MODIS (Terra) derived mean seasonal AODs at the selected stations over Western Himalaya and Deccan Plateau Region during 2000–2010.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5937",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Obstetrics",title:"Obstetrics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Obstetrics is the field that deals with the well-being of the pregnant women as well as the labor and delivery of a healthy baby. Obstetricians work closely as neonatologists who deal with the care of the newborn baby to reduce chances of morbidity and mortality. The objective of obstetrics is to deal with diagnosis and treatment of pregnancy, antenatal care, and prevention of complication, collaborating with midwives to monitor pregnant women in labor, facilitating delivery and performing assisted procedures if needed as episiotomy, forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, and Cesarean section if indicated.",isbn:"978-953-51-3704-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3703-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3998-0",doi:"10.5772/66054",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"obstetrics",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"092197b1191815505a23e7dd1c9edde6",bookSignature:"Hassan Salah Abduljabbar",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5937.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17181,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 21st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 21st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68175/images/system/68175.png",biography:"Hassan S. Abduljabbar, MD, FRCSC, American Board Diplomate, is a professor at the College of Medicine, King Abdulaziz\nUniversity, Saudi Arabia. He is also the president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Federation of Arab\nGynecology Obstetric Societies (FAGOS). He is a referee for\nmany international scientific journals. He is also an examiner for\ngraduate degrees as well as for the Saudi and Arab board exams.\nDr. Abduljabbar has published more than fifty articles and edited three books.",institutionString:"Dr. Erfan & Bagedo General Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1067",title:"Maternal-Fetal Medicine",slug:"maternal-fetal-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"56988",title:"Normal Pregnancy Diagnosis Using Software of Ultrasonography Decision Support System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70154",slug:"normal-pregnancy-diagnosis-using-software-of-ultrasonography-decision-support-system",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Decision support system will help physicians in analyzing more accurate diagnosis, which can be made faster and easier with this time-saving system, and reduce tardiness in making referrals. Benefits with this system are as follows: (1) services can be provided across all places, regardless the distance and (2) it is ready to be used anytime; day and night, 24 h, 7 days a week, and throughout the year. The research design is the quasi-experimental post-test only without control; in stage I: Analysis and Design System, in stage II: Prototype, and in stage III: Application. The Verifying is needed by a specialist in Obstetrics for the Analysis and System Design as a way to perform conformity assessment with specific benchmarks as a diversification process. Routine examination, which involves: (1) input data, in general, which includes patient data such as symptoms and signs, (2) physiological and pathological description, (3) differential diagnosis or problems, (4) up to the problem itself as well as further suggestions. Decision support system is made to be used by physicians, and it contains the pattern of input-process-outcome and its display, so it can be used for the manufacturing of the software. This will be helpful for primary care physicians to avoid late referrals.",signatures:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna, Farian Sakinah and Muhammad Reyhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56988",authors:[{id:"200387",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Boy Subirosa",surname:"Sabarguna",slug:"boy-subirosa-sabarguna",fullName:"Boy Subirosa Sabarguna"}],corrections:null},{id:"56351",title:"Differential Diagnosis of Monotonous Fetal Heart Rate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69988",slug:"differential-diagnosis-of-monotonous-fetal-heart-rate",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim was to explore the possibility to forecast a risk of hypoxic lesions in a monotonous fetal heart rate via ECG measurements by the methods of time and frequency analysis. The study involved 50 healthy pregnant women with singleton pregnancy at 37-41 weeks of gestation along with 17 pregnant women in the same period of gestation who had a monotonous fetal heart rate registered of various origin. The registration of fetal heart rates was performed using fetal monitor “Monica AN24” (“Monica Healthcare Ltd”, United Kingdom), transabdominal, using ECG electrodes. The software package “Monica DK” has been used to retrieve the “beat-to-beat” data. Analysis of experimental data was carried out on the basis of LABVIEW® software (National Instruments®, USA). The analysis of time parameters for fetal hypoxia showed a sharp decline in the spread function and a sharp increase in the concentration function. Spectral analysis showed a significant decrease in the ratio of high- to low-frequency components of the spectrum. In the analysis of fetal ECG, the ST segment depression was noted, which is also indicative of fetal hypoxia.",signatures:"Alexander Karpov, Anna Simakova, Oksana Frolova, Gregory\nShiferson and Igor Yemelianov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56351",authors:[{id:"201936",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Karpov",slug:"alexander-karpov",fullName:"Alexander Karpov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57672",title:"Ectopic Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71999",slug:"ectopic-pregnancy-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",totalDownloads:2700,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"An ectopic pregnancy (EP) falls within the area of the gynecological emergency and/or reproductive management of women, which is the implantation of fertilized ovum outside the endometrial cavity. The etiology of EP concentrated mainly on factor causes delayed transport of the fertilized ovum through the fallopian tube (favors implantation in tubal mucosa), thus giving rise to EP. This chapter describes the causes, diagnosis, prevention and the guidelines to improve the management of women who may have an EP, a major gynecological emergency that is a cause of morbidity or even mortality of women in first trimester. Three types of EP are diagnosed: tubal, cervical and ovarian; tubal is the main type. Identification of the signs and symptoms of acute and chronic EP in women, involving classical clinical trials or other symptoms common to early pregnancy, as well as evaluating the most important congenital and acquired factors related with EP, were discussed. Explanation of the most accurate methods used to diagnose the pregnancy including serum beta hCG and progesterone levels, medical history, ultrasonography, pregnancy tests and laparoscopy was also clarified. The evaluation of the most effective management tools of EP, including methotrexate administration and surgery (laparotomy and laparoscopy), was obviously explained.",signatures:"Talal Anwer Abdulkareem and Sajeda Mahdi Eidan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57672",authors:[{id:"201127",title:"Prof.",name:"Talal",surname:"Abdulkareem",slug:"talal-abdulkareem",fullName:"Talal Abdulkareem"}],corrections:null},{id:"58089",title:"Molecular Study for Diagnosis of Ureaplasma parvum in Women with Recurrent Miscarriage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71998",slug:"molecular-study-for-diagnosis-of-ureaplasma-parvum-in-women-with-recurrent-miscarriage",totalDownloads:1205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objects of study is concerted to investigate the occurrence of Ureaplasma parvum in women with recurrent abortion and to determine the distribution of U. parvum serovars (1, 3, 6, 14) in women with recurrent abortion by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. In total, 130 samples included vaginal bleeding, vaginal swab, and urine, were collected from women with recurrent abortion and 40 samples included vaginal swab and urine from control women without recurrent abortion. Through the study, two types of media were used, Ureaplasma broth (IH Broth) and Ureaplasma agar (IH Agar). The positive isolates for Ureaplasma spp. were investigated by conventional PCR technique for identification of U. parvum and subtyping to their serovars (1, 3, 6, 14). The results revealed the U. parvum was identified in 29.6% from patient group and 11% from the control group. U. parvum isolates were further subtyped by using PCR, the results showed the serovar 3 was the most frequent isolate in proportion (42.8%), whereas serovar 1 (28.5%), serovar 6 (14.2%), and serovar 14 (14.2%) in patient group but in the control group only serovar 1 was isolated in rate (11%). These results evidently indicate that U. parvum may be an important etiologic agent for recurrent abortion.",signatures:"Ghofran Al-khafaji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58089",authors:[{id:"213794",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghofran",surname:"Alkhafaji",slug:"ghofran-alkhafaji",fullName:"Ghofran Alkhafaji"}],corrections:null},{id:"56677",title:"Ovarian Cancer and Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70155",slug:"ovarian-cancer-and-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The annual incidence rate of cancer is estimated to be more than 11,000 patients in the U.K. in the age group of 15–40 years, which corresponds to 4% of all cancer patients. The diagnosis of cancer is followed by devastating consequences for the patients and their families in this age group. Although the treatment of cancer is of crucial significance, it should also examine the impact of the disease on fertility at the time of the diagnosis and the damages caused from the surgical treatment, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. The gynecological cancer, especially the diagnosis of ovarian cancer, the prevention, and treatment, as well as the fertility preservation in young women, represent the gold standard for all gynecologists. The crucial disadvantage remains the difficulty in primary diagnosis of ovarian cancer and the coexistence with pregnancy, focusing on the fertility preservation and maintaining pregnancy. In the absence of large perspective randomized trials and cohort studies, the therapeutic mapping and optimal management of these patients are difficult. In order to establish detailed guidelines, it is necessary to ensure surgical mapping depending on the cancer staging and the quality of life of the patients.",signatures:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56677",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56677",authors:[{id:"173802",title:"Dr.",name:"Chrisostomos",surname:"Sofoudis",slug:"chrisostomos-sofoudis",fullName:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis"}],corrections:null},{id:"57389",title:"Pharmacological Opportunities for Prevention of Preeclampsia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70164",slug:"pharmacological-opportunities-for-prevention-of-preeclampsia",totalDownloads:1366,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Preeclampsia (PE) is a disorder that occurs during pregnancy, it has an estimated worldwide prevalence of 5–8%, being one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Currently, different diagnostic criteria exist, however, due to its complexity; the clinical presentation that makes up this syndrome could make its presence unclear. The pathophysiology of PE has been recently postulated and divided into three processes: inadequate uterine remodeling, placental dysfunction and maternal endothelial dysfunction. Despite the advances in the treatment of PE, the outcome of the medical interventions has failed to decrease the morbidity and mortality of this disease. The main reason might be the multifactorial origin of pathogenic processes that lead to the development of PE. That is why treatment is focused on the prevention of PE in patients that might present the risk before developing it late in pregnancy. The knowledge of the pathophysiological factors that trigger the processes that culminate in the presentation of PE, is key for prevention of this disease. However, the origin of these processes is poorly understood. It may be attributed to the ethical considerations that come with the study of these population of patients compared with the study of non-pregnant women.",signatures:"Leonel García Benavides, Diego Hernández Molina, Jessica L.\nBarajas Vega, Sylvia E. Totsuka Sutton, Fernando Grover Paéz,\nFrancisco J. Hernández Mora, Ernesto J. Ramírez Lizardo, Sara Pascoe Gonzalez, David Cardona Müller and Ernesto G. Cardona\nMuñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57389",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57389",authors:[{id:"40981",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Grover Páez",slug:"fernando-grover-paez",fullName:"Fernando Grover Páez"},{id:"184051",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto German",surname:"Cardona-Muñoz",slug:"ernesto-german-cardona-munoz",fullName:"Ernesto German Cardona-Muñoz"},{id:"200821",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Leonel",surname:"Garcia Benavides",slug:"leonel-garcia-benavides",fullName:"Leonel Garcia Benavides"},{id:"201949",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Hernández Molina",slug:"diego-hernandez-molina",fullName:"Diego Hernández Molina"},{id:"201950",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto Javier",surname:"Ramirez Lizardo",slug:"ernesto-javier-ramirez-lizardo",fullName:"Ernesto Javier Ramirez Lizardo"},{id:"201951",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Hernández Mora",slug:"francisco-javier-hernandez-mora",fullName:"Francisco Javier Hernández Mora"},{id:"201987",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Pascoe Gonzalez",slug:"sara-pascoe-gonzalez",fullName:"Sara Pascoe Gonzalez"},{id:"201988",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvia Elena",surname:"Totsuka Sutto",slug:"sylvia-elena-totsuka-sutto",fullName:"Sylvia Elena Totsuka Sutto"},{id:"201995",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Cardona Mûller",slug:"david-cardona-muller",fullName:"David Cardona Mûller"},{id:"202647",title:"BSc.",name:"Jessica Lucia",surname:"Barajas Vega",slug:"jessica-lucia-barajas-vega",fullName:"Jessica Lucia Barajas Vega"}],corrections:null},{id:"56365",title:"Massive Postpartum Hemorrhage: Protocol and Red Code",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69968",slug:"massive-postpartum-hemorrhage-protocol-and-red-code",totalDownloads:2488,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal death. In developing countries, approximately 8% of maternal death is caused by PPH. Protocols should provide a standardized approach to evaluate and monitor the patients. A standard protocol must be recognized by the institution and must be accepted and known by all team members. Additionally, it is important to have a massive obstetric hemorrhage protocol (red code) for those patients with an important bleeding who require blood products available as soon as possible. In the red code activation protocol there are several key points to consider: the management algorithm must be known and accepted by all team members, a clear and effective communication between the team must be established and all the participants must know the role they play. Massive obstetric hemorrhage has a multidisciplinary implication: obstetricians, anesthesiologists, pediatricians, midwife, nurses, auxiliary staff, and laboratory blood bank staff. The active participation of the multidisciplinary team in simulations before the protocols implementation facilitates the evaluation of critical points and subsequent changes before their final application, the assessment of the adequacy of circuits and infrastructure, as well as a better protocols compliance.",signatures:"Jaume Miñano Masip, Laura Almeida Toledano, Sílvia Ferrero\nMartínez and María Dolores Gómez Roig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56365",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56365",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"202447",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaume",surname:"Miñano Masip",slug:"jaume-minano-masip",fullName:"Jaume Miñano Masip"},{id:"202448",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Almeida",slug:"laura-almeida",fullName:"Laura Almeida"},{id:"202449",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Ferrero",slug:"silvia-ferrero",fullName:"Silvia Ferrero"}],corrections:null},{id:"57643",title:"Uterine Fibroids and Pregnancy: A Review of the Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71761",slug:"uterine-fibroids-and-pregnancy-a-review-of-the-challenges",totalDownloads:1698,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Uterine fibroids are quite common in women of the reproductive age group and as such commonly encountered in pregnancy. Though majority of these cases are asymptomatic, some are prone to developing complications and may end up having adverse outcomes in pregnancy. Management of these women with uterine fibroids presents its own challenges, especially in low-resource setting as in sub-Saharan Africa, where the condition is rife. Adequate management of these women, be it pregnant or nonpregnant, improves their quality of life.",signatures:"Dagogo Semenitari Abam and Terhemen Kasso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57643",authors:[{id:"171756",title:"Dr.",name:"Abam",surname:"Dagogo",slug:"abam-dagogo",fullName:"Abam Dagogo"},{id:"227954",title:"Dr.",name:"Terhemen",surname:"Kasso",slug:"terhemen-kasso",fullName:"Terhemen Kasso"}],corrections:null},{id:"56985",title:"Pelvic Floor Support",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70153",slug:"pelvic-floor-support",totalDownloads:3325,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pelvic floor muscle can be weakened by pregnancy and birth trauma and this contributes to sagging of pelvic floor, and may lead to pelvic floor disorder (PFD). There are various forms of pelvic floor support available in modern medicine, each has its own therapeutic logic behind its use. The noninvasive mechanical device bowel aid provides conservative support to supplement current obstetric management to improve outcome of management of pregnancy related problem like hemorrhoid and anal fissure. With optimization of the conservative pelvic floor support during pregnancy, it is very promising to prevent PFD in later life of the women.",signatures:"Yu Chye Wah and Chew Heng Hai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56985",authors:[{id:"202862",title:"Dr.",name:"Chye Wah",surname:"Yu",slug:"chye-wah-yu",fullName:"Chye Wah Yu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10721",title:"Preeclampsia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb38592b7a656d02dd6b28c34e43de32",slug:"preeclampsia",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10721.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"814",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Basic Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74304f5d822f8f45d4b48a0e00ebd375",slug:"steroids-basic-science",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2013",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Clinical Aspect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dfd32a77f71bc348d7922af48b8e62",slug:"steroids-clinical-aspect",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10485",title:"Fibroids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64ad14b1aba83e47fb100fa63e21533e",slug:"fibroids",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7132",title:"Complications of Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2bdac8e99a71feab10bd0b9e1063bb9",slug:"complications-of-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"776",title:"Preterm Birth",subtitle:"Mother and Child",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e5369103770cdbf61058ad75e2e63bb",slug:"preterm-birth-mother-and-child",bookSignature:"John C. 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Transactivating crRNA (tracrRNA) is partially complementary to and pairs with a pre-crRNA to form an RNA duplex cleaved by RNase III and a crRNA/tracrRNA hybrid acts as a guide for the endonuclease Cas, which cleaves the invading DNA. Currently, it has been successfully used in genome editing such as silencing, enhancing, or modification of specific genes. Plasmids are constructed to express crRNA and tracrRNA together as single-guide RNAs (sgRNA). By the Cas proteins and a specifically designed sgRNA, the organism’s genome can be cleaved at most locations with the only limitation being the availability of an NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence in the targeting site. Efficient genome engineering has been performed in human cells, bacteria, yeasts, zebrafish, nematodes, plants, animals, etc. These findings and their implications may be discussed in the broadest context possible. Future research directions may also be highlighted. In this book, we will explore the development of CRISPR-Cas encoding and its application in basic research.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-816-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-815-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-817-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4051570f538bd3315e051267180abe37",bookSignature:"Dr. Yuan-Chuan Chen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg",keywords:"crRNA, tracr RNA, sgRNA, PAM sequence, Encoding, Silencing, Enhancing, Modification, Genetic Engineering, Animal Model, Delivery Tool, CRISPR",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 30th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 27th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Yuan-Chuan Chen completed his Ph.D. in Comparative Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), USA. His studies are focusing on the discovery, production, application of biopharmaceuticals. Additionally, he is interested in basic research and human therapeutics using CRISPR/Cas9.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185559/images/system/185559.jpg",biography:"Yuan-Chuan Chen completed his PhD in Comparative Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB), USA and had postdoctoral studies at the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA). His research interests include Pharmacy/Pharmacology, Biochemistry, Microbiology/Virology, Cell/Molecule Biology, Biotechnology/Nanotechnology, Cell/Gene therapy and Policy/Regulation. He has participated in publishing many co-authored articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in the fields of basic science, biomedicine, and related policy/regulation. He is now an assistant professor in Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taiwan. He is also an adjunct member in the biopharmaceutical division of Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Taiwan) Revising Committee (9th edition) and has reviewed many materials for Pharmacopoeia revising. His research is focusing on the discovery, production, application, perspectives and challenges of biopharmaceuticals. He is interested in basic research, the development of agricultural/industrial products and human therapeutics using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Additionally, he is specialized in genomic studies including genomic analysis, gene function, and gene expression and control.",institutionString:"Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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They can affect the energy balance of the earth–atmosphere system by producing a direct or indirect change in the weather and climate system [3]. The direct interaction of aerosols involves both scattering and absorption of radiation, and the relative importance of these processes depends on their chemical composition, refractive index, and size distribution [4, 5]. The indirect effect of aerosols on climate occurs by modifying the cloud optical properties [6]. Thus, the concentration, size, and composition of aerosols which can act as cloud condensation nuclei determine the cloud properties, evolution, and development of precipitation [7]. Aerosols modify cloud properties and precipitation via a variety of mechanisms with varying and contradicting consequences [8].
\nCloud interactions with aerosols are hypothesized to be critical to understanding the climate change since clouds play a pivotal role in controlling incoming and outgoing radiation [9]. A large number of studies showed that the anthropogenic aerosols change clouds and their optical properties [4, 10, 11]. Atmospheric aerosols change the concentration and size of the cloud droplets which in turn lead to a change in cloud albedo, its lifetime and thereby affect the precipitation [6, 12]. Also, the reduction in cloud effective radius due to the increase in cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) leads to the increase in cloud lifetime. The possible repercussion of this process is to decrease the rate of surface evaporation which results in stable and drier atmosphere as a result of the reduction in cloud formation [12]. Anthropogenic aerosols influence mixed‐phase clouds in a number of ways and needs comprehensive study to understand the precise phenomenon. A great number of studies were conducted on the possible modification of cloud properties via the interaction with atmospheric aerosol particles, as this may lead to important changes in the Earth\'s climate. Biomass burning aerosols have been shown to affect clouds through both microphysical and radiative mechanisms [7, 13]. Biomass burning, from both deforestation and annual agricultural burning, is the largest anthropogenic source of such particles in the Southern Hemisphere. Biomass burning aerosols are hygroscopic and can serve as cloud condensation nuclei [14, 15]. More recently, satellite analyses have revealed a persistent correlation between cloud fraction and aerosol optical depth in regions influenced by marine aerosol, smoke, dust, and industrial air pollution [4].
\nThe first indirect effect known as the Twomey effect produces the reduction in cloud effective radius due to the increase in aerosol loading for fixed liquid water path (LWP). Opposite of this effect (i.e., as aerosol loading increases cloud effective radius also increases) were observed over some parts of the world in certain environmental conditions [16]. The Twomey effect and Albrecht effect (i.e., lifetime effect) facilitate cooling of the atmosphere by increasing cloud optical depth (COD) and cloud fraction (CF), respectively [17]. This causes a reduction in the net solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere and hence at the surface. Several other studies have pointed out that the aerosol–cloud interactions are not determined by aerosols alone, but the regional meteorological conditions can play a significant role in this relationship [18]. Comparison of the modeled results and MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) retrievals for aerosol indirect effect investigated by Myhre et al. [10] and Storelvmo et al. [18] showed a negative correlation between AOD and cloud effective radius (CER) while a positive correlation was observed between AOD and cloud optical depth (COD).
\nExtensive studies were conducted on various mechanisms of cloud properties through the interaction of atmospheric aerosol particles with cloud parameters which further influence the earth\'s climate. It was found that at low AODs, cloud optical depth (COD) increases with increasing AOD while COD decreases with increasing AOD at higher AODs. This increase was attributed to a combination of microphysical and dynamical effects, while the decrease was due to the dominance of radiative effects that thin and darken clouds [19]. The AOD and cloud fraction correlation increases for those regions which have more particulate matter due to dust, biomass, industrial, and domestic activities [20].
\nIn the present study, we have analyzed 11 years of MODIS aerosol and cloud products at the selected stations over Western Himalayan (75°E–80°E; 29°N–33°N) and Deccan Plateau (73°E–75°E; 16°N–19°N) regions. The selected stations over these regions comprised of (1) Dharmashala (DSL), (2) Mandi (MND), (3) Shimla (SML), (4) Ludhiana (LDN), (5) Patiala (PTL), (6) Muzaffarnagar (MZR), (7) Pune (PUN), (8) Satara (STR), and (9) Kolhapur (KPR) (abbreviated hereinafter as DSL, MND, SML, LDN, PTL, MZR PUN, STR, and KPR, respectively). Western Himalaya is desert dust dominated region while Deccan Plateau is dominated by fossil fuel and biomass burning. The study deals with the spatiotemporal variations of the MODIS retrieved aerosol and cloud products at the nine selected stations over Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions to bring out their salient features. The data were also employed to investigate aerosol–cloud interaction and to quantify the aerosol indirect effect (AIE) over these regions.
\nThe Deccan Plateau is a large region that covers most of South Central India. The average elevation is 1000–2000 feet (305 and 610 m) above sea level along the northern sections of the region and 2000–3000 feet (610 and 915 m) in the southern section. Red loam or sandy loam soil usually overlies the granites and metamorphic rocks resulting in less fertile and less moisture retentive soil than found in the North Deccan region. The region slopes generally eastward allowing the drainage to flow toward the Bay of Bengal. Water in the rivers fluctuates considerably during the monsoon and the dry seasons. Their only source of water is the monsoon rains unlike rivers flowing out of the Himalayas that have year‐round moisture from snow packs in the high mountains. In the winter or dry season, many of the rivers throughout the South Deccan become almost dry and are useless for irrigation. Also, some of the rivers flow through well‐incised valleys, allowing little space for a flood plain and making it nearly impossible to direct water for irrigation onto the adjoining uplands. The climate is generally semi‐arid with <35 inches (89 cm) of rainfall. Ironically, the Western Ghats are only 30–40 miles (48–64 km) away with annual precipitations exceeding 100 inches (254 cm).
\nIn the Indian part of the Western Himalayas the surface weather elements, like precipitation and temperature, are intensely governed by local topography and local atmospheric circulations. The different altitude and orientation of the Himalayan ranges give rise to different thermo dynamical and dynamical forcing. Topography, heterogeneity, and land use variability are the characteristics of Western Himalayas (WH). Western disturbances (WDs), embedded in large‐scale westerlies are responsible for winter precipitation, mainly snow, in WH. The interplay of topography with WDs determines orographic precipitation over the Himalayan region.
\nSatellite observations have advantages over the ground‐based measurements, in that, they provide information over the larger spatial domain [21]. The MODIS was designed with aerosol and cloud remote sensing in mind [22]. The MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard the Terra (launched in 1999) and Aqua (launched in 2002) monitors the earth–atmosphere system twice daily over a given location. It is sun‐synchronous and near polar orbiting satellite with a circular orbit of 705 km above the surface. MODIS has 36 bands ranging from 0.4 to 14.4 µm wavelengths with three different spatial resolutions (250, 500, and 1000 m) and views the Earth with a swath of 2330 km, thereby providing near‐global coverage on daily basis, with equatorial crossing local time of 10:30 am and 1:30 pm for Terra and Aqua, respectively (http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/).
\n\nAmong the hundreds of products derived from MODIS‐measured radiances are a suite of aerosol products [23] and another set of cloud products [24], including aerosol optical depth (AOD), cloud top pressure, and cloud fraction. Often, the AOD is used as a proxy for the cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) concentration. The reliability of this proxy depends on the uniformity of the aerosol size, composition, vertical distribution, but may in many cases be used as a first approximation. The MODIS data are available at different processing levels, level 1.0 (geolocated radiance and brightness temperature), level 2.0 (retrieved geophysical data products) and level 3.0 (gridded points) [24]. MODIS uses infrared bands to determine the physical properties of cloud in relation to cloud top pressure and temperature, and visible and near‐infrared bands to determine optical and microphysical cloud properties [23, 25]. For water vapor, the retrieval the near‐infrared region is adopted.
\nFor this study, simultaneously retrieved datasets from MODIS (Terra) for the period 2000–2010 were used. Terra MODIS level_3 (C_005) monthly data products of aerosol optical depth (AOD), Ångström exponent (AE), cloud fraction (CF, day), water vapor (WV, above cloud), cloud effective radius (CER, liquid), liquid water path (LWP), and cloud optical depth (COD, liquid) were retrieved over the study region. As shown in Figure 1, the study regions were divided into 1° × 1° grid box centered at (1) DSL (32°16′ N; 76°23′E), (2) MND (31°43′ N; 76°58′ E), (3) SML (31°06′ N; 77°13′ E), (4) LDN (30°55′ N; 75°54′E), (5) PTL (30°20′ N; 76°25′ E), (6) MZR (29°28′ N; 77°44′E), (7) PUN (18°31′ N; 73°55′ E), (8) STR, (17°42′ N; 74°02′ E), and (9) KPR(16°42′ N; 74°16′ E).
\nFor the estimation of aerosol indirect effect (AIE) on the basis of the observed AODs, we grouped the selected stations into different categories viz., CAT‐H (heavy aerosol loading), CAT‐M (moderate aerosol loading), and CAT‐L (low aerosol loading). The MODIS (Terra) level_3 (C_005) daily data products of AOD, LWP, and CER were retrieved for this estimation, and analysis was performed over each category and as well as over each station keeping the fixed LWP constraint. The retrieved LWP and CER were divided into 14 different bin sizes. AIE was estimated for different seasons and for the entire study period 2000–2010 by evolving a linear least square fit to the plot between CER and AOD at fixed LWP and using the following equation [26],
\nStudy regions selected based on the dominant aerosol sources over India.
Here, re is the cloud effective radius (CER) for fixed LWP and τa is the AOD. The degree of significance of AIE and correlation coefficients of linear regression fit has been also determined over the selected stations using two‐tailed t‐tests at 90 and 95% of confidence level. The correlation coefficients between AOD and other parameters (AE, CF, COD, CER, LWP, and WV) for 11 years data at each station are given in Table 2, and seasonal correlations of these parameters are given in Table 3. In these tables, the doubly underlined correlation coefficients are significant at 0.05 level (95% confidence level) while singly underlined correlation coefficients are significant at 0.1 level (90% confidence level) and the rest are less significant.
\n\n\n\n\nThe spatial distribution of the monthly mean AODs for the period 2000–2010 at a wavelength 550 nm has been derived and is plotted in Figure 2. It reveals that the aerosol loading (i.e., AOD) have considerable influence on the atmosphere over Western Himalayan, Deccan Plateau regions, and their associated stations viz., DSL, MND, SML, LDN, PTL, MZR, PUN, STR, and KPR. The spatial distribution of AOD depicts occurrence of consistently high AODs (∼0.7) over the Western Himalaya. It was found that the long‐range transport of desert dust from the Arabian Peninsula contributes to the net regional aerosol loading with the marked increase in AOD over the Himalayan region in pre‐monsoon months [27]. Over the Himalayan region, dust transport reaches up the slopes of the Himalayas and is further vertically elevated to higher altitudes because of the strong westerly pre‐monsoon winds coupled with enhanced convection and pressure gradient resulting from large topographic differences [27]. High AODs have also been observed over the Ganga basin, situated in the Northern part of India [28]. The prevalence of high AODs over the Northern India is attributed to dense population density, the presence of heavy industries in the region, and the transport of desert dust from the nearby the Thar Desert in Rajasthan [29–31]. The spatial gradient of AOD shows an increase from the southern part of the Indian subcontinent to northern part up to the Himalayas [28]. Comparatively, AOD values over Deccan Plateau region (∼0.35 to 0.4) are lower than WH region which can attribute to the anthropogenic activities, like the industrial region [32].
\nSpatial variation of monthly mean AOD550 nm during 2000–2010.
The mean seasonal variation of AOD550 nm wavelength was derived by considering MODIS (Terra) retrieved AODs over Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions (i.e., stations associated with these regions) for the period of study. The resulting mean seasonal variation of AOD, for the period 2000–2010, elucidated in Figure 3, reveals a statistically significant seasonal variation of AODs during monsoon and other seasons. The seasonal mean AODs, given in Table 1, show that AOD was lowest during winter (0.29 ± 0.05) and highest during monsoon (0.60 ± 0.25) followed by pre‐monsoon (0.42 ± 0.10) at all the stations. Higher AODs during the monsoon may be because of the hygroscopic growth of water‐soluble aerosols and transport of larger sized aerosols (dust and sea salt) during favorable wind conditions [29]. Also, the ensemble mean monsoon AOD may be high due to limitations on the numbers of data points which were very few, because of the prevalence of overcast conditions (cloudy in nature) during most of the days. The similar increase in AOD during pre‐monsoon and monsoon season has previously been reported for Indian Subcontinent [28].
\nSeasonal variation of MODIS retrieved AOD550 nm during the period 2000–2010.
Station wise, LDN, PTL, and MZR in Western Himalayan region depict higher mean AODs over the period 2000–2010 as compared to the other investigated cities viz., PUN, STR, and KPR in Deccan Plateau region. AODs at LDN, PTL, and MZR in pre‐monsoon were found to be 0.53, 0.51, and 0.54, respectively, whereas the corresponding winter AODs at these places were found to be 0.35, 0.34, and 0.45, respectively. On the other hand, over PUN, STR, and KPR stations, AODs were found to be 0.30, 0.36, and 0.32, respectively, in pre‐monsoon and 0.24, 0.26, and 0.23, respectively, during winter. Analysis indicates that the AODs generally increase from lower latitude to higher latitude [32]. The occurrence of high AODs at LDN, PTL, and MZR is due to their close proximity to the Thar Desert where frequent dust storms occur during pre‐monsoon months. In addition, the presence of higher temperatures tends to hold more water vapor favoring aerosols to grow in size causing higher AODs at these sites. Aerosol loading over the studied region is low after the monsoon season as rainfall washes out most of the aerosol concentration [33]. The post‐monsoon season shows a continuation of the trend observed for AOD distribution in winter.
\nStations | \nSeasonal mean AOD and standard deviation | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Winter | \nPre‐monsoon | \nMonsoon | \nPost‐monsoon | \n|
Dharmashala | \n0.25 (±0.04) | \n0.37 (±0.11) | \n0.51 (±0.19) | \n0.31 (±0.07) | \n
Mandi | \n0.22 (±0.04) | \n0.36 (±0.13) | \n0.49 (±0.20) | \n0.26 (±0.07) | \n
Shimla | \n0.23 (±0.03) | \n0.37 (±0.11) | \n0.51 (±0.20) | \n0.28 (±0.07) | \n
Ludhiana | \n0.35 (±0.05) | \n0.53 (±0.17) | \n0.86 (±0.37) | \n0.55 (±0.14) | \n
Patiala | \n0.34 (±0.06) | \n0.51 (±0.16) | \n0.81 (±0.34) | \n0.51 (±0.13) | \n
Muzaffarnagar | \n0.45 (±0.07) | \n0.54 (±0.17) | \n0.82 (±0.30) | \n0.70 (±0.14) | \n
Pune | \n0.24 (±0.05) | \n0.30 (±0.05) | \n0.43 (±0.23) | \n0.24 (±0.06) | \n
Satara | \n0.26 (±0.06) | \n0.36 (±0.05) | \n0.51 (±0.24) | \n0.25 (±0.05) | \n
Kolhapur | \n0.23 (±0.06) | \n0.32 (±0.06) | \n0.46 (±0.20) | \n0.25 (±0.05) | \n
MODIS (Terra) derived mean seasonal AODs at the selected stations over Western Himalaya and Deccan Plateau Region during 2000–2010.
Figure 4 shows the monthly mean composite plots of AOD and AE (α) for the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010. Also, Table 2 displays the correlation coefficients of linear regression analysis between AOD and AEs. It is clear from both Table 2 and Figure 4 that the MODIS retrieved AODs and AEs are either inversely or positively correlated and the correlations are significant at 95% confidence level at all the locations. It can be noticed that during monsoon season, AE is negatively correlated with AOD with 95% confidence level while in winter it shows positive correlations with AOD at all the stations. The positive correlation of AE with AOD was observed at the locations STR and KPR during pre‐monsoon and at MZR, PUN, and KPR during post‐monsoon season. This kind of behavior may be attributed to the hygroscopic growth of the aerosol particles producing a significant shift in aerosol size spectrum which in turn can substantially influence the magnitude of the Ångström exponent. More particularly, the change in the ratio of small to large particles can also bring about a change in the Ångström exponent. A dry particle of anthropogenic origin may have a Ångström exponent which is 60% higher than a particle with a growth factor of 1.6, which illustrates that hygroscopic growth, can substantially impact the Ångström exponent [10]. It may be possible that high AOD during pre‐monsoon is due to the increase in the size of the humidified aerosols present near the cloudy area.
\nMonthly mean composite plots of AOD and AE over the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010.
Stations | \nAE | \nCF | \nCOD | \nCER | \nCWP | \nWV | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DSL | \n−0.07 | \n0.09 | \n||||
MND | \n0.12 | \n|||||
SML | \n0.02 | \n|||||
LDN | \n0.05 | \n|||||
PTL | \n0.03 | \n0.14 | \n||||
MZR | \n−0.03 | \n0.09 | \n||||
PUN | \n||||||
STR | \n||||||
KPR | \n
Correlation coefficients of the linear regression analysis between AOD against AE and cloud parameters at each station for the period of 2000–2010.
Correlation coefficients bolded are significant at 0.05 level (95% confidence level), while italicized are significant at 0.1 level (90% confidence level) and the rest are less significant.
The Ångström exponent is an approximate measure of the aerosol particle size distribution; smaller the Ångström exponent larger is the size of the particles [34]. Figure 4 reveals that there is a decrease in Ångström exponent values with increase in the AODs at all sites. Higher values of α indicate a sharper aerosol size spectrum. It clearly shows the dramatic transformation in the aerosol spectra, from high accumulation mode domination during September through February months (revealed by values of α > 1.0 and steep AOD spectra) to increased coarse mode domination (α < 1.0) during March through June–July months. Lower values of AE clearly indicate that the dominance of coarse‐mode aerosols which affirms the influx of transported coarse‐mode dust aerosols from the Arabian Desert and the Thar Desert [31, 35].
\nThe MODIS provides an enormous amount of data which is valuable for understanding how aerosols influence clouds [10]. Aerosols are highly variable in space and time with different properties, characteristics, and concentrations. It is this peculiar nature of aerosols along with prevailing the meteorological conditions that brings in a complicating factor and makes the aerosol–cloud interaction a complex phenomenon. Rain formation depends on the number concentration of aerosols in atmospheric pollution and is unaffected by low pollution; however, during heavy pollution episode, rainfall is significantly reduced. Aerosols act as ice nuclei and cloud condensation nuclei. The presence of small condensation nuclei in the atmosphere can initiate the suppression of heterogeneous freezing with the result that many small droplets remain liquid below the homogeneous freezing temperature [36]. However, most of the observational studies are based on specified cases from which it is difficult to determine as to which effects are more significant and dominant and thus their long‐term implications remain unknown [37].
\nIn the present work, an attempt has been made to understand and quantify the influential role of AOD on cloud parameters by analyzing correlations amongst them on spatial scale and by estimating AIE for the nine selected stations. The results are highlighted in the following sub‐sections through the use of spatial correlation. In addition, we have estimated the seasonal correlation coefficients for each parameter at the selected stations as well as for the entire period of 2000–2010. The aerosol–cloud relationship has also been studied using the monthly mean composite plots for 11 years of data so used.
\nThe co‐variation plot of AOD550 nm and CF during the period 2000–2010 has been constructed over the selected nine sites in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau region in India, and the results are displayed in Figure 5. Also, linear regression correlation coefficients for the plots of AOD550 nm against AE and MODIS‐retrieved cloud parameters viz., CF, COD, CER, CWP, and WV have been estimated for the selected time period of 11 years on a seasonal basis. The resulting data are shown in Table 3 which reveals that the satellite retrieved cloud fraction data shows a strong positive correlation with AOD550 nm at all the selected locations in the respective study regions. The present results are found to be consistent with those reported by Myhre et al. [10] and Kaufman et al. [4]. Interestingly, the correlation coefficients at heavy columnar aerosol loading locations (AOD ranging between 0.59 and 0.65), i.e., LDN, PTL, and MZR and at relatively low columnar aerosol loading locations (AOD ranging between 0.31 and 0.36), i.e., PUN, STR, and KPR are more or less similar. It is important to note here that the Western Himalayan region is desert‐dust dominated region due to its proximity to Thar Desert, whereas Deccan Plateau region is dominated by anthropogenic activity in the form of industrial/vehicular pollution and biomass burning. Consequently, the occurrence of higher correlations between AOD550 nm and CF in these anthropogenically, biomass burning and desert‐dust dominated aerosol regions indicate that the meteorological factors significantly influence this relationship [32]. Recently, it is found that the increasing aerosol concentration leads to increase in cloud cover and showing that the aerosol concentrations change the cloud properties [38]. This is because regions of low atmospheric pressure have more tendency to create conditions necessary for cloud formation by accumulating aerosol particles and water vapor [39].
\nMonthly mean composite plots of AOD and CF at the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010.
The monthly mean composite plots of AOD and CF during the period 2000–2010 (Figure 5) show that the CF increased with AOD at all locations throughout the entire period of study. The CF and AOD variations demonstrate an out of phase correlation during the winter season for the Western Himalayan stations. Also, the relationship becomes negative in the months of July and August as CF increased with a decrease in AOD. The magnitudes of the seasonal correlation coefficients between AOD and CF, given in Table 3, signify that the CF increases with AOD at all the station (except SML; negative correlations) during winter (DSL = 0.24, MND = 0.14, LDN = 0.65, PTL = 0.47, MZR = 0.58, PUN = 0.42, STR = 0.65, KPR = 0.74), pre‐monsoon (DSL = 0.31, MND = 0.34, LDN = 0.77, PTL = 0.74, MZR = 0.79, PUN = 0.30, STR = 0.10, KPR = 0.20) and monsoon(DSL = 0.51, MND = 0.49, LDN = 0.63, PTL = 0.61, MZR = 0.48, PUN = 0.46, STR = 0.53, KPR = 0.41) seasons. Myhre et al. [10] have found that the decrease of CF with increasing AOD occurs mainly for low AODs (below ∼0.3) and also reported an increase in AOD with an increase in RH due to the swelling of hygroscopic particles which are near to the clouds. The cloud cover also exhibits a weak negative correlation with the potential temperature lapse rate, and vertical shear of the horizontal wind in the middle atmosphere [40]. This gives rise to shift in aerosol size distribution with smaller particles coming into optical range while larger particles moving out of it [41]. Positive correlations between CF and AOD appear to be the reflection of this effect. This increase may be due to the complexity of the domain, the type of land surface (albedo), the choice (classification) of aerosol mixtures applied in the MODIS retrieval for that particular area, the impact of meteorology on aerosol transport, and the aerosol chemistry. Kaufman et al. [4] mentioned that the cloud cover increases with increase in aerosol concentrations and found that the cloud properties change as a result of variations in large‐scale atmospheric circulation and also affect aerosol concentrations. For example, regions of low atmospheric pressure are convergence zones that tend to accumulate aerosols and water vapor, thus generating conditions favorable for cloud formation [42].
\nStation | \nParameters | \nWinter | \nPre‐monsoon | \nMonsoon | \nPost‐monsoon | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DSL | \nAE | \n0.215 | \n−0.136 | \n||
\n | CF | \n0.248 | \n−0.184 | \n||
\n | COD | \n0.285 | \n−0.058 | \n−0.228 | \n|
\n | CER | \n−0.184 | \n−0.243 | \n0.317 | \n|
\n | LWP | \n0.187 | \n−0.233 | \n||
\n | WV | \n0.243 | \n|||
MND | \nAE | \n0.106 | \n−0.179 | \n||
\n | CF | \n0.138 | \n−0.274 | \n||
\n | COD | \n0.295 | \n−0.156 | \n−0.027 | \n−0.283 | \n
\n | CER | \n0.078 | \n−0.140 | \n−0.221 | \n|
\n | LWP | \n0.259 | \n−0.266 | \n−0.141 | \n−0.128 | \n
\n | WV | \n0.070 | \n|||
SML | \nAE | \n0.057 | \n−0.192 | \n||
\n | CF | \n−0.044 | \n|||
\n | COD | \n0.114 | \n−0.157 | \n−0.159 | \n−0.212 | \n
\n | CER | \n−0.044 | \n|||
\n | LWP | \n0.116 | \n−0.265 | \n0.004 | \n|
\n | WV | \n0.274 | \n|||
LDN | \nAE | \n0.062 | \n|||
\n | CF | \n||||
\n | COD | \n0.177 | \n−0.057 | \n0.205 | \n−0.221 | \n
\n | CER | \n−0.027 | \n−0.122 | \n0.220 | \n|
\n | LWP | \n−0.077 | \n−0.037 | \n0.0596 | \n−0.087 | \n
\n | WV | \n||||
PTL | \nAE | \n0.122 | \n|||
\n | CF | \n||||
\n | COD | \n0.356 | \n−0.104 | \n−0.158 | \n0.085 | \n
\n | CER | \n−0.144 | \n−0.238 | \n||
\n | LWP | \n0.144 | \n−0.123 | \n0.262 | \n|
\n | WV | \n||||
MZR | \nAE | \n0.172 | \n|||
\n | CF | \n−0.243 | \n|||
\n | COD | \n0.352 | \n−0.108 | \n−0.121 | \n0.0099 | \n
\n | CER | \n−0.280 | \n−0.169 | \n||
\n | LWP | \n−0.025 | \n−0.168 | \n−0.237 | \n0.220 | \n
\n | WV | \n||||
PUN | \nAE | \n−0.206 | \n0.165 | \n||
\n | CF | \n||||
\n | COD | \n−0.210 | \n0.124 | \n0.222 | \n0.131 | \n
\n | CER | \n0.180 | \n−0.054 | \n||
\n | LWP | \n−0.096 | \n0.007 | \n0.074 | \n|
\n | WV | \n0.097 | \n0.171 | \n||
STR | \nAE | \n0.113 | \n−0.136 | \n||
\n | CF | \n0.100 | \n|||
\n | COD | \n−0.055 | \n0.004 | \n0.173 | \n|
\n | CER | \n−0.323 | \n−0.181 | \n0.083 | \n|
\n | LWP | \n−0.143 | \n−0.132 | \n0.195 | \n|
\n | WV | \n0.127 | \n−0.090 | \n||
KPR | \nAE | \n0.128 | \n0.049 | \n||
\n | CF | \n0.206 | \n|||
\n | COD | \n−0.052 | \n0.026 | \n0.235 | \n|
\n | CER | \n−0.260 | \n−0.027 | \n0.185 | \n−0.105 | \n
\n | LWP | \n−0.159 | \n−0.055 | \n0.272 | \n|
\n | WV | \n0.322 | \n0.017 | \n
Same as in Table 2 but for different seasons during the period 2000–2010.
Correlation coefficients bolded are significant at 0.05 level (95% confidence level), while italicized are significant at 0.1 level (90% confidence level) and the rest are less significant.
The cloud effective radius (CER) is the weighted mean of the size distribution of cloud droplets in the atmosphere. CER (defined as the ratio of the third to the second moment of a droplet size distribution) is one of the key variables that are used for calculation of the radiative properties of liquid water clouds [43]. Analysis of the present data reveals that the CER and AOD values are positively correlated at all the locations during the study period 2000–2010 (Table 2). These findings are found to be consistent with the results of Yuan et al. [44] which manifested that the direct correlation between AOD and CER may be due to various artifacts as well as aerosol swelling, partial cloudiness, atmospheric dynamics, cloud three‐dimensional (3D), and surface influence effects. Hygroscopic aerosols grow in size as a consequence of moisture uptake from water vapor. The size and the refractive index of the aerosol change due to the hygroscopic growth of the aerosols resulting in the subsequent increase in AOD [26]. For example, aerosols which are in close proximity to the cloud swell more because of the higher moisture content present near the cloud producing larger AOD. Simultaneously, deeper clouds tend to have larger droplets than shallower clouds.
\nOn the other hand, Figure 6 shows that CER values are found to be lower in pre‐monsoon months (0.4–0.6) and higher in monsoon months (0.8–1.3). Results clearly indicate that the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions receive maximum rainfall during the monsoon months. Bhawar and Devara [45] carried out the similar study over Pune and found that increase in CER produces an increase in COD which could result in more rainfall and
Monthly mean composite plots of AOD and CER at the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010.
Results displayed in Table 2 for the correlations between AOD and cloud parameters depict occurrence of relatively high positive correlations between AOD and LWP at PUN, STR, and KPR [correlation coefficient (R) ranging between 0.43 and 0.49] than that at DSL, MND, SML, LDN, PTL, and MZR [correlation coefficient (R) ranging between 0.09 and 0.23] during 2000–2010. This indicates that the increase of LWP with AOD is consistent with the previous studies of Yuan et al. [44]. It suggests that the assumption, i.e., the first indirect effect is not always valid [44]. However, it should be noted that the MODIS LWP is not an independent measurement but estimated from the respective values of COD and CER.
\n\nMonthly variation of AOD and LWP for the study period (Figure 7) and their seasonal correlation analysis (Table 3) points out that the sign of correlation (negative/positive) changes from season to season and from place to place indicating spatiotemporal variability in these correlations. In winter, LWP decreases with increasing AOD at the stations LDN, MZR, PUN, STR, and KPR while it increases with AOD at DSL, MND, SML, and PTL. In pre‐monsoon, at all the stations (except PUN), LWP was found to decrease as AOD increased. During monsoon, LWP decreases with AOD at stations DSL, MND, SML, PTL, and MZR while it increases with AOD at LDN, PUN, STR, and KPR. For the post‐monsoon season, at the stations DSL, MND, and LDN, a negative relationship was observed between AOD and LWP while it was positive at the stations PTL, MZR, PUN, STR, and KPR. The possible reason behind the reduction of LWP during winter, pre‐monsoon, monsoon, and post‐monsoon seasons may be warming of clouds due to the dust aerosols, absorbing incoming solar radiation thereby increasing evaporation of cloud droplets leading to the reduction of LWP, i.e., the so‐called semi‐direct effect [46].
\nMonthly mean composite plots of AOD and LWP at the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010.
Statistical analysis shows that during 2000–2010, about 45 and 11% of the correlation coefficients at the selected stations were significant at 95 and 90%, respectively. During winter, about 56% of the correlation coefficients at the selected stations were consistent with the existing hypothesis (i.e., the negative relationship between AOD and LWP). At the majority of the stations, during pre‐monsoon, negative correlations between AOD and LWP were found to be prevalent for about 89% of the cases, out of which 13% were significant at 95% level. In monsoon, about 56% of the correlation coefficients showed an inverse relationship between AOD and CER; of these about 40% correlation coefficients were significant at 95% confidence level. In all, about 67% of correlation coefficients displayed inconsistency with the Twomey effect and about 33% of the correlation coefficients showed consistency with Twomey effect out of which about 33% of the correlation coefficients were significant at 90% level.
\n\nAtmospheric water vapor content is an important component of the global climate system and plays an important role in the radiation balance of the earth–atmosphere system [47]. It is the basic and crucial component for the cloud formation. Investigation of the possible changes in column water vapor in association with aerosols may be of considerable importance to give insight into the aerosol impact and speed of hydrological cycle [10]. MODIS retrievals provide column water vapor (CWV) in the clear sky and cloudy or above clouds individually. In the present study, we have used CWV above cloud data retrieved from Terra for the period of 2000–2010. The correlation coefficients were determined at each station situated in both Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during the period 2000–2010. Analysis (shown in Table 2) reveals that at higher latitudes, AOD, and WV have strong positive correlation than at lower latitudes. Strong positive correlations were found over DSL (0.74), MND (0.75), SML (0.74), LDN (0.66), PTL (0.71), and MZR (0.67), whereas relatively low correlation was observed over PUN (0.37), STR (0.37), and KPR (0.38).
\nMonthly mean the composite plot of AOD and WV at the selected stations in the Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions during 2000–2010.
The seasonal correlations between AOD and WV (Table 3) reveal that AOD and WV have a strong positive correlation (>0.6) over Western Himalayan region and moderate correlation (0.4–0.6) exist at Deccan Plateau region during the pre‐monsoon, monsoon, and post‐monsoon seasons. There was no significant correlation (<0.32) between AOD and WV during the winter season at all the stations, since the dust aerosols were less common or even absent during winter, consequently, less WV was observed.
\n\nLow AOD values in winter, a global feature, is attributed to the removal of aerosols due to monsoon rains and decreased aerosol input due to a colder ground surface. Additionally, the less hygroscopic growth of aerosols due to low WV content may lead to relatively lower AOD values [48]. Also, the decrease in WV with AOD may be a consequence of the increased aerosol loading, since more particles act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) followed by an increase in cloud droplet number concentration. Moreover, hygroscopic particles uptake more moisture and this altogether leads to a decrease in WV. It is interesting to note that at the stations PUN, STR, and KPR an abrupt increase in LWP (see Section 4.4.3) was observed during JUN to AUG leading to rapid increase in CER (see Section 4.4.2) and hence the COD. This also supports our hypothesis that WV must have been utilized for the droplet formation thereby decreasing WV. Statistical analysis reveals that at all the selected station\'s correlation coefficients between AOD and WV during 2000–2010 showed positive AOD‐WV relationship, and all the correlation coefficients were significant at 95% level. Seasonally, about 89% of the correlation coefficients at the selected stations evidenced positive correlations in all the seasons. Out of these, about 66 and 16% of correlation coefficients are significant at 95 and 90% confidence level, respectively.
\nThe relation between aerosol and WV has an implication for the radiative forcing both through direct and indirect mechanisms [9]. EL‐Askary and Kafatos [49] have found that aerosols cause a reduction in cloud droplet size and hence lead to suppression of the precipitation. The direct effect results in radiation scattering due to an increase in aerosol particle size, accompanied by the uptake of WV. The black cloud episode is comprised mainly of anthropogenic pollutants acting as cloud condensation nuclei leading to the formation of WV cover. The present analysis demonstrates the presence of high WV over locations where high AOD is observed (Figure 8).
\n\nThe aerosol indirect effect has been estimated using Eq. (1) under fixed LWP as the constraint. For this, magnitudes of LWP are divided into 14 different bins at an interval of 25 g/m2 viz. 1–25, 25–50, 51–75, 76–100, 101–125, 126–150, 151–175, 176–200, 201–225, 225–250, 251–275, 276–300, 301–325 and 326–350 g/m2 each. Aerosol indirect effects was estimated seasonally as well as for the entire study period 2000–2010 at each category, and the results are shown in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. The two‐tailed t‐test has also been carried out for determination of the significance of aerosol indirect effect at 90 and 95% confidence levels which are indicated by gray color solid bar and black color solid bar in these figures, respectively.
\n\nAerosol indirect effect (AIE) in different LWP bins at different aerosol loading groups H, M, and L during 2000–2010. The range of bin number against LWP is as follows: (1) 1–25; (2) 26–50; (3) 51–75; (4) 76–100; (5) 101–125; (6) 126–150; (7) 151–175; (8) 176–200; (9) 201–225; (10) 226–250; (11) 251–275; (12) 276–300; (13) 301–325 and (14) 326–350 gm-2. (Blue color bars represent AIE significant at 95% of confidence level, Red color bars represent IE significant at 90% of confidence level and rest are less significant).
Figure 9 illustrates the AIE for different LWP bins at each category during 2000–2010. It also reveals that during 2000–2010, the average values of AIE at each category (CAT‐H, CAT‐M, and CAT‐L) were -0.04 ± 0.14, 0.01 ± 0.07, and 0.10 ± 0.48, respectively. About 71% of LWP bins predicted negative AIE at CAT‐H, out of which 20% of the LWP bins were found to be statistically significant at 95% level. At CAT‐M, about 57% of LWP bins exhibited negative AIE out of which about 38% of the LWP bins were significant at 95% level. AIE at CAT‐L was observed to be less prominent as compared to other two categories. About 57% of LWP bins at CAT‐L depicted negative AIE out of which 25 and 13% of LWP bins were significant at the level of 95 and 90%, respectively.
\nSame as in
Station | \nWinter | \nPre‐monsoon | \nMonsoon | \nPost‐monsoon | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
DSL | \n−0.008 (60%) | \n0.141 (54.55%) | \n0.049 (53.85%) | \n−0.067 (63.64%) | \n
MND | \n−0.143 (100%) | \n0.156 (85.71%) | \n0.118 (75%) | \n−0.068 (75%) | \n
MSL | \n−0.045 (71.43%) | \n0.030 (77.77%) | \n0.043 (75%) | \n−0.146 (83.33%) | \n
LDN | \n0.15 (80%) | \n0.13 (100%) | \n−0.023 (75%) | \n0.07 (80%) | \n
PTL | \n−0.11 (100%) | \n0.09 (100%) | \n0.05 (55.55%) | \n−0.09 (50%) | \n
MZR | \n0.10 (60%) | \n0.23 (83.33%) | \n0.04 (62.5%) | \n−0.04 (66.66%) | \n
PUN | \n−0.121 (100%) | \n−0.091 (60%) | \n0.003 (55.56%) | \n0.024 (50%) | \n
STR | \n−0.057 (72.72%) | \n−0.013 (50%) | \n−0.057 (63.63%) | \n−0.008 (75%) | \n
KPR | \n0.038 (60%) | \n0.106 (83.83%) | \n−0.250 (60%) | \n−0.058 (85.71%) | \n
The seasonal average value of AIE for fixed LWP during 2000–2010.
Percentage of cases of positive/negative AIE are given in parenthesis.
Seasonal AIE at each category was estimated and is presented in Figure 10 which shows that during winter, LWP bins at all the three categories demonstrated prominent anti‐Twomey (negative AIE) effect, out of which 25, 80, and 50% of the LWP bins were significant at 95% level for CAT‐H, CAT‐M, and CAT‐L, respectively. In pre‐monsoon, LWP bins showed positive AIE at CAT‐H (86%), and CAT‐M (60%) while at CAT‐L about 71% of LWP bins elucidated negative AIE. At CAT‐H, CAT‐M, and CAT‐L, in monsoon, the percentage of LWP showing positive AIE were found to be about 60, 75, and 58%, respectively. In post‐monsoon, about 71, 70, and 63% of LWP bins showed negative AIE for CAT‐H, CAT‐M, and CAT‐L, respectively. Seasonal means of AIE for fixed LWP at each station were also estimated for the period of 2000–2010, and the results are given in Table 4. It reveals that majority of the stations showed the occurrence of negative AIEs during winter (about 67%) and post‐monsoon (about 78%), respectively. However, on an average 78 and 67% of the stations revealed the occurrence of positive AIEs in pre‐monsoon and monsoon seasons, respectively.
\n\n\n\nThe estimation of AIE at each category and at each station indicates that the sign of AIEs changes with space and time (season). The main reason behind this positive or negative nature of the AIE could be linked with changes in circulation pattern and associated long‐range transport of air masses containing different types of aerosols from the different sources [16]. For example, the mixing state of the black carbon, i.e., whether it is located in the interstitial aerosol, or included within the cloud droplets, can influence the resulting cloud droplet population and optical properties and the black carbon aerosol can change sign of the radiative forcing from negative to positive [6]. Additionally, dust plume existing under the cloud can influence the direct, indirect, and semi‐direct effect [50]. However, there are several other factors along with meteorological conditions that could contribute to the observed changes in indirect effect [51].
\nMODIS satellite retrievals were used to investigate the spatiotemporal variations of MODIS retrieved aerosol and cloud products over Western Himalayan and Deccan Plateau regions. The data were also employed to study aerosol–cloud interaction and to quantify AIE over these regions for fixed LWP bins. The major conclusions of the present study are as follows:\n
The analysis of MODIS retrieved aerosol and cloud products, the interrelation between cloud between aerosol parameters and the estimation of the AIE reveal that the aerosol–cloud relationship as well as AIE changes magnitude and sign both with space and time (season). The change in the atmospheric circulation patterns, in‐flux/out‐flux of different types of aerosols and varying prevalent meteorological conditions may be the reason behind this positive/negative aerosol indirect effect. Analysis of MODIS retrievals further revealed that the aerosols can change microphysical properties of clouds. However, it is evident that such changes are not determined by aerosols alone as there may be several contributing factors.
At all the stations, during 2000–2010, the sign of AE‐AOD correlation exhibited spatiotemporal variability. During winter, AE was positively correlated with AOD while during monsoon the correlation was negative with 95% of significance level at all the stations. In pre‐monsoon, the majority of the stations (78%) showed inverse AE‐AOD relationship, out of which about 86% of the correlations were significant at 95% confidence level. The changeover in the sign of AE‐AOD correlation may be attributed to the hygroscopic growth of the aerosol particles producing a significant shift in aerosol size spectrum which in turn can substantially influence the magnitude of the AE.
Monthly variation of AOD and LWP for the study period and their seasonal correlation analysis points out that the sign of correlation (negative/positive) changes from season to season and place to place indicating spatiotemporal variability in these correlations. Reduction in LWP with AOD during winter, pre‐monsoon, monsoon, and post‐monsoon seasons may be attributed to the warming of the clouds due to the dust aerosols. Dust aerosols absorb the incoming solar radiation resulting into increase in cloud layer temperature, thereby enhancing evaporation of cloud droplets leading to the reduction of LWP, i.e., the so‐called semi‐direct effect.
Estimated values of AIE showed that the average values of AIE during 2000–2010, at each category (CAT‐H, CAT‐M, and CAT‐L) were -0.04 ± 0.14, 0.01 ± 0.07, and 0.10 ± 0.48, respectively. About 57–71% of LWP bins revealed negative AIE at each category. During winter, prominent anti‐Twomey effect (with 25–80% of significance level) was observed in all the three categories. In pre‐monsoon, 86% (at CAT‐H) and 60% (at CAT‐M) of LWP bins showed positive AIE while about 71% (at CAT‐L) of LWP bins exhibited negative AIE values.
Today, software is extensively used by all of us for commercial and noncommercial purposes and it is controlled by various entities. The total energy consumption by ICT is between 5 and 9% and is going to increase annually by 6–9%. (Figure 1) [23]. In India, the exiting ICT facilities have the energy performance index ranging between 230 and 310 kWh/m2/year. The greenhouse gas emissions by ICT is estimated to be 2.8% in total global emissions, but as usage of ICT can also reduce the emission rate by 15%. This calculation is on consumers who use ICT devices. But energy consumption levels can be further reduced from the current levels if we apply green software development lifecycle. The existing Software Development Life Cycle process framework is not adequate when concerned with energy consumption. This is mainly due to the lack of awareness in the Green Based Software Development life cycle process. The existing Green based software development model namely Green Reference Model is focuses on the three phases of the process called development, usage, and end of life. But the GREENSOFT model does not provide Green-based approach in entire Software Development Life Cycle phases which is a major setback of GREENSOFT model.
\nICT electricity consumption.
The existing model for Green software engineering does not consider the Requirement, Design, Coding, Testing and Implementation phases of SDLC. In order to achieve green software engineering the entire software development process is to become Green.
\nSustainability has become a very essential factor to consider doing business in recent times. If that business has fails to maintain sustainable development it receives significant public criticism and they may lose the market [1].
\nThe usage of computing power is to develop the more sustainable world [2]. The answer for the ecological crisis can be solved by knowledge acquisition. The development of feedback information should be concerned with model makers and system analysts. Environmental Informatics (EI) [2] is the combination of information systems of problem-oriented knowledge from the fields of management and environmental science and computer science. EI is emerged for the requirement of domain-specificity. The computer scientists have the challenge of designing the information processing system for using the environmental data.
\nThe Computational Sustainability (CompSust) [2] is closely associated with the Institute for Computational Sustainability (ICS) with funding starting from 2008 by the U.S. National Science Foundation. CompSust is developed by ICS as “inter disciplinary field to balance the needs (environment, economical and societal) of sustainable development using computer and information science, operations research, applied mathematics, and statistics. The Brundtland definition for CompSust community refers to address the need of basic human.” “Balancing” might address the issue to some extend with no reference of deeply normative issues which are connected to distributive justice. Thus, an algorithm can resolve normative issues, which is yet to be developed for greening ICT.
\nGreening ICT in industry application can run in design phase, classification of ICT systems development phase, execution of software systems phase and complex installation phase and in software development of the Life cycle of ICT systems [3] there are a lot of changes to save energy. The energy can be saved efficiently by using computing resources and avoiding recurring work such as recompiling. Based on World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) [2], “sustainable development” could be defined as sustainable system use of a system to fulfill its function (F) for a time (L).
\nThe goal of sustainability is to provide a common elucidation of the word “sustainability” without actually relating it to any specific context [2]. To perform this, they will first conclude the sustainability definitions which described as a broadly used term for the ability of something for long lasting time. Some other definitions for Sustainability are as follows.
Define sustainability as follows “the ability to be overseen at a steady level without depleting environmental assets.”
The Brundtland report from the United Nations (UN) defines sustainable development as the ability to “meet the present needs without compromising the future generation abilities for their own needs.”
Environmental sustainability ensures that the environment is the ability to refill itself at a quicker rate than it is damaged by human actions. For instance, the use of recycled material for IT hardware production helps to conserve natural resources.
Sustainable software engineering [4] motive is to create reliable, lifelong software that meets the needs of user’s requirement and also tried to reducing ecological impacts; its aim is to generate better software so there is no need to compromise future generations’ opportunities.
\nGreen and sustainable software engineering [5] is the skill of creating green and sustainable software in relation to the process of green and sustainable software engineering. The skill of describing and making software products in a way, the positive and negative effects on sustainable developments of the Software Development Life Cycle process constantly assessed. The assessed details are maintained as records and may be utilized for a software product process optimization [25].
\nThe objective of software engineering for sustainability [6] (SE4S) is tried to create a tools and technique in order to reach the conception of software sustainability.
\nBased on [24], purpose of green and sustainable software engineering [24] is the improvement of software engineering. During the entire life cycle of software system which targets the direct and indirect consumption of natural resources and energy and the aim is to track, access, everlasting measure and optimize these realities.
\nSSE [7] aims to develop consistent, lifelong software that satisfies the needs of customers and also tried to reduce the negative impact on the financial, humanity and the ecological system [9]. The software engineering sustainability process tries to balance the business and technical advancement in the environment. IT (Information technology) has played a very important role to tackle issues of ecology and various types’ ecological issues. However, these can be measured separately. The first consideration is to IT which could be used to mitigate ecological issues [26]. Green IT is defined as “the study and practice of design, developing, using, and disposing of computers and peripherals, and servers effectively without affecting the environment” [8]. Greening through IT [10], conversely is the center of attention on how IT may create a wider range of additional - civilization sectors for further sustainable IT application field. In a wide sense, computers are everywhere and consist of both specialized and generic systems. This report focuses on computers that constitute significant loads in buildings and specifically investigates energy-efficiency opportunities in five broad computer form factors: desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, thin clients, and workstations. While the number of tablets in homes is increasing, the energy use of these products is relatively low, and the saving opportunity–is minimal due to existing battery charger regulations and market pressure for achieving the high efficiency in enhancing the battery life [11] which can have main impacts on economic and the social at the worldwide, which makes ecological and power issues of software worldwide concerns too. According to the Annual Energy Outlook 2017 published by the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), energy consumption is expected to increase by no more than 5% between 2016 and 2040, with the sector of electric power being the largest primary energy consumer. On the contrary, projections of energy production vary widely due to the production growth dependency on technology, resource, and market. Energy related CO2 emissions decline in most Annual Energy Outlook scenario [12]. These categories give a sampling of the different types of technology that are being built with the purpose of enabling greening through IT. The IT segment itself is said to be accountable for 2% of global Carbon dioxide emissions [12], and the global impacts of ecology in this aspect includes high amount of energy utilization [14] and utilization of a different variety of other materials [15], making of wastes like e- and hazardous waste. The ES (Expandability Score) score of greater than 690 is considered a high expandability computer and would be subject to the standards for workstations rather than the desktop standards.
\nThe main ecological concerns of trade are the crisis of global energy. According to World Energy Outlook 2010, “the age of cheap oil is over” [16], describing increasing power prices and for the past 30 years, while per capita electricity consumption in the United States has increased by nearly 50%, California’s electricity use per capita has been nearly flat, Continued progress in cost-effective building and appliance standards and ongoing. Due to the fast increasing IT demand,, energy utilization of IT is also a needed for investigation [17] The Long-Term Energy Efficiency Strategic Plan calls on the Commission to develop a phased and accelerated “top-down” approach to more stringent codes and standards. It also calls for expanding the scope of appliance standards to plug loads; process. Computers contribute significantly to energy consumption in the commercial sector, particularly in office buildings and schools. In fact, the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s analysis of miscellaneous loads suggests that 70% of commercial notebook and desktop energy consumption occurred in these types of buildings in 2011 [4, 18]. These assumptions include the rising IT role in power administration, technological developments.
\nPower factor correction is important to power supply efficiency. The California (investor-owned utilities) IOUs proposed to include testing and minimum standards for power factor at full load to achieve energy savings on both the consumer side of the meter as well as on the utility side. NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) further recommended power factor correction at lower load points, including sleep and off, to increase energy savings [26]. It may be propose a minimum power factor requirement at full load for computers with non-federally regulated power supplies to ensure consistency with other power supply standards, including the federal external power supply standards and the 80 PLUS® program. However, requiring minimum power factor at low loads demands additional technical support to demonstrate technical feasibility and cost-effectiveness that was not available at the time of this effort [29].
\nFor the potential energy savings staff have included desktop computers (including integrated desktops and portable all-in-ones), notebooks (including mobile gaming systems, two-in-one notebooks, and mobile workstations), small-scale servers, thin clients (including mobile thin clients), and workstations (including rack-mounted workstations) in the proposed regulations. A thin client is a type of desktop computer that relies on a server or networked virtual machine to provide full functionality, such as data storage and computational power. Staff have excluded other servers, tablets, smartphones, setup boxes, game consoles, handheld video game devices, small computer devices, smart televisions, and industrial computers [26, 29].
\nICT for sustainability (ICT4S) [2] means metamorphic capability of ICT can be used to make our patterns of manufacturing and exhaustion more feasible [26]. At the same time, the history of scientific knowledge has exposed that increased energy performance does not vitally contribute to green development. To create a more sustainable culture in true potential of ICT can be possible with the efforts of politics, industry and consumers.
\nICT4S can be part into:
Sustainment in ICT: accomplishing ICT products, enterprises also economical above their entire existence cycle, basically diminishing the vitality, material streams which summon
Empowering by ICT: The method for ICT primary angle are secured by Green ICT and making authorize, empower, creation and utilization by TRHCI and EI. In the event that there is something particular to ICT4S as a field, it is the basic viewpoint that difficulties each mechanical arrangement by surveying its effect at the societal level.
There are various territories in which programming manageability longings to be connected [21]: framework programming, programming related items, Web based applications, server farms, and so forth. Diverse works are in process, yet the greater part of this worries server farms, which expend extensively best vitality than business office space. As noted in, the core opportunity for energy savings in computers is found in reducing the amount of energy consumed in idle modes; that is, when the computer is on but not being used [27]. Idle modes are the largest opportunity to reduce energy consumption because computers spend roughly half of the time in this “on mode.” In addition, high idle-mode consumption greatly increases the effectiveness of power management settings to reduce overall computer energy consumption. Automatic power management settings are often disabled, which means computers are constantly consuming significant amounts of power when not in use (for example, 50 W in idle mode compared to 2 W in sleep mode).
\nThe software sustainability [30] is the one part of the software engineering sustainability should usually be considered into account from the first software stages of development process. This process is not always feasible, because it is not easy to change how developers work. The core opportunity for energy savings regarding computer monitors is to reduce the amount of energy used in active (on) mode. Reducing the amount of energy used in on mode is the largest energy-saving opportunity because computer monitors spend about 30% of the time in this mode. About 20% of the computer monitors in the market today meet the ENERGY STAR® Version 7.0 standards. The proposed regulations for mainstream computer monitors are slightly more stringent than the ENERGY STAR Version 7.0 specification and about 30% more stringent than ENERGY STAR Version 6.0. About 14% of current models would meet the proposed standards. Most monitors would need to reduce only their power consumption by 3–5 W to comply. This goal can be met by replacing components with efficient light-emitting diode lights, light-emitting diode drivers, and power supplies that are available in the market at prices comparable to the inefficient technologies.
\nSupportable HCI is a sub-field of
Green and sustainable software engineering is the art of progressing green software engineering process therefore it is art of describing and promoting software products in a way [27]. So that the negative and positive impacts on sustainable development that result and or expected to result from the software product over it is whole life cycle are continuously assessed, documented and used for a further optimization of the software products [19].
\nAccording to [21], as identified different definitions sustainability, in general it considered from three different dimensions that are provided by the UN that is social, economic and environmental sustainability.
\n“Green IS and IT” represent to IS and IT products. The author describes what is Green IS and IT. Here, they tried to find out how the software is handled by an organization and how they maintain the emission and practices of disposal of IT spares without affecting the environment, whose objective is to avoid the pollution; Green Information System as inclusive of Green IT comprehensively has to be followed by the developers (people) and in software processes and technologies, and has to be maintained by person or group of person and public goals of program and prospective to influence on the sustainability of software company and communities giving threat for climate transform and other environmental aspects of dreadful conditions (Figure 2).
\nSustainability dimensions.
In a broad sense, computers are everywhere and consist of both specialized and generic systems. This report focuses on computers that constitute significant loads in buildings and specifically investigates energy-efficiency opportunities in five broad computer form factors: desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, thin clients, and workstations. While the number of tablets in homes is increasing, the energy use of these products is relatively low, and the opportunity for savings is minimal due to existing battery charger regulations and market pressure to achieve high efficiency to enhance battery life. Therefore, this staff report does not include analysis on tablet computers. In homes, the most common form factors are notebooks and desktops. While there are more notebooks than desktops in California, the energy consumption of a desktop is more than double that of a notebook. This energy consumption increases when computer monitor energy use is included, which is necessary for functionality. Table 1 shows estimates of home computer energy consumption with estimates ranging between 2.5 and 4.4% of all home electricity use, not accounting for computer monitor consumption.
\nS. No | \nProduct | \nDescription | \n
---|---|---|
1. | \nDesktop computers | \nGenerally paired with one or more computer monitors, displays, or televisions. Less commonly, the computer is integrated with a screen that is referred to as an “integrated Desktop.” Desktop computers are generally responsible for the power management of these devices and can have power management responsibilities for accessories as well, such as printers. | \n
2. | \nNotebook computers | \nA computer screen is integrated in the unit, and upgrades and configurability are generally limited. Although they can offer similar functionality to a desktop computer, they are somewhat constrained by space and power dissipation. | \n
3. | \nWorkstations, thin clients, and small-scale servers | \nA workstation is a task-oriented computer designed for abnormally constant and high workload and durability. On the opposite side of the spectrum, a thin client contains barebones interface hardware that may rely on separate equipment (generally a server or networked virtual machine) to provide full functionality, such as data storage and computational power. A small-scale server is a desktop computer configured to run as a server. While most modern desktops can be used as servers, small-scale servers generally have atypical hardware features and different operating systems than generic desktop computers. | \n
Estimate of home energy consumption of computers.
Criteria and measurements for supportability of a product items to spoke to in three categories [20] there are
Common quality and measurements.
Directly related criteria and measurements.
Indirectly related criteria measurements.
Based on the first-order effects of ICT supply, Second order effects of ICT use and Third order effects of Systemic effect of ICT respectively. Hardware obsolescence should be a genuine quality property of Green and Sustainable Software, which belongs to the directly related criterion and metrics model part. Indirectly related criterion and metrics for green and sustainable software address second and third order effects induced by software product [27, 28].
\nWe expect that computerized joining has aggravated the innovations of calculation and media communications to a degree that makes their division out of date in this unique situation. The term “Green IT” got comfortable after the production of a Gartner report in 2007 [22] and was later on joined by “Green Computing,” “Green Software,” “Green Software Engineering,” and “Green Information Systems (IS).”
\nThe fundamental distinction between Green in IT and Green by IT [21] is the pretended by the IT and the concentration of the greenness. The electricity consumption of computers, computer monitors, and signage displays varies greatly, even within models of similar sizes and feature sets. To date, no federal or state regulations provide incentives for implementing cost-effective, readily available technologies to improve the performance of less efficient models. The five form factors considered in this report are desktops, notebooks, small-scale servers, workstations, and thin clients.
\nWith help of the above factors we can find green in and by software and hardware (Figure 3). This combination creates the green software and hardware relationship which is Green IT.
\nGreen IS and Green IT.
The most substantial adjustments to the Energy Commission’s draft staff report include dividing desktop computers into four categories with different efficiency levels rather than three categories with a smooth function, adjusting the levels of energy allowances for each category, and modifying the effective dates for the standards. These adjustments could be made while maintaining the magnitude of statewide energy savings. Staff’s proposal is an effort to take international experience, stakeholder input, and data analytics and accomplish feasible and attainable energy savings for California in both long and short term. The proposed regulations are divided into three primary categories: desktops and thin clients, notebooks, and small-scale servers and workstations (Figure 4).
\nGreen software, green hardware and Green IT.
This procedure concentrates on what ought to be considered in each phase of the improvement routine collection, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance to create maintainable programming. This comes close to considers some of the classical water fall model methodology. In the requirement phase Marketing executive collect the requirement of the user, based on the software requirement condition the designer going to make a mockup design after getting design approval the developer or software engineer develop a coding, the test engineer going to test the software product whether it is working according to the software requirement specification finally the developing application implemented to the end user side.
\nThis research aims at designing; implementing and evaluating new green-based software development life cycle as an alternate to the existing software development life cycle process with the aim of improving the Sustainability in Software Engineering Process.
\nNew green-based SDLC modeling, measurement and evaluation related to Green database design have been identified as the three main approaches commonly used for evaluating the Green Software Engineering system. The primary aim of this research was concentrated on two phases. First, in the requirement phase in SDLC the green and sustainability is maintained with the help of cloud environment settings. Second, in the design phase the green and sustainability is maintained through the database design. The methodology of this study was software paper based data collection sheets, internet search engine and various tools have been studied [31].
\nThe GREENSOFT representation is a conceptual reference model for [20] “Green and Sustainable Software”, Which has the aim to support software developers, administrators, and software users in creating, maintaining and using software in a more sustainable way, the model is shown in Figure 1, it comprises a holistic life cycle model for software products procedure models for different stakeholders and recommendations for actions that support stakeholders in developing, purchasing, supplying and using software in a green and sustainable manner.
\nThe reference model contains a life cycle of software products that is in contrast to conventional life cycle software geared to life cycle thinking related to development, usage and end of life and identify the first-order effect, second order effect, and third order effect. The second part of the GREENSOFT model is called sustainability criteria and metrics it covers common metrics and criteria for the measurement of software quality and it allows taxonomy of parameters for evaluating the sustainability of software products.
\nThe model component procedure model makes it possible to classify procedure models that cover acquisition and development of software, maintenance of IT systems and user support that also related to directly related, indirectly related and common quality metrics [35].
\nThe last component of the Model contains recommendations and tools. These support stakeholders with different specialized skill levels in applying green or sustainable techniques in general when developing, purchasing, administrating, or using software products (Figure 5).
\nGreen and sustainable software model.
In the GREENSOFT model, the software product life cycle integrated ICT stimulated product life cycle that can also be credited with “from cradle-to-grave”. It is intention to enable stakeholders to evaluate impacts on software development according to the three different levels of impacts [34].
\nThe Development stage accounts for impacts [20] on software development that directly results from activities involved in software development as well as indirectly involved activities. Ecological impacts to be measured for example, Electrical Energy that is necessary to power the workstations of software developers and other employees electrical energy and natural resources that are necessary to operate the IT devices (example, Networking Devices, servers, and storages)(second order effects)Social impacts can be working conditions and payment of offshore employees (example developers, typesetters). Third order effects changes in organizations software development approach or life styles.
\nThis phase [20] considered the things of software progress that distributing the software product that also includes the environmental impacts (example printed manuals, transportation used for travels, design used for the retail packing (e.g., plastic, biodegradable material or medium of data used for CD/DVD, and user memory Sticks) now a day’s software product is offered to download a manuals at time considered the download size of the document [31].
\nIt is impacts that result from deploying [20], maintaining and using of the software product that is nothing but software patches installation and giving training for employees to software usage which regarding in less energy consumption or just switch off the computer when they leave their workplace. To offer services by computer program requires the consumption of services offered by other servers like data base management systems or Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). It also causes additional power consumption. To update of a software, the product size influences records transfer process in the IT based infrastructure which are necessary to deliver updates. It also basis further power and resource utilization to the new software to want up-to-date and more prevailing hardware [13]. This new hardware is typically more power efficient than older hardware but on the other hand production of the new hardware and the disposal of the old hardware causes resources and energy consumption [32].
\nIf the data cannot be changed easily [20], example because it is stored in a proprietary data design, this may have an impact on economic sustainability of an organization. In this phase even the backing size of data format, if the domain transfers from one application platform to new domain platform. So the deactivation of old database format leads to economic and technical sustainability.
\nThe result of this study shows that software application was not environmental friendly in the software development life cycle model. Lack of sustainability is a major flaw in the existing green software model in the following phases such as Requirement, Design, Coding, Testing and Implementation. There are a lot of negative impacts such as high level energy usage, e-hazardous waste, ecological system, financial etc. In this research we proposed a new Green based Software Development Life Cycle in designing; implementing and evaluating phases for a sustainable development to overcome the above factors.
\nAt the middle the designing procedure, the whole Life Cycle of the built programming items must be considered [20]. Develop, purchase, administrate, and use. In development of sustainability review study and preview study, process evaluation, sustainability presentation taken into consider about GREENSOFT model. In purchase of software product similar to the ENERGY STAR(R) that indicates whether a software product is energy efficient or meet certain sustainability requirement in the future. In administrate making software available by installing, configuring, and maintaining it. procedure model should implement a continuous improvement cycle that is energy utilization, should be checked regularly in order to improve these with appropriate measures apart from the data center operation includes networking, desktop PC, installed software resources utilization are need to be monitored in the administrative to procedure for users both the professionals and home users need to maintain the guidelines or checklist related to green and sustainable software [33].
\nProposal and methods address collaborator with various roles [20] General roles review by the GREENSOFT model are: Planner, Customer, Organizer, and User. On the other hand, there may be more functional roles like Software Architect, Web Administrator, Requirements Engineer, or Application Developer. In assumption, these can be classified by the general roles mentioned before. Proposal can be best practice examples, utilization reports, guidelines, schedule, etc. Methods can be software, paper-based data collection sheets. There are plenty of tools available on the Internet. More knowledge base or professional Internet search engine would help to find easier.
\nThe existing models are used to maintain green and sustainable software in the development and process evaluation. The GREENSOFT model has explained three order effects such as, the first-order effect focus on development to end, second order concentrate on sustainability area and last one focus on recommendations and tools for IT users in creating, maintaining a product for the sustainable development. Our approach is to develop Green IT Star model for green environment which focuses on five phases such as design, implementation, and requirement, coding and testing. The aim of this research is to help IT users in developing a green software and green hardware and improving the Sustainability in Software Engineering Process using Green IT Star model and has attained eco-friendly environment in design and requirement phase. The future research work is to achieve the Green software engineering in each Software Development Life Cycle phases on implementation, coding and testing phase.
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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"