",isbn:"978-1-80355-607-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-606-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-608-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6cf0b844f6881c758c61cca10dc8b134",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Gülşen Akın Evingür and Dr. Önder Pekcan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11830.jpg",keywords:"Elasticity, Toughness, Modulus, Compression, Extension, Optical Properties, Swelling, Drying, Diffusion, Release, Transmission Loss, Sound Absorption Coefficient",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Evingür is a researcher in polymer composites and a lecturer at a maritime university. She has edited 2 books and has had 5 chapters published in international books, and 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Pekcan received their Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming, United States of America, in 1974. He has more than 362 SCI articles, 26 chapters, and 10 projects and is a member Science Academy in Turkey.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. She has edited \n 2 book, and has had 5 chapters published in international books, 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",institutionString:"Piri Reis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Piri Reis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"27949",title:"Dr.",name:"Önder",middleName:null,surname:"Pekcan",slug:"onder-pekcan",fullName:"Önder Pekcan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27949/images/system/27949.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Pekcan received his MS Degree in Physics at the University of Chicago in June 1971, and then in May 1974 his PhD thesis on solid state physics was accepted at the University of Wyoming. \n\nHe started his career at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey as Assistant Professor in 1974. Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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1. Introduction
Platinum group metals (PGMs) are a group of six elements, namely iridium (Ir), osmium (Os), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh) and ruthenium (Ru) [1, 2]. PGMs together with gold and silver are classified as noble or precious metals because of their high corrosion and oxidation resistance [1, 2, 3]. The world’s reserves of platinum group metals/elements are estimated at 100 million kilogrammes, of which over 80% is contained in South Africa’s Bushveld Igneous Complex [4]. Summary of the PGM reserves by country is shown in Table 1 [5]. PGMs are used in a number of industrial processes and commercial applications including automotive, jewellery, electronics, dentistry, catalysts, needles, pivots, temperature measurements, special crucibles and investments amongst others [5, 6, 7].
In South Africa, the PGM ore is mined in the western and eastern limb of the Bushveld Igneous Complex [8]. Within the Bushveld Igneous Complex, the Merensky reef, the Platreef and Upper Group 2 (UG2) reef are exploited for platinum production [1, 4, 9]. Merensky and Platreef have similar chemical and mineral composition [6, 10]. These reefs typically have fairly low contents of sulphides. UG2 differs from the two reefs in that it has low nickel and copper content [3]; compared to UG2, Merensky reef has higher amounts of chalcopyrite, pentlandite and pyrrhotite [8]. Chromite spinel can be up to 4% by mass in a UG2 concentrate, while a Merensky concentrate can have <1% by mass chromite spinel [8, 10].
A typical mineralogy of the flotation concentrate blend is shown in Table 2 [11]. Eksteen (2011) [8] has given the fractions of typical minerals in the UG2 and Merensky concentrates. The abundant gangue minerals in a typical PGM concentrate are orthopyroxene, talc, clinopyroxene and plagioclase [8]; other gangue minerals are <5% by mass [8].
Mineral
Formula
Sulphide minerals
Chalcopyrite
CuFeS2
Pentlandite
(Fe, Ni, Co)9S8
Pyrite
FeS2
Pyrrhotite
Fe1 − xSx
Gangue minerals
Alteration silicates
Hydrated minerals
Chromite spinel
FeCr2O4
Pyroxenes
(Mg, Fe)SiO3 – Ca(Mg, Fe)Si2O6
Olivine
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
Plagioclase/feldspar
NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8
Quartz
SiO2
Haematite
Fe2O3
Table 2.
Sulphide and gangue mineralogy of a typical PGM concentrate [11].
3. Sources of PGM
The principal sources of PGM are sulphide and arsenide minerals such as PtAs2, PtS, Pt(AsS)2, (Pt,Pd)S, (Pt,Pd,Ni)S, RuS2 and Pd3Sb and elemental ruthenium [3, 7]. Noble metals together with cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) belong to the class of transition metals in the periodic table [6]. Geologically, PGM associates with base metal sulphides such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), millerite (NiS), pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8, pyrite (FeS2) and pyrrhotite (Fe1−xS) [3, 12, 13]. Troilite carries trace amounts of iridium, while chalcopyrite has trace amounts of Ru, Pd, Ir and Pt [13]. Gangue minerals associated with PGM-containing minerals are feldspar, biotite, plagioclase and pyroxene [12].
4. PGM ore processing: an overview
Typical process route for treating PGM ore with the approximate PGM grade in each process is shown in Figure 1 [1, 7, 9].
Figure 1.
Typical process flow diagram for PGM ore processing [9, 12].
4.1. Comminution
The PGM ore is initially treated in primary and secondary crushers after which it is sent to rod and ball milling circuits. The milled PGM ore is treated using gravity separators and flotation cells; xanthate and dithiophosphate collectors are typical reagents used for flotation at a pH of 7.5–9 [1]. A sulphide-rich PGM concentrate is produced in the flotation cells [6].
Typical composition of UG2 and Merensky flotation concentrate is shown in Table 3 [14]. A typical PGM content in the flotation concentrate is in Table 4 [9]. The UG2 concentrate has higher chrome content when compared to the Merensky as seen in Tables 3 and 4. UG2 also has higher PGM content than the Merensky concentrate. The concentrate from the flotation cells is dried and smelted to separate the sulphides from the silicates [9].
Al2O3
CaO
Cr2O3
Cu
FeO
MgO
Ni
S
SiO2
PGM (g/t)
Merensky
1.6
2.2
0.3
2.1
22.3
18.2
3.2
9
41.4
100 - 250
UG2
5.0
2.4
2.9
0.8
12.6
21.0
1.7
3.6
44.0
300 - 600
Table 3.
Typical composition of Merensky and UG2 concentrate [14].
Assay
Merensky
UG2
Platreef
PGM-4E
200
200
120
Pt-% of 4E
63.5
56.7
45.1
Pd
28.1
29.4
45.7
Rh
4.4
13.0
3.2
Au
4.0
0.9
6.0
Ir
0.6
1.6
1.0
Ru
6.8
9.6
3.5
Ni %
6.0
1.4
4.9
Cu
3.4
0.7
2.5
Co
0.15
0.05
0.2
Cr2O3
0.6
3.0
0.3
Sulphur
15-20
4-6
10-15
USD value/tonne
14009
16526
7397
Table 4.
Typical content of a PGM flotation concentrate [9].
4.2. PGM ore smelting
To separate the PGM-rich sulphides from the gangue minerals, smelting is used. Rectangular six-in-line or circular three-electrode electric furnaces are typical in the PGM industry [12]. Smelting is a high-temperature process step where the sulphides (valuable minerals) are separated from the silicates (gangue minerals). Energy required for melting the concentrate is provided by Joule heating when an electric current is passed through the resistive bath [15]. The electrodes are used for electrical connections between the power supply and the bath. Graphite electrodes are inserted into the resistive bath such that when a current is applied through the electrodes, thermal energy is generated [6, 15].
The PGM concentrate is introduced into the smelter through the feed ports situated on the furnace roof. The concentrate forms a thick bed (~400 mm) on top of the molten bath. The heat generated in the resistive bath causes the concentrate bed to melt gradually [8].
The operating temperature of the smelter at the concentrate zone can range from 600 to 900°C [16]. The liquidus temperature of base metal sulphides associated with PGMs is 850–875°C, whereas the liquidus temperature of the corresponding silicates is approximately 1350°C [16]. The sulphides in a PGM concentrate start melting at the concentrate bed since temperature at the concentrate zone can exceed the liquidus temperature of the sulphides. The silicate minerals melt when they reach the molten bath (concentrate-slag interface) [16]. The silicates and sulphides are immiscible; upon melting they form two separate layers.
The molten silicates and oxides form a fayalitic-forsteric slag layer, while the PGM-containing sulphides form a matte layer [16]. The specific gravity of matte ranges from 4.8 to 5.6, and that of slag ranges from 2.8 to 3.8 [6, 15]. Owing to the difference in specific gravities of matte and slag, the slag forms a top layer. Matte being denser than slag falls through the slag layer and settles underneath the slag. Matte consists of base metal sulphides (cobalt, copper, iron and nickel). Matte serves as a collector for the PGMs [6, 7, 14].
Operating temperature of matte and slag varies with the composition of the concentrate [8]. Typical smelter operating temperature for matte varies from 1380 to 1600°C, and that of slag varies from 1500 to 1680°C [8].
The molten slag and matte are tapped out of the smelter through the tap holes situated at the sidewall of the furnace. After tapping, the matte either can be fed directly to the converters as tapped or can be granulated before the conversion step; matte treatment varies with the producers.
4.2.1. Industrial PGM-furnace matte
Anglo American Platinum (Amplats), Impala Platinum (Implats) and Lonmin are three major producers of PGM in South Africa [9]. Typical compositions of matte from selected smelters are shown in Table 5. Matte from different smelters seems to have comparable amounts of major components (Cu, Fe, Ni and S). The slight difference is that the amount of iron in Amplats matte is slightly higher than the iron in a Lonmin matte (Table 5).
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Ni
S
Amplats-Waterval
0.5
0.5
9.0
41.0
17.0
27.0
Lonmin-Merensky/UG2
0.5
0.2
9.7
37.0
17.0
28.0
Lonmin-UG2
0.5
0.3
9.8
35.0
17.0
28.0
Table 5.
Typical chemical composition of industrial matte from selected smelters (% by mass) [12].
4.2.2. Industrial PGM-furnace slag
Gangue minerals associated with PGM-containing minerals are feldspar, biotite, plagioclase and pyroxene ([Ca,Na]Al1–2Si3–2O8) [12]. During smelting these gangue minerals form a slag that is a silicate rich phase. Typical composition of a PGM-furnace slag from different smelters is shown in Table 6 [12]. The oxide compounds in Amplats and Lonmin-Merensky slag are comparable; Lonmin-UG2 slag has higher Cr2O3, CaO and MgO; and its FeO content is significantly lower when compared to that of the slag from Amplats and Lonmin-Merensky ore.
Al2O3
CaO
Co
Cr2O3
Cu
FeO
MgO
Ni
S
SiO2
Amplats-Waterval
3.3
6.4
0.1
0.8
0.1
31.0
15.0
0.2
0.5
46.0
Lonmin-Merensky
2.0
9.8
0.1
1.2
0.1
28.0
19.0
0.2
0.0
44.0
Lonmin-UG2
3.9
13.0
0.0
2.4
0.1
9.2
22.0
0.1
0.0
47.0
Table 6.
Typical chemical composition of industrial slag from different smelters (% by mass) [12].
4.3. Converting
After smelting, the furnace matte is treated in Pierce-Smith converters or Ausmelt process where iron sulphide is oxidised to ferrous oxide and sulphur is oxidised to sulphur dioxide [9]. Sulphur dioxide is removed as an off-gas, and iron oxide is removed as a fayalitic slag. The slag phase of the converter contains significant amounts of entrained PGM and is recycled to the smelting furnace to recover the entrained PGM. The converter matte is cooled, milled and treated in base metals refinery (BMR) [1, 9].
4.4. Purification
Typical hydrometallurgical processes used for PGM purification are as follows: dissolution-precipitation (pressure oxidation leach), solvent extraction and ion exchange and molecular recognition technology [17]. Pressure oxidation leach is a typical hydrometallurgical process used to separate base metals from the PGM residue. The base metals are leached, while the PGMs remain in the residue. The PGM residue is sent to a precious metal refinery where various solution extraction and precipitation methods are used to separate individual metals [1]. Solvent extraction is another method by which PGMs can be separated from the base metals [7].
5. Operational challenges facing PGM industry
South Africa is faced with increasing cost of electricity which has direct impact on the energy-intensive processes such as smelting [1, 18]. South African PGM producers generally process a Merensky concentrate where available; otherwise, the Merensky and UG2 concentrates are blended together to achieve the required feed composition for the smelter. In recent years, the depletion of the Merensky reef has forced the PGM producers to mine the UG2 reef that has up to 60% chromite. As a consequence, the concentrate from the floatation cells has high chrome content than the amount that the smelters are designed to handle. In reducing conditions, the operating temperature limits the solubility of Cr2O3 in a typical slag. At 1450–1650°C the solubility of Cr2O3 in slag is limited to 1.8% by mass. As such the smelters have battled with numerous challenges owing to the treatment of a high chrome concentrate [9, 19].
5.1. Challenges associated with smelting high chromite concentrate
The challenges associated with high chrome feed to the smelter are the following [19]:
Formation of chromite spinels which are insoluble in slag.
Chromite spinels have high melting points as such they increase the liquidus temperature of the slag and they lower the fluidity of the slag [19].
Chromite spinels increase the overall temperature of the constituents (slag and matte) [8].
When the matte temperature is above the liquidus temperature of the slag freeze-lining, the matte dissolves the freeze-lining; this leads to corrosion of the refractories by corrosive PGM melt [8].
There are FeO- and CrO-based spinels; the proportion of Fe and Cr in the spinel may vary, as such there are spinels that are heavier than the matte, while other spinels are slightly lighter than matte. Spinels which are denser than matte settle on the hearth; the accumulation of spinels on the hearth reduces the volume of the furnace [8].
Spinels with intermediate density form a ‘mushy’ layer at the slag-matte interface; this leads to the entrainment of matte in slag [8].
High chrome decreases electrical conductivity of the bath leading to electrical control problems in the furnace [19].
Higher chrome levels affect the matte temperatures during conversion step (matte temperatures above 1355°C have been observed); this causes damage to the refractory lining. Cold dope (revert) is normally used to lower the temperature of the matte during conversion [16, 19].
A number of approaches have been investigated to deal with the chrome problem. The following actions have eased chromite problem in the smelters:
Deep electrode immersion operating at high power densities causes sufficient mixing which keeps the solids in suspension [8, 21], but high power densities adversely affect the refractory life. To minimise the effect of high power input on the refractory life of the sidewall lining, the phase voltage is increased without increasing the current levels [19].
Some producers stopped recycling the converter slag to the furnaces since the converter slag has high chrome content [19, 20].
The flux addition in the furnace was discontinued since lower CaO levels increased the solubility of the chromite in the slag [19, 20].
The control of furnace inputs and control of furnace parameters (power, furnace availability) are essential in controlling chrome content [19].
Selective reduction improves the solubility of chromium in the slag [20].
Tapping out the intermediate layer intentionally [22].
Decreasing the chromium input to the smelters [20].
Another innovation able to manage chrome-rich ores is the ConRoast process. This process involves removing and capturing sulphur from the concentrate prior to smelting in a DC arc furnace. Roasting a concentrate makes smelting more environmentally friendly; it also enables furnaces to accept any proportion of chromite, resulting in more efficient and cost-effective platinum production [9, 23].
5.2. Premature failure of refractory lining
Due to high operating temperatures (1350 to >1600°C) [8] associated with PGM smelting, the smelter has to be lined with refractories at the hot face. To prolong the service life of the refractories, sufficient cooling of the refractories is required at the cold face of the refractory wall. Copper waffle coolers are typically used in the cold face of the refractories to extract heat away from the refractories [24]. Due to high operating temperature and corrosiveness of the PGM melt, premature failure of the waffle copper coolers has been experienced in PGM smelters [24] in the upper sidewall region. Failure of waffle copper coolers causes explosions, loss of production and costs associated with furnace rebuild. The failure of waffle copper coolers was preceded by the consumption of conventional refractory bricks (MgOx-CrOx) which were used to form the furnace lining. The refractory brick (MgOx-CrOx) had low resistance to chemical attack by liquid PGM melt. To prevent the occurrences of copper cooler failures, conventional bricks have been replaced by the graphite blocks in recent designs of PGM smelter refractory walls [25]. Graphite blocks are only applied at the hot face of the upper sidewall (against the concentrate and the slag zone).
With the graphite block lining, a frozen protective skull forms at the hot face of the refractory. The formation of the protective skull is attributed to the efficient cooling of the refractory wall by waffle coolers. The frozen skull is the melt that solidified due to the surface temperature of the graphite that was lower than the liquidus temperature of the melt [25].
Graphite blocks have increased the service life of the waffle copper coolers through the formation of a protective layer. However, high infiltration of melt is still observed at the matte-slag tidal zone. This is a challenge that still needs to be addressed; currently, conventional bricks or monolithics are used at lower sidewall of the PGM smelter refractory. It is desired to extend the graphite blocks to the lower sidewall of the PGM smelter refractory wall against the matte zone [25]. It is envisaged that using carbon-based refractory at the hot face of the matte zone (lower sidewall) will improve the service life of the furnace lining in PGM smelters [25].
6. Opportunities in PGM processing
The PGM industry faces challenges with increasing chrome content in the feed and premature failure of refractory lining in the smelter. Alternative ways to process the PGM have become attractive due to the challenges associated with the conventional smelting process [1, 18]. A hydrometallurgy (Kell) process has been probed as an alternative to smelting PGM. The Kell process has three stages: stage 1 is the leaching of base metal sulphides in an acidic sulphate medium (pressure oxidation); stage 2 is roasting of the residue from stage 1; and stage 3 is atmospheric leaching of PGMs in a chloride media. The leached precious metals are further treated in refineries to recover metals [18]. Other hydrometallurgical routes have been discussed in Ref. [1]. These hydrometallurgical processes have advantages over the smelting process since they reduce the operating costs drastically [1]. However, the alternative hydrometallurgical routes of processing PGMs have not yet been commercialised [1].
7. Conclusions
In this chapter, an overview of PGM processing has been presented. The conventional smelting process has challenges with high chromium feed, premature failure of refractory lining and increased operating cost associated with increasing cost of electricity in South Africa. The Kell process is an alternative way to process a PGM concentrate, and it has a number of advantages such as less energy consumption, less energy cost, less electricity consumption, less CO2 emissions and no restriction on chrome content of feed. Other hydrometallurgical routes have been investigated, but none has been commercialised yet.
\n',keywords:"platinum group metals, chrome, smelting, UG2, Merensky",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/58968.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/58968.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58968",totalDownloads:2598,totalViews:966,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:72,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 2nd 2017",dateReviewed:"December 18th 2017",datePrePublished:"February 21st 2018",datePublished:"July 4th 2018",dateFinished:"January 23rd 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"About 80% of the worlds’ reserves for platinum group metals (PGMs) are in South Africa’s Bushveld Igneous Complex. Processing of PGM involves comminution, flotation, smelting, converting, base metals refinery and precious metals refinery. Due to increasing chrome content in the feed and the challenges associated with operating high chrome feed, alternative routes to smelting of PGM are being investigated. Some hydrometallurgical routes have been proposed. However, none of the reported potential routes have yet been commercialised.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/58968",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/58968",book:{id:"6282",slug:"noble-and-precious-metals-properties-nanoscale-effects-and-applications"},signatures:"Bongephiwe Mpilonhle Thethwayo",authors:[{id:"224083",title:"Dr.",name:"Bongephiwe",middleName:null,surname:"Thethwayo",fullName:"Bongephiwe Thethwayo",slug:"bongephiwe-thethwayo",email:"77mpilot@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Geology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Sources of PGM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. PGM ore processing: an overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Comminution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. PGM ore smelting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 6.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. Converting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4. Purification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Operational challenges facing PGM industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1. Challenges associated with smelting high chromite concentrate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2. Premature failure of refractory lining",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Opportunities in PGM processing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Safarzadeh MS, Horton M, Van Rythoven AD. Review of recovery of platinum group metals from copper leach residues and other resources. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review. 2018;39(1):1-17'},{id:"B2",body:'Glaister BJ, Mudd GM. 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1. Introduction
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Over the past decade, suicide has gained prominence across all social groups as the world experienced a significant change in lifestyle with the rise in technological advancement. There is a significant change in the way humans connect and the way information is being shared. The advent of social media has sparked the popularization of certain terms and it serves as a go-to place for firsthand information on happenings all over the world. These come with a need for equilibrium in other to avert the dire consequences it poses on mental health and wellbeing. Unfortunately, social media usage has popularized the act of suicide both directly and indirectly, from its means of information sharing to the influence and consequences it has on emotional health. Social media have indeed resulted in an upsurge of suicide risk factors and suicide-related behaviors.
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This chapter elucidates the existing affiliation between social media use and suicide. It also showcases the connection between social media and suicide on one hand and the potential of social media as a positive tool for wellbeing on the other hand.
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1.1 Social media, its use and popularity today
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In a world where there is a constant need to enhance communication and connect with people, it is only inevitable for humans to find means of easing the process. The fact that man is a social being who does not exist in isolation spells out the importance of Communication to human survival. With the dawn of the information age, the internet era birthed a resolution to this dire human need of communication. The twentieth century experienced a surge in technological advancement, and this heralded the more sophisticated means of information sharing via social media. Social media are a platform or are platforms that make it possible to connect with other people all over the world by enabling communication through the sharing of content and information via a computer, a website or an application. The different platforms can be categorized base on the type of content being shared and the mode of sharing. There are now social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Myspace, Snapchat, WhatsApp which provides an avenue for people all over the world to connect, communicate and share various contents in forms of pictures, videos, voice recordings, events, podcasts, web links and more. With this, people can share their day to day activities with family and friends. Although there is now a wide range of online activities that help ease work and day to day living, social media top the list as being the most popular online activity. From estimated statistics, the year 2018 revealed 2.65 billion constantly using social media worldwide. This statistic is also projected to increase to an estimate of 3.2 billion people constantly using social media in the year 2021 [1]. In Nigeria alone, 2018 statistics revealed an estimate of 29.3 million social network users which is projected to increase to an estimate of 36.8 million users in the year 2023 [1].
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Social networking platforms now facilitates the ability to detect the happenings in the life of others even without reaching out, people are able to project the type of lives they so desire to be displayed for others to see even when it is dissimilar to reality. There is now the possibility of having a social media life where people’s decisions are constantly being influenced by the activities of others. With these possibilities, come various gains as well as losses. Social media platforms are also a great source of news, information, entertainment, products, as well as tools for learning. Blogging websites, business directory, E-commerce website, informational websites, online communities and more are such veritable avenues for learning and obtaining information that people no longer have to physically present themselves in an educational setting in other to acquire skills. With the advent of such a video site as YouTube, there is now growing confidence in the opinion that anything can be learnt online. The advent of the internet and social media has indeed made life fluid. E-learning, E-commerce, E-banking, E-governance has changed the face of the world as it becomes more sophisticated and advanced. Social media have impacted the lifestyle of many from the way we develop social skills, relate to our loved ones, discover self and choose a career to the way we do business. There has been a significant shift and especially for the younger generation who are found to be the most avid users of social media.
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A crucial point to note is the pitfalls which accompany the use of social media, it comes with experiences such as loss in concentration/motivation, comparison, lower grades, poor effects on physical and mental health, reduced social skills in real human contact, time wastage, wrong influences, quick access to vulgar information, internet Freud, cyberbullying and many more negativities. There is a prevailing irony with social media usage; could it be that the same medium which was created to ease social behavior might be the one destroying it? These evident factors demand that we get a full understanding of all precipitating and perpetuating factors of behavioral change due to social media usage, to find ways that balance can be attained. Indeed, social media are here to stay, hence; it is only important that humans establish means to unravel and unhinge its downsides.
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2. Suicide and suicide-related behavior
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Suicide is a calamitous act that calls to take antecedence as a major global health concern. It is simply the act of an individual ending his/her own life intentionally. According to other definitions, Suicide is defined as a death caused by one engaging in injurious behaviors toward self to die as a result of the behavior [2]. It can also be defined as purposeful behavior carried out either to manage or eradicate unbearable levels of pain in one’s present life circumstances [2].
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2.1 The burden of suicide
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Suicide is a leading cause of death, particularly among young people. Suicide occurs all over the world in all regions, across cultures, economic and social status and indeed all age groups. Although suicidal behaviors might differ across age groups, sex and geographic regions, no human is immune to it.
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Suicide accounts for high rates of deaths in all regions of the world today. According to the WHO [3], statistics reveal close to 800,000 who take their own life every year and this estimated amount differentiates from those who attempt that act alone which sometimes can be more. Suicide is also known to occur throughout the life span with the highest occurrence happening during adolescence. Suicide is the third leading cause of death among 15-19-year-olds. In America, suicide is one of the 10 leading causes of death overall and in persons within the age group of 10–64 years [4]. Every suicide is both an individual tragedy and a part of a public health crisis that imposes a great burden on society [5]. The burden of suicide reaches beyond the deaths themselves, extending to family, friends, and colleagues of the individuals who have died by suicide [6]. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [7] it is estimated that between six and 32 survivors (e.g. close family and friends) are personally affected by suicide mortality in terms of increased mental health risk, and this may include increased risk of suicide for the bereaved. Concomitantly, suicide results in financial burdens, costing society approximately US$44.6 billion per year in combined medical and work loss costs [7]. Thus, the prevention of suicide has become a matter of paramount public health importance globally.
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2.2 Risk factors
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Suicide is preventable as it comes with lots of warning signs that, if detected early enough, can be cured. The more common cause of suicide known to many is depression. Although this majorly leads to suicide, many other factors come to play in explaining the cause of suicide. A combination of social, psychological, environmental, biological, medical and genetic factors could result in suicide. Various studies have been carried out in assessing the risk factors for suicide. Some risk factors associated with suicide are family history of suicide and child maltreatment, family history of alcohol/substance abuse and mental illnesses particularly depression, previous attempts at suicide, impulsive and aggressive behavioral tendencies, feelings of hopelessness, isolation, loss of loved ones, job or financial difficulties, physical illness, lack of access to mental health care, abuse, local epidemics of suicide, stigma and other factors that hinders one from seeking help [8].
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In a study [9] on suicide trajectories, it was revealed that although mental illnesses as depression and anxiety result in Suicidal Behaviors across the lifespan, past and present studies have revealed that other factors as impulsive aggression, conduct disorder, interpersonal conflict, antisocial behavior, and alcohol and substance abuse more prominently result in suicidal behaviors among adolescents and young adults.
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2.3 Suicide related behavior
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The suicide-related behaviors to always look out for are:
Feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness
Neglect of personal welfare
Lack of interest in usual fun activities
Irregular sleeping and eating habits
Social withdrawal and isolation
Overwhelmed feelings of pain
Anxiety and irritability
Suicidal ideation in which the individual engages with thoughts on how to end one’s life
Suicidal plan in which the individual makes plans and preparations toward ending his/her own life
Suicidal attempt in which the individual attempts self-injurious behavior with an intent to die
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Although suicide is commonplace globally, there is still an existing stigma associated with this act and with any form of mental illness in some parts of the world today. This often prevents those who are at risk from speaking up and from seeking help. A study [10] revealed that although there has been a reduction in the stigmatization of mental illnesses, suicide remains as stigmatized as ever. Many developing countries of the world today, including Nigeria, do not have meaningful statistical records of suicide and suicide-related behaviors. Because there is no proper record of deaths and their causes in most developing countries, it can be said that suicide rates are grossly underreported globally.
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3. Social media and mental health
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The relationship between social media and mental health is extant as social media are being linked to mental health problems like stress, psychological distress, anxiety and depression. In recent times, there is a rising research interest on this topic as research works carried out have established a link between mental health, lifestyle and social media. Social media have been linked to high rates of depression, anxiety and poor sleep, and research has revealed a 70% increase in depression and anxiety resulting from social media use in the past 25 years [11]. Other literatures have also described social media as being more addictive than substances like alcohol and cigarette [11]. There are now such terms as ‘Facebook depression’ which occurs as a result of spending so much time on Facebook and being exposed to the intensity of online activities of others that one starts to exhibit depressive symptoms. FOMO—Fear of Missing Out is another issue of mental health concern that results from the constant use of social media. It is a form of anxiety aroused by the fear that others might be having exciting and rewarding experiences from which one is missing out on. It results in the constant desire to be everywhere events are taking place, the constant need to check one’s phone for the latest updates, the obsessive desire to always stay connected with what others are doing [12]. FOMO often affects both mental and physical health, and it results in the feeling of inferiority, life dissatisfaction, mood swings, low self-esteem, loneliness, increased negative feelings and depression [12].
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Social media also encourage attitudes that are unhealthy to mental health such as unhealthy comparisons, jealousy, emulations, and counterfeit appearances. Most people put up only the best version of their lives on social media and with this might torture others who follow them and aspire to be like them. It has encouraged the living of fake lives just for social media presence.
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The change in lifestyle that results from social media use has become an issue of concern globally due to the rising rate of mental health disorders. It has become important for people to learn proper ways of using social media to their benefit and not otherwise.
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3.1 Social media exposure: risks and safety
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Social media and its effect on suicide related behavior have now become a topic of growing concern and debate [13]. The question that results is if social media help in suicide prevention or helps in increasing suicidal behaviors. Social media and the internet, in general, have helped in the advancement of communication, social connections, and businesses, which have helped make man’s life better. This being the case, in promoting suicide prevention, social media come in handy as a powerful tool, as this same platform is now evidently being associated with enhancing suicidal behaviors especially among teenagers. The risk of social media usage today is now more associated with adolescents simply because they are the more vulnerable population who are likely to be influenced. The adolescent stage is a stage of significant developmental changes where there is an increased risk of experimentation and peer emulation, teens at this stage are trying to form an identity that leads them to be more susceptible to peer pressures. With adolescence comes the tendency to engage in risky behaviors which also explains why there is a high rate of social media misuse among adolescents.
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There is no doubt that adolescents have a lot to benefit from the use of social media both socially, academically and personally. It helps in enhancing communication skills and connecting with others. They can experiment with self-expression, share ideas and learn from others. It also helps in developing new interests and skills as there are basic social and technical skills important to everyday functioning that are learnt through social media use [14]. Most adolescents utilize social media as an extension of activities and relationships that take place at school; with social media, they can build on their social skills and enrich their friendships [14]. With this, it can be said that teen deprivation of social media could take its toll on their social skills and learning experiences.
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Social media also serve as a useful tool to reach people in crises by providing information, guidance, and support. In present times, the internet has been employed as a tool of intervention for those facing several types of mental difficulties. With social media, online resources/information, counseling/therapy, and support groups can be easily accessed. On the downside, there is the risk of accessing vulgar, distressing and negative information that affects more vulnerable people. There are now series of contents that not only encourage risky behaviors like substance abuse, casual sex, sexting, pornography, inappropriate sexual behaviors, and suicide but also go out to attack or bully others into these behaviors.
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4. Suicide risk factors associated with social media usage
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4.1 Cyberbullying
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This is also referred to as cyber-harassment or online bullying. It is a form of bullying or harassment that takes place online using electronic devices like mobile phones and computers and social media are the main platform often used in carrying out this act. In cyberbullying, the perpetrator harasses the victim by putting out negative, harmful and false posts, comments and contents about the victim [15]. It could also involve the perpetrator sending out private information about the victim to embarrass or humiliate the other party [15]. An eminent example is an act of cyberbullying that led to the death of a college student in 2010 called Tyler Clementi who committed suicide after a fellow student posted her private sexual encounter with another male student on social media [16]. Cyberbullicide is suicide which results from cyberbullying. Cyberbullying has led to suicide and suicidal behaviors among adolescents. Victims of cyberbullying are at a higher risk of experiencing self-harm and suicidal behaviors than those who are not [17]. Teenagers who experience any form of bullying including cyberbullying are at a higher risk of anxiety, sleep deprivation, poor academic performance, dropping out of school and depression [18]. It has been recorded that Seven in ten young people have experienced cyberbullying, with 37% of them saying they experience cyberbullying on a high-frequency basis [11]. Research [19] also revealed that students who experience any form of bullying and cyberbullying are twice more likely to attempt suicide. In a study [20], 33.8% of students reported that they have been cyberbullied in their lifetime while 11.5% admitted to having cyberbullied others.
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4.2 Body image dissatisfaction
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This can be defined as the feelings and negative attitudes a person has about their body and is usually influenced by certain factors such as the cultural norms relating to an ideal body, personal perceptions toward weight gain, and body appearance [21]. In a study [22] social media were revealed to influence the attitude of young women and adolescent girls causing them to engage in social comparisons which often leads to the feeling of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction. Concerns with body image lead people to depression and suicidal thoughts. Body image dissatisfaction occurs in both male and female although it tends to be more common in females, both genders are exposed to images online which they tend to fix as their perfect and ideal body. The activities and images portrayed by celebrities and social media influencers play a huge role in shaping standards for young people as they strive to emulate their admirers online.
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Body image dissatisfaction often results in feelings of low self-esteem, depression, low body confidence, eating disorders. Results from a study revealed a link between suicide ideation and how both male and female adolescents perceive their body image [23].
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4.3 Substance abuse
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The link between social media use and substance abuse cannot be overlooked as social media are not only capable of pressuring one to use substances but also provide a platform that eases the process of accessing hard drugs. Drug dealers now use social media to connect with their buyers all over the world which makes it easy to purchase hard drugs online. Adolescents through social media are being constantly exposed to the popularity of drug use, it has become commonplace to see celebrities display their use of hard drugs online [24]. The behavior of celebrities and social media influencers who glamorize and normalize the abuse of substances on social media goes a long way in influencing the attitude of adolescents who follow them [24]. Most adolescent engages in comparison with such social media influencers and by these, they begin to lose their values as they seek to emulate the popular behaviors they perceive online. Such social comparison could lead to depressive symptoms and other mental health difficulties which could in turn fuel the abuse of substances. The view that friends and fans on social media are having fun with their lifestyle can tempt adolescents into risky behaviors just to fit in. All these experiences are detrimental to mental health and can increase suicide risk.
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4.4 Suicide contagion
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This is a possible increase in suicide or suicide-related behaviors that results from exposure to information on suicide-related behaviors and actual suicide occurrences within one’s immediate group. This form of information is often passed across through social media and can become popular within a very short time. The term ‘Werther effect’ explains a case of suicide that occurs as a result of a person copying cases of suicidal behaviors seen or heard of from various online platforms. Werther effect also referred to as copycat suicide and it explains the process of suicide contagion [16]. A person who has prior suicidal thoughts but is unable to carry out the act for several contingent issues of concern can suddenly become motivated to carry out the act after learning of another’s case of suicide on media. The term ‘Werther’ was derived from a book written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe titled ‘The Sorrows of Young Werther’, in which the principal character in the book named Werther, ends his own life by shooting himself at his desk [25]. After the book was published, several suicide cases were recorded with similar methods to the suicide case described in the book. This made it evident that the suicide cases that followed were influenced by that of Werther’s character in the novel. Reporting of suicide cases especially celebrity suicide has popularized the incidence of suicide among the general public and it has now become very crucial that guidelines be adhered to, to reduce the popularity of suicide through Werther Effect.
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5. Suicide prevention via social media usage
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As has been reiterated severally, and with good reason, Social media have changed the world as we have come to know it, and this includes the mental health of the populace. The potential detrimental, stressor and suicidal capacity of social media use has been largely investigated and somewhat accepted. Dissimilarly, however, the potential use of online social media in suicide prevention is only in its infancy as it is only recently started accruing mainstream attention.
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Logically, preventing any menace will center majorly on efforts to handicap its perpetrating factors, and in the same vein, involve an in-depth understanding of its underlying mechanism and attempting to impede it at any and several stages in its evolution.
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Almost all cases of successful and failed suicidal attempts have a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) psychiatric illness. Mood disorders, principally major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are associated with about 60% of suicides [26, 27, 28].
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Consequently, any efforts at using social media to avert suicide must cater for mental health broadly; increasing its awareness, diagnosis and treatment alongside providing a means to access appropriate help.
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Nowadays, in the age of the internet, young people can effortlessly access and share content across the globe in the snap of a finger using varying platforms including but not exclusive to collaborative projects (e.g. Wikipedia and social bookmarking), blogs and microblogs (e.g. Twitter), content communities (e.g. YouTube), social networking sites (e.g. Facebook, WhatsApp), virtual game and social worlds [29]. These avenues can and have been used by youth to find out about suicide and varying means of perpetrating it as well as making suicide pacts with other distressed individuals. Alas, fortunately, this provides an opportunity to find and intervene early if someone expresses suicidal intent as well as an avenue for people who have felt suicidal in the past to help persons currently feeling so.
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In a small-scale internet survey administered by Robinson et al. they noted that respondents had identified social media as an avenue to provide support and equally receive help as relating to suicide, with the respondents acknowledging increased feelings of well-being by being able to help and support suicidal persons; the latter further accentuating previous reports that social media users found the ability to help therapeutic in and of itself. This beneficial reversibility of roles provided by social media is not applicable in one-on-one therapy. Another immense advantage of social media also highlighted by respondents was the potential to intervene swiftly if and when persons expressed suicidal intent online. Two previous studies cited this as a unique benefit of social media [30, 31]. One of these reports [31] described a successful intervention in a suicide attempt following the posting of a suicide note on Twitter.
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A more representative and personal experience is shared by Reidenberg, the Executive director of the United States-based prevention organization Suicide Awareness Voices of Education (SAVE) [32].
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Daniel Reidenberg was scanning Facebook for his suicide-prevention organization on a Friday evening in the spring of 2014 when he noticed the post of a clearly suicidal young widow who had declared the intent to take her life and that of her baby. As he had a wealth of experience working with Facebook and other digital companies on the prevention of suicide, he knew exactly what to do: he contacted Facebook’s safety center. Although, there was no indication in the post of the woman’s location, he knew Facebook would still be able to find her, and that they did in very few minutes. Facebook employees determined the woman had posted her message from an Internet café in a small village in South America. They contacted the local police. Holding a picture from the woman’s Facebook page, police officers walked through the village. Within ten minutes of leaving the café, the police found were able to find her and get her into a hospital and get her childcare [32].
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With 2 billion people using social media and 500 million people posting on Facebook alone, there is “a lot of opportunity for intervention and prevention,” says Reidenberg. “It’s critical that everyone starts looking at this new era with technology being involved in the field of suicide prevention. It isn’t just going to a doctor’s office any longer—it is that ‘plus’.”
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“In a few short years since some of the big social media companies began meeting periodically at Facebook’s California head office in 2011 to brainstorm about what to do, the world’s largest social network has rolled out a direct intervention. In 25 of the 50 American states, when a user posts a message on Facebook containing a phrase that its algorithms flag as indicating suicidal thoughts or intentions, a banner pops up on the user’s page. Friends viewing the post can also click on an icon that reports the message, sending it to the Facebook safety centre to review” [32].
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The automatic banner asks whether the user needs help and provides the number of the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline. Facebook then contacts the user and offers to connect him or her to the distress line. The message includes tips and links to support videos aligned with best prevention practices. Facebook may also freeze the user’s page until the person in distress has interacted with the support applications. The program is billed to be expanded to the entire country and is even said to piloted in some undisclosed countries [32].
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A psychiatrist has said that Facebook’s program raises a ‘thorny’ issue as users can post content they don’t intend to act on. Reidenberg acknowledged that companies are wrestling with the privacy issue, but he reminded the audience at the International Association for Suicide Prevention’s annual conference in Montréal, Quebec, that once someone posts anything on a social media site—even if it’s personal health information—it is no longer private [32].
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6. Novel approaches to suicide prevention
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Current efforts at suicide prevention center largely on reducing suicidal desire among individuals hospitalized for suicidality or being treated for related psychopathology. Such efforts have yielded evidence-based treatments, and yet the national suicide rate has continued to climb [33]. The contrast between the robust evidence base for several treatments and the continually increasing suicide rate points toward a vital disconnect between the primary problem and the tools we are using to address it [33].
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Rightly so, new frontiers and novel approaches to suicide prevention are emerging by the day. One such compelling proposal was made by Michael et al. [33], who propose that this disconnect is heavily influenced by an unmet need to consider population-level interventions aimed at reducing the capability for suicide.
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HIV death rates peaked in 1965, necessitating the need for national-level intervention strategies. However, one that was noted to have been quite effective was the needle exchange program whose aim was to reduce needle sharing, which at the time was the main means of contracting the disease. It also provided an avenue for counseling and health education on safe sex and intravenous drug use. A similar approach was employed to drastically reduce the incidence and prevalence of lung cancer by aggressive public education, increased taxation of cigarette companies, policies limiting places where smokers could publicly smoke as well as the introduction of cigarette filters. By the same token, vehicular accidents were massively reduced by laws imposing the use of seatbelts, child passenger safety and bans on alcohol consumption whilst driving.
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Drawing from these largely successful interventions that quelled major public health concerns, Michael et al. resolved that a similar population-level means restriction approach be undertaken. They postulate that achieving a position of strength as regards suicide prevention will stem from a more adept understanding of the mechanism underpinning various aspects of suicide risk. A recent meta-analysis by Franklin et al has shown no increased predictive value of the past few decades of research examining traditional risk factors of suicide. Besides, research has shown that lots of people who think about taking their own lives, never do and the great majority who do try do not die by suicide. The failure of these traditional methods has led to a new approach in suicidology, “ideation to action framework”, which has heralded the various psychological theories of suicide. Foremost and oldest amongst these theories is the interpersonal theory of suicide.
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The interpersonal theory of suicide (ITS) [34] posits that individuals are at greatest risk of suicide ideation when they feel a sense of burdensomeness to others, lack a sense of belonging, and feel hopeless that these states will change. Although, the ability to make a suicidal attempt is acquired through exposure to painful and provocative events, such as experiences that heighten individuals’ pain tolerance and fearlessness about death. Examples of such painful and provocative events include starvation [35], risky illegal behaviors [36], and combat [37]. Additionally, research has indicated that genetic factors may influence individuals’ capability for suicide [38]. Conclusively, both suicidal ideation and suicidal capacity must be present for suicidal behavior to ensue [33]. O’Connor’s Integrated Motivational–Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior (IMV) [39] is another suicidal theory influenced by the ITS. Both the IMV and ITS have been empirically tested and supported [40]. Klonsky and May [41] have proposed and empirically tested the most recent of theory within the ideation to action framework, the Three-Step Theory (3ST).
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All three theories posit that suicidal intent and suicidal capacity must be present for suicide to ensue. Although defined somewhat differently across each theory, they posit that for a suicidal or lethal attempt to occur, suicidal capacity must be in play. It is important to note that capacity is not in and of itself pathological, in actual fact it is beneficial and can be adaptive in the right circumstances. For instance, increased comfort with blood would prove beneficial to emergency doctors and nurses, likewise, an increased fearlessness of death would enable soldiers to complete a dangerous mission. However, in conditions where persons with an elevated capacity for suicide also experience danger and an increased suicidal desire, the odds for a fatal suicidal attempt increase substantially. Consequently, this offers a promising opportunity for the development of broader-scale national level preventive interventions that target suicidal capacity, even in individuals who deny suicidal thoughts. The most prominent example of such approaches currently in practice, albeit sporadically, is means safety [33]. Novel as this may seem, it’s actually an age long, veritably tested and acknowledged measure as evinced by the significant reduction in suicide rates following reduced packaging and access to drugs known to be lethal in high doses, restriction of access to suicide hotspots (bridge barriers), detoxification of gas, ban on popular insecticides frequently used to execute suicide. This effect was witnessed in 2006 in Israel as the Israeli defense Force prevented soldiers from taking their firearms home over the weekend having noted that firearm suicide was high over weekends. As much as a 40% reduction was noted in suicide rates amongst soldiers aged 18–21 following the intervention. Literature, scientific and historical, is fraught with successful campaigns of means restriction/safety. Decreased access to and safe use/storage of lethal means might represent an opportunity to address an important aspect of the capability for suicide without diminishing the ability of individuals to succeed in their chosen professions and environments [33].
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A reasonable concern among individuals first hearing about means safety is the possibility that limiting access to one specific method for suicide will simply result in individuals dying by another method. Importantly, this argument has been largely refuted by available research [33]. In his review of means restriction and means substitution research, Daigle [42] found little evidence in favor of means substitution, Similarly, Sarchiapone et al. [43] also examined the effect of broad-scale means safety efforts and found that means substitution was uncommon across a variety of methods.
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The overwhelming evidence for means restriction and safety, as a means of suicide prevention, lends credence to the recommendation that it be promulgated into law. Whilst a few countries have passed laws and regulations encouraging means restriction, most are yet to. Social media advocacy can be a veritable tool to ensure legislation of means restriction and safety globally, public education on the importance of the subject matter and ultimately shift public perception and cultural views on means safety.
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Another budding and promising endeavor for the cause of suicide prevention, presented by recent advancements in science and technology, is ‘big data’. Generally, big data is high-volume, high-velocity and high-variety data usually in its raw inedited format and coming from diverse sources. This large data set potentially offers scientists and researchers alike, the access to an unprecedented sample size to experiment and test hypothesis and published data. More so, analytics of text, images, videos, audio and social media information can be used to extract information, patterns, relationships and diversities which can in turn be used to predict suicide risk in varying demographics the world over. Additionally, this may also impel the development of online and app-based interventions to extend even to persons who are unawares of their suicidal capacity. One such app is Therapeutic Evaluative Conditioning, TEC, which aims to alter an individual’s association with suicidal behavior. Although, caution has been advised with its use, it exemplifies the burgeoning opportunities the use of big-data will afford the world in preventing suicide.
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7. The way forward-striking a balance between the risks associated with social media use and its capacity and potential use in suicide prevention
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The media are a something of a double-edged sword as concerning its effect on mental health and suicide, making its use in suicide prevention fraught with a lot of danger; hence, caution must be exercised in this undertaking. Albeit, this chapter is replete with means by which the internet can be used to prevent suicide, it can also exacerbate suicide risk by glamorizing suicide or promoting it as a solution to life’s problems. As elucidated by Pirkis and Blood [44, 45] and Gould [46], the latter could encourage distressed and suicidal individuals to actually attempt suicide or be drawn to suicide hot spots portrayed in various media. The Internet is of increasing concern, particularly the effects of suicide chat rooms, the provision of instruction in methods for suicide, and the active solicitation of suicide-pact partners [47]. Media blackouts on reporting suicide have coincided with decreases in suicide rates [48]. A 1987 campaign [49] to decrease media coverage of subway suicides in Austria cut subway suicides by 80%. This only goes to show how vital the education of journalists and reporters is, as well as the regulation of suicide reporting. The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention [50] and Annenberg Public Policy Center, and The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [51] in the United States have produced guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide; however, no published studies have evaluated their impact [47].
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Additionally, in an online survey by Robinson et al. [29], most organizations that facilitated user-user interaction via their social media sites had trained moderators in situ; however, few had clear safety protocols or a code of ethics underpinning their work. The need for clear protocols and ethical standards for suicide prevention activities using social media platforms has been emphasized before [52]. The subsequent implementation of these guidelines will be an important step toward enhancing the safe delivery of suicide prevention initiatives using the internet [29].
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Robinson et al. [29] identified the need for more interventional studies for persons at risk of suicide, and bereaved due to suicide; they also noted the need for additional research investigating the safety and ethics of delivering interventions via social media.
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The unstructured, formless and anonymous nature of social media has constituted not only systematic but also ethical challenges for researchers and other stake holders looking to use social media to curb suicide. It has therefore become something of a necessity that if this endeavor were to be successful, the development of methodologies that can be rigorously and aptly applied to researches that utilize social media as a platform has become imperative. In the same vein, service-related guidelines that will ensure the acceptability, utility, efficacy, and ethical standards of social media-based suicide prevention services must be formulated. In doing this, researchers must work more closely with agencies and organizations involved in using social media for suicide prevention to ensure the practical applicability of these guidelines as well as their implementation.
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7.1 Media reporting and guidelines
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Locally and internationally, researchers have shown that detailed and sensationalized reporting of suicide is associated with suicidal behavior especially in persons in the same sex-age demographics as the deceased even after accounting for reporting and methodological and reporting bias.
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Following the release of JW Von Goethe’s novel ‘The Sorrows of Jung Werther’, imitative suicides of young men across European countries were identified leading to the coining of the term ‘The Werther effect’. Similarly, there was an increase of about 12% in suicide rates after the suicidal death of famous American model and actress, Marilyn Monroe. Numerous studies have shown that the copycat and imitation effects of media reporting are primarily found for vulnerable people, such as people with depression and those who have engaged in self-harm [53].
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The provision and compliance with media reporting guidelines have heralded applaudable impact with reduction in suicide rates and use of lethal weapons. However, Bohanna and Wang report that media guidelines can be effective only when ‘accompanied by media endorsement, active dissemination strategies and ongoing training and monitoring’ [54].
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8. Conclusion
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The internet has heralded an age of global interconnection via social media and this wave of modernization has become ingrained in almost all human endeavors leaving an indelible mark of positives as well as negatives on the very fabric of society. In this time, suicide and suicidal behavior have snowballed especially amongst young people, the most avid social media users.
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This chapter is replete with empirical evidence to disprove any coincidentally in this simultaneous pattern of events as well as establish that social media usage is associated with mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, etc. Phenomena such as cyber-bullying, body image dissatisfaction, substance abuse, suicide contagion and celebrity suicide that are caused or promoted by social media are contributory to self-harming and suicidal behavior.
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We have examined the existing channels of suicide prevention via social media as well as the potential and novel avenues it presents for the prevention of suicide and suicidal behavior. Emphasis was placed on the use of ‘big data’ and appropriate reporting of suicide following laid down guidelines. A major talking point was the adoption of a new approach to exploring the mechanism of suicide and reducing the capacity for it.
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Future priorities identified included more inquiry and research into the safety and ethics of delivering suicide prevention interventions online whilst developing and enforcing service-related guidelines. Additionally, legislative enforcement and media endorsement of suicide reporting guidelines should be acidly pursued.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"social media, suicide, mental health, suicidal ideation, suicide prevention, suicidal behavior",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71917.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71917.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71917",totalDownloads:1062,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"November 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"September 23rd 2020",datePublished:"May 12th 2021",dateFinished:"April 24th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Today, online social media are as ubiquitous as they are inextricable, especially as they have become critical to every aspect of our everyday lives. In the face of this upsurge in social media use, particularly in the adolescent age-group, rates of suicide, attempted suicide, and deliberate self-harm have spiked. This chapter aims to elucidate on current-day definitions of these terminologies as well as their epidemiology regionally and globally. Furthermore, it explores any established causality as well as possible associations and contributory factors such as cyberbullying and substance abuse. The chapter also explores how trending issues such as celebrity suicide and suicide reporting have impacted on the prevalence of suicide and examines its comorbidities. Novel concepts such as the Werther and Papageno effect are highlighted. It explicates on present-day recommendations to curb this menace while also examining the possibilities and merits of using social media as a prohibitive and rehabilitative tool against suicidal behavior.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71917",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71917",signatures:"Olalekan Popoola, Olawunmi Olagundoye and Morenike Alugo",book:{id:"9530",type:"book",title:"Anxiety Disorders",subtitle:"The New Achievements",fullTitle:"Anxiety Disorders - The New Achievements",slug:"anxiety-disorders-the-new-achievements",publishedDate:"May 12th 2021",bookSignature:"Vladimir V. Kalinin, Cicek Hocaoglu and Shafizan Mohamed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9530.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-429-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-428-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-430-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. Kalinin"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"220161",title:"Dr.",name:"Olawunmi",middleName:null,surname:"Olagundoye",fullName:"Olawunmi Olagundoye",slug:"olawunmi-olagundoye",email:"olabima@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"222070",title:"BSc.",name:"Morenike",middleName:null,surname:"Alugo",fullName:"Morenike Alugo",slug:"morenike-alugo",email:"alugomorenike@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"315358",title:"Dr.",name:"Olalekan",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",fullName:"Olalekan Popoola",slug:"olalekan-popoola",email:"lekanpopson16@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Primary Health Care Development Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Social media, its use and popularity today",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Suicide and suicide-related behavior",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 The burden of suicide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Risk factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Suicide related behavior",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Social media and mental health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Social media exposure: risks and safety",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Suicide risk factors associated with social media usage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Cyberbullying",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Body image dissatisfaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Substance abuse",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4 Suicide contagion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Suicide prevention via social media usage",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Novel approaches to suicide prevention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. The way forward-striking a balance between the risks associated with social media use and its capacity and potential use in suicide prevention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.1 Media reporting and guidelines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nClement J. Statista. Number of social network users worldwide from 2010 to 2021. 2019. Available from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nNero RL. The link between social media and suicide. In: Hope and Healing Center Seminar Series. 2015. Available from: https://hopeandhealingcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/The-Link-between-Social-Media-and-Suicide1.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nWorld Health Organization (WHO). Suicide. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Increase in suicide in the United States, 1999-2014. 2016. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db241.htm#ref4\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nWorld Health Organization. Suicide: Factsheet. 2014. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/en/ [Accessed: 8 June 2015]\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nNational Action Alliance for Suicide Prevention. A prioritized research agenda for suicide prevention: An action plan to save lives. 2014. Available from: http://actionallianceforsuicideprevention.org/sites/actionallianceforsuicideprevention.org/files/Agenda\n\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Suicide: Consequences. 2015. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/suicide/consequences.html [Accessed: 2 June 2015]\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nNational Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention. Risk and protective factors. 2019. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/suicide/riskprotectivefactors.html\n\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nSeguin M, Beauchamp G, Robert M, DiMambro M, Turecki G. Developmental model of suicide trajectories. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2014;205(2):120-126\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nSudak H, Maxim K, Carpenter M. Suicide and stigma: A review of the literature and personal reflections. Academic Psychiatry. 2008;32:136\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nRoyal Society for Public Health (RSPH). Status of Mind, Social Media and Young People’s Mental Health and Wellbeing. London: Royal Society for Public Health; 2017\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nBerla N. How FOMO is affecting your mental health and needs to be addressed. The Economic Times. 2018. Available from: https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/between-the-lines/fomo/articleshow/62550811.cms\n\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nFiedorowicz JG, Chigurupati RB. The internet in suicide prevention and promotion. In: Sher L, Valens A, editors. Internet, and Suicide. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2009. pp. 1-12\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nMir E, Novas C. Social Media and Adolescents’ and Young Adults’ Mental Health. Washington, DC: National Center for Health Research; 2020. Available from: http://www.center4research.org/social-media-affects-mental-health/\n\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nStopbullying.Gov. What is Cyberbullying? Washington, DC: Stopbullying.Gov; 2019. Available from: https://www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/what-is-it\n\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nOrtiz P. The werther effect: Suicide contagion and the media. Washington Psychiatirst. 2017;6(3):5-7. Available from: https://cdn.coverstand.com/26559/440251/91d8b446e304b90e028b75c863a116871c0efe7b.2.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nJohn A, Glendenning AC, Marchant A, Montgomery P, Stewart A, Wood S, et al. Self-Harm, suicidal behaviours, and cyberbullying in children and young people: Systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2018;20(4):e129\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report—Surveillance Summaries. 2018;67(SS08). Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/2017/ss6708.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nHinduja S, Patchin J. Connecting adolescent suicide to the severity of bullying and cyberbullying. Journal of School Violence. 2018;18:1-14. DOI: 10.1080/15388220.2018.1492417\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nHinduja S, Patchin JW. Cyberbullying fact sheet: Identification, prevention, and response. Cyberbullying Research Center. 2019. Available from: https://cyberbullying.org/Cyberbullying-Identification-Prevention-Response-2019.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nPhillips N, De Man AF. Weight status and body image satisfaction in adult men and women. North American Journal of Psychology. 2010;12(1):171-183\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nAlperstein N. Social comparison of idealized female images and the curation of self on Pinterest. The Journal of Social Media in Society. 2015;4:5-27\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nKim DS. Body image dissatisfaction as an important contributor to suicidal ideation in Korean adolescents: Gender differences and mediation of parent and peer relationships. The Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2009;66(4):297-303. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.08.005\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nHilliard J. The influence of social media on teen drug use. In: Addiction Centre. 2019. Available from: https://www.addictioncenter.com/community/social-media-teen-drug-use/\n\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nMoody A. The two effects: Werther vs Papageno. PleaseLive.org. 2015. Available from: https://www.pleaselive.org/blog/2015/06/\n\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nBarraclough B, Bunch J, Nelson B, Sainsbury P. One hundred cases of suicide: Clinical aspects. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 1974;125:355-373\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nBertolote JM, Fleischmann A, DeLeo D, Wasserman D. Suicide and mental disorders: Do we know enough? The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2003;183:382-383\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nIsometsä E, Henriksson M, Marttunen M, et al. Mental disorders in young and middle-aged men who commit suicide. British Medical Journal. 1995;310:1366-1367\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nRobinson J, Rodrigues M, Fisher S, Bailey B, Herrman H. Suicide and suicide prevention. Shanghai Archives of Psychiatry. 2015;27(1):27-35\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nGreidanus E, Everall R. Helper therapy in an online suicide prevention community. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2010;38(2):191-204 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nOgburn KM, Messias E, Buckley PF. New-age patient communications through social networks. General Hospital Psychiatry. 2011;33(2):200.e1-200.e3 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nEggertson L. Social media embraces suicide prevention. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2015;187(11):E333\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nMichael D, Anestis P, Keyne C, Law MA, Jin H, Claire BA, et al. Treating the capability for suicide: A vital and understudied Frontier in suicide prevention. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 2016;47(5):523-537\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nVan Orden KA, Witte TK, Cukrowicz KC, Braithwaite SR, Selby EA, Joiner TE. The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review. 2010;117:575-600\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nSelby EA, Smith AR, Bulik CM, Olmsted MP, Thornton L, Cfarlane M, et al. Habitual starvation and provocative behaviors: Two potential routes to extreme suicidal behavior in anorexia nervosa. Behavior Research and Therapy. 2010;48:634-645\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nMitchell SM, Jahn DR, Cukrowicz KC. The relation between illegal risk behaviors and the acquired capability for suicide. Crisis. 2014;35:368-377\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nBryan CJ, Cukrowicz KC, West CL, Morrow CE. Combat experience and the acquired capability for suicide. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2010;66:1044-1056\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nSmith AR, Ribeiro JD, Mikolajewski A, Taylor J, Joiner TE, IACONO WG. An examination of environmental and genetic contributions to the determinants of suicidal behavior among male twins. Psychiatry Research. 2012;197:60-65\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nO’connor RC. The integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behavior. Crisis. 2011;32:295-298\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nO’connor RC, Smyth R, Ferguson E, Ryan C, Williams JMG. Psychological processes and repeat suicidal behavior: A four-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2013;81:1137-1143\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nKlonsky ED, May AM. The three-step theory (3ST): A new theory of suicide rooted in the ‘ideation-to-action’ framework. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy. 2015;8:114-129\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nDaigle MS. Suicide prevention through means restriction: Assessing the risk of substitution. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 2005;37:625-632\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nSarchiapone M, Mandelli L, Iosue M, Andrisano C, Roy A. Controlling access to suicide means. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011;8:4550-4562\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nPirkis J, Blood RW. Suicide and the media, I: Reportage in nonfictional media. Crisis. 2001;22:146-154\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nPirkis J, Blood RW. Suicide and the media, II: Portrayal in fictional media. Crisis. 2001;22:155-162\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nGould MS. Suicide and the media. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2001;932:200-221\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nMann J, Apter A, Bertolote J, Beautrais A, Currier D, Haas A, et al. Suicide prevention strategies a systematic review. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2005;294:2064-2074\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nMotto JA. Newspaper influence on suicide: A controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1970;23:143-148\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nEtzersdorfer E, Sonneck G. Preventing suicide by influencing mass-media reporting: The Viennese experience 1980-1996. Archives of Suicide Research. 1998;4:67-74\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nAmerican Foundation for Suicide Prevention. Reporting on suicide: Recommendations for the media. 2002. Available from: http://www.afsp.org/index-1.html\n\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nO’Carroll PW, Potter LB. Suicide contagion and the reporting of suicide: Recommendations from a national workshop. MMWR Recommendations and Reports. 1994;43(RR-6):9-17\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nBirbal R, Maharajh HD, Birbal R, Clapperton M, Jarvis J, Ragoonath A, et al. Cybersuicide and the adolescent population: challenges of the future. International Journal of Adolescent Medical Health. 2009;21(2):151-159\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nSisask M, Värnik A. Media roles in suicide prevention: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012;9(1):123-138\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nBohanna I, Wang X. Media guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide: A review of effectiveness. Crisis. 2012;33:190-198\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Olalekan Popoola",address:null,affiliation:'
National Primary Healthcare Development Agency, Nigeria
Psychology Department, University of Lagos, Nigeria
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Dr. Yadav is a native of East UP of India and received both B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Agriculture from Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Faizabad (India) and Ph.D. degree majoring in Agronomy from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India). Dr. Yadav’s primary responsibilities are preparation and dissemination of agro-met advisory bulletins twice in a week i.e. on every Tuesday and Friday for the benefit to the farmers of Vindhyan agro-climatic zone of east UP under the Integrated Agro-met Advisory Services (IAAS) scheme sponsored by India Meteorological Department, New Delhi (Ministry of Earth Science, Govt. of India). Dr Yadav is engaged in conducting research addressing the climate’s impact on pattern of field crop’s growth and productivity. He also involved in crop yield forecasting by DSSAT 4.5 (Crop growth simulation Model) under Forecasting of Agriculture outputs through Satellite, Agrometeorology and Land based observations (FASAL) project sponsored by India Meteorological Department, New Delhi (Ministry of Earth Science, Govt. of India).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"101661",title:"Prof.",name:"R.S.",surname:"Singh",slug:"r.s.-singh",fullName:"R.S. 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Dr. Sarunaite received both B.S. and M.S. degrees from Aleksandras Stulginskis University majoring in agrobusiness and organic agriculture at the Faculty of Agronomy. The topic of her Ph.D. study was “Investigation of ecologically sustainable multifunctional legume-grass swards.” After Dr. Sarunaite received a doctoral degree in 2007 at the Institute of Agriculture, LRCAAF, she extended her research to the plant intercrops of various plant combinations in crop rotation, sole crop and its alternative cultivation technologies directed toward effective N utilization, enhancement of crops’ competitive power and quality improvement of product, and weed management in sustainable and organic agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"107343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ausra",surname:"Arlauskiene",slug:"ausra-arlauskiene",fullName:"Ausra Arlauskiene",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}},{id:"107345",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",surname:"Deveikyte",slug:"irena-deveikyte",fullName:"Irena Deveikyte",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}},{id:"107367",title:"Dr.",name:"Zydre",surname:"Kadziuliene",slug:"zydre-kadziuliene",fullName:"Zydre Kadziuliene",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
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Africa",slug:"reappraising-urban-planning-and-urban-sustainability-in-east-africa",totalDownloads:5296,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Shuaib Lwasa and Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga",authors:[{id:"103098",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuaib",middleName:null,surname:"Lwasa",slug:"shuaib-lwasa",fullName:"Shuaib Lwasa"},{id:"115349",title:"MSc.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Kinuthia-Njenga",slug:"cecilia-kinuthia-njenga",fullName:"Cecilia Kinuthia-Njenga"}]},{id:"34611",doi:"10.5772/38884",title:"The Evolution and Spatial Dynamics of Coastal Cities in Greece",slug:"the-evolution-and-spatial-dynamics-of-coastal-cities-in-greece",totalDownloads:1934,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Serafeim Polyzos and Dimitrios 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The majority of European Member States (MS) has enforced this directive and completed fully or, in some cases, partially, with European smart cities to use and share the same criteria and methodologies and along with transport operators to communicate to the public the relevant results and respective action plans by ensuring the citizen’s awareness about the environmental noise, the quality acoustic environment, and their effect to their professional and everyday lifestyle. Today, 18 years after its first edition, the European Directive 2002/49/EC is needed to be reformulated to take into account all defects that have been identified and to adapt as well as possible to contemporary constraints. New methodology tools have been developed especially regarding soundscaping and environmental acoustic rehabilitation of urban areas, and the respective chapter will describe the progress being made on these smart developments of cities and infrastructures. This chapter will also evoke criticisms of these smart tools and will present results from several—state of the art—case studies especially regarding the practical and theoretical limits they face.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Konstantinos Vogiatzis and Nicolas Remy",authors:null},{id:"63405",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80810",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1856,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. 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Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. 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A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. Among them it investigates the rainwater harvesting technologies and some of their practical applications.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Raseswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo",authors:null},{id:"62066",title:"Urban Planning and Mega-Event Projects: Lessons from Expo 2010, Shanghai",slug:"urban-planning-and-mega-event-projects-lessons-from-expo-2010-shanghai",totalDownloads:1335,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"With the capitalist transformation from Fordist-Keynesianism to neoliberalism, mega-events such as Olympic Games and World Exposition have increasingly been incorporated into urban development plan to boost urban renewal. Seeking the role of mega-event in urban transformation and its related effects have practical significance as mega-event movements have become a worldwide phenomenon. Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. It finds that political added value of mega-events empowers Shanghai to advance its urban agenda and the role of urban planner is vital to deliver a sustainable mega-event.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Lingyue Li",authors:[{id:"247599",title:"Dr.",name:"Lingyue",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"lingyue-li",fullName:"Lingyue Li"}]},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:1371,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Urban environments continue to expand and mutate, both in terms of size of urban area and number of people commuting daily as well as the number of options for personal mobility. City layouts and infrastructure also change constantly, subject to both short-term and long-term imperatives. Transportation networks have attracted particular attention in recent years, due to efforts to incorporate “green” options, enabling positive lifestyle choices such as walking or cycling commutes. In this chapter we explore the pedestrian viewpoint, aids to familiarity with and ease of navigation in the urban environment, and the impact of novel modes of individual transport (as options such as smart urban bicycles and electric scooters increasingly become the norm). We discuss principal factors influencing rapid transit to daily and leisure destinations, such as schools, offices, parks, and entertainment venues, but also those which facilitate rapid evacuation and movement of large crowds from these locations, characterized by high occupation density or throughput. The focus of the chapter is on understanding and representing pedestrian behavior through the agent-based modeling paradigm, allowing both large numbers of individual actions with active awareness of the environment to be simulated and pedestrian group movements to be modeled on real urban networks, together with congestion and evacuation pattern visualization.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Marija Bezbradica and Heather J. Ruskin",authors:null},{id:"63405",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1856,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. 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To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. Interviewees in the city center stated that street traffic noise was the main source of annoyance, while the residents of the residential area stated that the main source of discomfort was air traffic noise.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Elaine Carvalho da Paz, Thomas Jeferson Vieira and Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin",authors:[{id:"66572",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta",middleName:null,surname:"Zannin",slug:"paulo-henrique-trombetta-zannin",fullName:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin"},{id:"257807",title:"MSc.",name:"Elaine Carvalho",middleName:null,surname:"Da Paz",slug:"elaine-carvalho-da-paz",fullName:"Elaine Carvalho Da Paz"},{id:"257814",title:"Mrs.",name:"Thomas Jeferson",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"thomas-jeferson-vieira",fullName:"Thomas Jeferson Vieira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"80",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/101666",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"101666"},fullPath:"/profiles/101666",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()