds can be incorporated into them. These materials in turn could be converted to active packaging materials or be part of an active packaging system, exhibiting the following advantages [11]:
Lower amount of required active compound due to small sizes of fibers,
Good distribution of the active compound,
High surface-to-volume ratio with tailored thicknesses due to the high versatility of this technique.
Despite of active electrospun materials are an excellent alternative to develop active packaging materials in comparison with other traditional techniques (melting processes, coating, casting), their processing remain one of the main challenges. This fact is mainly because the addition of the active compound can produce changes in the properties of the polymeric solution, and therefore, the electrospinning process can be affected. In order to deepen in the topic, the following section will discuss the effect of adding active compounds in the development electrospun materials.
The incorporation of an active compound to the polymeric solution to be electrospun can mainly change their physicochemical properties and affect the development of electrospun packaging material as follows.
The viscosity of the polymeric solution is related to the concentration and molecular weight of the polymer. A polymeric solution with an optimum viscosity can be electrospun in order to obtain the active mat. On the contrary, solutions with very high or low viscosities affect the electrospinning process and the obtaining of homogenous fibers [28]. Depending on the type of the active compound, the viscosity of the polymeric solution can be increased or decreased, and the morphology and diameter of the fibers are affected. As is shown in Table 1, the use of essential oils has mainly produced an increase of solution viscosity, which has derived in an increase of fiber diameter. This effect has been mainly associated to a less stretching of the jet [30]. For example, the increasing addition of angelica essential oil into gelatin solutions produced high viscosities which resulted in thicker fibers [30]. Altan et al. also evidenced this same effect when active PLA fibers loaded with carvacrol were developed [29]. Likewise, thicker fibers of glycyrrhiza polysaccharide and polyoxide ethylene (PEO) loaded with tea tree essential oil encapsulated into gliadin nanoparticles were obtained by Cai et al. Like above mentioned studies, the active compound increased the solution viscosity and affected the diameter of the fibers [31].
Polymeric solution | Active compound | Amount of active compound incorporated (%wt.) | Polymeric solution properties | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
V | ST | EC | ||||
Zein | Carvacrol | 5–20 | [29] | |||
PLA | ||||||
Gelatin | Angelica essential oil | 3–9 | [30] | |||
Glycyrrhiza polysaccharide and PEO | Tea tree oil-gliadin nanoparticles | 2–10 | [31] | |||
PVOH | LEO and REO | 10 | [32] | |||
PCL | Sage extract | 5–20 | C | [33] | ||
Zein | Tomato peel extract | 5–20 | [34] | |||
Zein | Jaboticaba peel extracts | 5–11 | [35] | |||
PVOH | Coptis chinensis extract | 5–15 | [36] | |||
Zein | TiO2 | 1–5 | [37] | |||
PVOH and gum karaya | Ag | 0.2–2 | [38] | |||
Ethylcelullose/gelatin | ZnO | 1–2 | [39] | |||
Amaranth protein and pullulan | Nisin | 10 and 20 | [40] | |||
Gelatin | Nisin | 0.5–3 | M | [41] | ||
Chitosan/PVOH | Lysozyme | 10–30 | M | [42] |
Influence of the active compound incorporation on properties of polymeric solution.
V = viscosity, ST = surface tension, EC = electrical conductivity. Trends:
On the other hand, the effect of incorporating plant extracts in the viscosity of the polymeric solutions has produced different behaviors. A clear tendency of increase or decrease of viscosity by the incorporation of plant extracts has been not obtained. A work about PCL fibers loaded with sage extract evidenced that the incorporation and increase of extract concentration in the polymeric solution decreased its viscosity and favored the production of thinner fibers [33]. Likewise, an increase of concentration of jaboticaba peel extract in a zein solution decreased its viscosity and the diameter of the fibers [35]. Meanwhile, an increase of concentration of tomato peel extract in a polymeric solution of zein produced an increase of its viscosity and the development of thicker fibers [34]. Yang et al. also obtained a similar result when
The use of nanoparticles has also influenced the diameter and the morphology of the fibers, and this fact has been mainly related to changes in the solution viscosity. For example, although an increase of TiO2 nanoparticles concentration into zein solutions caused high viscosity values, thinner fibers were obtained [37]. A similar effect was also observed in the development of PVOH/gum karaya nanofibers loaded with silver (Ag) nanoparticles, whose resulting nanofibers showed roughness in their surface, and this fact was attributed to an increase of the viscosity of the polymeric solution. Meanwhile, Liu et al. evidenced a contrary effect because the viscosity of a blend of ethylcellulose and gelatin decreased with the increase of ZnO nanoparticles concentration, but the diameter of fibers increased [39].
The development of fibers loaded with peptides and enzymes has also been an excellent strategy for producing potential active electrospun materials. Most studies have evidenced a decrease of the polymeric solution viscosity after their incorporation, which in turn has affected the size of fibers. A decrease of diameter of amaranth protein/pullulan nanofibers was evidenced by Soto et al. when nisin was incorporated to the polymeric solution. The increase of nisin content decreased the viscosity of the solution due to the molecular entanglement among the components, and this in turn influenced on the diameter of the fibers [40]. Likewise, a work about active nanofibers of chitosan/PVOH loaded with lysozyme showed a result similar. In this case, the incorporation and increase of the lysozyme concentration caused a decrease of viscosity, and therefore, a decrease of the nanofiber’s diameter [42].
This parameter is closely related with the nature of the solvent. Surface tension shows the strong cohesiveness of the molecules in the solution, which allows the formation of the drop on the tip of the capillary before to be formed the jet by action of electric field [43]. A decrease of surface tension results on bead-free fibers while its increase produces instability of the jet and avoids the formation of the nanostructures [44]. As can be seen in Table 1, the incorporation of active compounds has mainly produced a decrease of surface tension of polymeric solutions due to their behavior as surfactant. Despite of this, the morphological properties of the fibers have been not affected. This effect was recently evidenced when essential oils of
Another of the key parameters for the development of electrospun active fibers is the electrical conductivity. The value in this parameter influences on the fiber’s morphology. Generally, an increase of electrical conductivity facilities the elongation of the droplet and jet formation, therefore, thinner and bead-free fibers are reached [45]. Table 1 shows that the incorporation of an active compound into a polymeric solution has generally produced an increase of its electrical conductivity. Despite of this, the morphology and the diameter of the fibers have shown different trends. For example, although the addition and increase of angelica essential oil concentration into gelatin solutions produced higher electrical conductivity values, an increase of diameter of the fibers was mainly influenced by the increase of the viscosity [30]. A similar result was recently obtained in a study about active nanofibers of glycyrrhiza polysaccharide and PEO loaded with tea tree essential oil encapsulated into gliadin nanoparticles. As the above-mentioned study, the active compound significantly increased the electrical conductivity of the polymeric solution. However, the increase of fiber diameter was attributed to the higher solution viscosities [31]. Meanwhile, a contrary effect was obtained in the study of Avila et al. In this case, the incorporation and increase of jaboticaba peel extract concentration into zein solutions increased their electrical conductivity, which favored the formation of thinner fibers [35]. The same effect was also evidenced in the electrospinning process of chitosan nanofibers loaded with lysozyme [42].
On the other hand, few studies have evidenced a decrease of this parameter when the active compound has been added to the polymeric solution, resulting in the formation of thicker structures. The increase of the diameter of the fibers due to the decrease of electrical conductivity has been explained because static charges of the solution are oriented to jet surface during the electrospinning process. In this way, the capacity of polymer solutions to be electrospun is increased [34]. For example, the adding of TiO2 or tomato peel extract in a zein polymeric solution has evidenced such effect [34, 37].
Although electrospinning has been a novel tool for developing active food packaging materials, their application to industrial scale has been not still largely exploited. This fact has been mainly associated to its low technological readiness level (TRL) in the food area due to low-yield in the production of packaging materials [11]. However, the numerous researches about the application of this technology in real matrixes reveal their promissing and potential application in the food packaging area in the future. In this sense, the most recent developments that involve the application of active electrospun materials on different foodstuffs, the type of formats used for packaging and the principal assay experimental are shown in Table 2.
Food category | Food Type | Applied format | Principal experimental assays | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meat products | Chicken | Wrapper film | Antimicrobial, antioxidant and sensory properties | [32, 46, 47] |
Meat | Film and wrapper film | [48, 49, 50] | ||
Pork | Wrapper film | [51, 52, 53] | ||
Sea products | Fish | Wrapper film | Antimicrobial, antioxidant and sensory properties | [54, 55, 56] |
Seafood | Cover film | [57] | ||
Fruits and vegetables | Fruits | Bag, wrapper film and sachet | Weight loss, firmness, antioxidant, antimicrobial, sensory properties, ripening rate and ethylene production | [58, 59, 60, 61] |
Vegetables | Film and wrapper film | [37, 62, 63] | ||
Bakery products | Bread | Sachet | Antimicrobial | [29, 64] |
Dairy products | Cheese | Wrapper film | Antimicrobial and sensory properties | [65, 66, 67] |
Application of active electrospun materials on different food matrices.
In the food industry, chicken, meat and pork are considered the most appreciated and chosen meat products by the consumers due to a 15% preference of world population [68]. These food have been usually packaged into trays and bags through different systems in order to ensure their quality and safety [69]. Despite of this, microbial contamination, oxidation processes and loss of the sensory properties are still some of main issues that produce their spoilage. In order to avoid such complications, several developments based on the direct application of active electrospun materials as wraps or films has allowed their protection, as Table 2 shows. In this way, the quality, safety and shelf-life of these products have been guaranteed during long-time in a cold storage condition. A wrapper active film based on PVOH electrospun nanofibers loaded with LEO and REO was used to protect chicken breast fillets against oxidation and microbial contamination during cold storage. The active mat inhibited their lipid oxidation up to 68% and decreased their microbial growth [32]. Likewise, an active electrospun wrap composed by PLA nanofibers loaded with inclusion complexes of γ-cyclodextrin/α-tocopherol was able to reduce the lipidic oxidation of beef up to 50% during its storage at 4°C for 21 days [48]. Li et al. also prepared active gelatin/zein fibers with resveratrol in order to wrap small pieces of pork. Samples were stored at 4°C and the active mat was able to extend their shelf-life by 3 days [51].
Fish and seafood are the main products obtained from salt and fresh water. They constitute a great source of animal protein and essential micronutrients, such as minerals, vitamins and essential fatty acids [70]. However, their high fatty content is one of the main reasons of decay, principally evidenced through changes of their sensory properties due to oxidation processes. Furthermore, their deterioration is also related to the presence and growth of pathogens and microorganisms. Therefore, and as Table 2 shows, the latest developments about electrospun active materials have been mainly focused on the protection of freshwater and sea products against such deterioration processes. In order to achieve this, these products have been wrapped with developed active electrospun mats containing different polymers and active compounds. A work about the development of sodium caseinate/gelatin nanofibers loaded with essential oil of
Another important group of food used for evaluating the effectivity of packaging systems are fruit and vegetables. Different strategies, such as the use of active sachets or packages with improve physical properties, have been applied for protecting them and extending their shelf-life [71, 72]. Despite of this, their weight loss, textural changes and fungal contamination are still the principal issues causing of their spoilage. In this sense, the most recent developments about wrapper films, bags, films and active sachets obtained through electrospinning have shown their potential application for active food packaging (Table 2). These materials have been mainly applied on strawberries, grapes, tomatoes and mushrooms, and promising results have been obtained. For example, an active electrospun sachet composed by PLA and PVOH/poly(ethylene glycol) nanofibers loaded with thyme essential oil was able to maintain the freshness and prolong the softening rate of strawberries stored at 20°C for 5 days [73]. Likewise, active zein fibers with allyl isothiocyanate were applied as a sachet into a package containing strawberries. In this case, the active sachet reduced the weight loss up to 36% and maintained their firmness during 15 days at 4°C [58]. On the other hand, two recent developments based on PVOH nanofibers loaded with inclusion complexes of β-cyclodextrin with cinnamon essential oil (CEO), and zein and ethyl celullose fibers loaded with CEO demonstrated their excellent effectivity during the storage of mushrooms. In both cases, the weight loss of the vegetables decreased, and therefore, their shelf-life was prolonged [62, 63].
As Table 2 shows, cheese and bread have been the main food models used for evaluating the antimicrobial effectivity of active electrospun packaging materials. In order to avoid the bacterial and fungal contamination in this food category, wrapper films and sachets obtained from such materials have been developed. Cheese has been mainly wrapped with the active mats to avoid the growth of pathogens microorganisms. For example, a total inhibition of microbial growth of
On the other hand, active electrospun sachets have been the preferred format packaging for protecting bread samples. Contrary to cheese, the sachets have been applied without direct contact, avoiding mainly the fungal contamination. This fact was evidenced in the studies developed by Altan et al. and Fonseca et al. Both researches evidenced that the active sachets obtained from starch, zein and PLA nanofibers loaded with carvacrol were able to inhibit the growth of molds on bread stored at 25°C for 7 days [29, 64].
Electrospinning has been one of the most recent and novel technologies used in the packaging research area. This technique has allowed the development of electrospun mats composed by fibers with high aspect ratio. During their development, the modification of electrospinning parameters in turn have generated changes on the morphological characteristics of resulting fibers. Moreover, electrospun mats have been also functionalized through the incorporation of active compounds into polymeric solutions. This fact has eventually modified the viscosity, surface tension and electrical conductivity of the polymeric solutions, and therefore, the morphology and sizes of electrospun structures.
On the other hand, although this technique presents a current low technological readiness level in the food packaging area, the interest and projection of this technology to be applied is growing in an exponential way. This fact has been mainly evidenced by the diverse developments of active electrospun materials able to protect different products, such as meat, chicken, fish, pork, fruits, vegetables, bread, cheese, among others. Therefore, electrospun mats could be proposed as the new generation of materials to be used in the active food packaging.
The authors acknowledge the financial support of Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo de Chile (ANID) through the Doctoral Scholarships CONICYT-PFCHA/Doctorado Nacional/2019-21190316, CONICYT-PFCHA/Doctorado Nacional/2019-21190326 and Fondecyt Regular 1200766.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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