Nominal central frequencies grid of the DWDM grid [17].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8950",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research",title:"Birds",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"For many humans, birds are the most fascinating group of animals and they are definitely among the best-known and studied organisms. Thanks to global citizen science data, we know that there are some 50 billion individual birds in the world at present, which is about six birds for every human on the planet. Birds have an important role as indicators of the state of the environment, giving them high public value. Human-related global impacts such as climate changes and accelerating urbanization force extant species to continuous adaptations, population modifications, or even outright extinction. This book includes nine chapters covering such topics as bird genetics, the colour of avian plumage, conservation problems, sustainable hunting, habitat disturbance, range expansion and introductions, and long-term bird population changes and challenges. A key chapter explains the genetic rules and reasons why we have continuously more bird species in the world and why we may end up having 7,000 species more than the present 11,000 species.",isbn:"978-1-83968-998-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-997-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-999-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82911",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"birds-challenges-and-opportunities-for-business-conservation-and-research",numberOfPages:168,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"404a05af45e47e43871f4a0b1bedc6fd",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8950.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2746,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144330/images/system/144330.png",biography:"Heimo Mikkola obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Kuopio (now Eastern Finland University), where he also served as an adjunct professor in Applied Zoology. From 1974 to 2007, he worked with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, first in Colombia and then in Africa, where he served as the organization’s resident representative. After retiring from the FAO in Uruguay, Dr. Mikkola has worked as a part-time professor at three Kazakh universities and one Kyrgyz university. His work has taken him to 137 countries, and he has written almost 700 reports and scientific papers and books, mainly on owls and other birds, fish, insects, and food. He has studied bats for many years on almost all continents as they often share night-time activity and biotopes with owls. This is the second book on bats he has edited for IntechOpen.",institutionString:"University of Eastern Finland",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"University of Eastern Finland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Finland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"31",title:"Animal Biology",slug:"animal-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"75890",title:"DNA Analyses Have Revolutionized Studies on the Taxonomy and Evolution in Birds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97013",slug:"dna-analyses-have-revolutionized-studies-on-the-taxonomy-and-evolution-in-birds",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Whereas Linné aimed to classify all species of our planet by a unique binomial Latin name, later generations of taxonomists and systematicists intended to place the taxa in a natural system according to their phylogeny. This also happened in ornithology and still scientists are on the way to find the ultimate “Avian Tree of Life”. Formerly, systematic relationships were studied by comparing morphological characters. Since adaptive character evolution occurred frequently, convergences could lead to misleading conclusions. An alternative to morphological characters are biochemical markers, especially nucleotide sequences of marker genes or of complete genomes. They are less prone to convergent evolution. The use of DNA sequences of marker genes for bird systematics started around 1990. The introduction of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) facilitated the sequence analysis of large parts of bird genomes and to reconstruct the Avian Tree of Life. The genetic analyses allowed the reconstruction of phylogenetic trees and the detection of monophyletic clades, which should be the base for a phylogenetic classification. In consequence, several orders, families and genera of birds had to be rearranged. In addition, a number of species was split into several new species because DNA data could point out hidden lineages in cryptic species or in species complexes.",signatures:"Michael Wink",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75890",authors:[{id:"344056",title:null,name:"Michael",surname:"Wink",slug:"michael-wink",fullName:"Michael Wink"}],corrections:null},{id:"75346",title:"Haloarchaea May Contribute to the Colour of Avian Plumage in Marine Ecosystems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96414",slug:"haloarchaea-may-contribute-to-the-colour-of-avian-plumage-in-marine-ecosystems",totalDownloads:408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Some seabirds or coastal birds such as flamingos or pelicans display elegant pink or reddish colours. These colours are due to pigments that birds cannot synthesize de novo. Thus, this coloration is mainly originated from carotenoids ingested trough carotenoid rich food sources like microalgae (Dunaliella) or small shrimps (Artemia), which are microorganisms inhabiting the salty environments where the mentioned birds live. New advances in this field of knowledge have revealed that extreme microorganisms belonging to the haloarchaea group (Archaea Domain) may contribute significantly to the characteristic pink- red colour of flamingos’ feathers for instance. Alive haloarchaea cells have been found on the surface of the feathers. Besides, the major carotenoid produced by haloarchaea (bacterioruberin) has also been identify within the feathers structure. This work summarizes the main contributions recently reported about this topic as well as general aspects regarding bacterioruberin as a powerful colour carotenoid. Discussions about potential role of these microorganisms in the life of seaside birds are also included.",signatures:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa and Javier Torregrosa-Crespo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75346",authors:[{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa"},{id:"196514",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",surname:"Torregrosa-Crespo",slug:"javier-torregrosa-crespo",fullName:"Javier Torregrosa-Crespo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75909",title:"Viscous Drag Reduction and Contour Feather Geometry in Water and Land Birds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96994",slug:"viscous-drag-reduction-and-contour-feather-geometry-in-water-and-land-birds",totalDownloads:249,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water birds have contour feathers in contact with water that show in their distal one-third adaptations to water repellency, resistance to water penetration and forceful impact with water. These qualities vary according to their intimacy with open water. In this study, the geometry of this part of the feather was examined to detect additional features that would affect viscous drag in water. The length-to-width ratio was measured and used to calculate the viscous drag coefficients for 48 water birds and, for comparison, 12 land birds. The lowest values for the drag coefficient were observed for birds with foraging niches as diving and swimming, followed by plunging, surface feeding, aerial and ground feeding. Land birds with no open water in their habitat had the highest drag coefficients. Three statistical approaches were used to validate the results. Allowing for the phylogenetic relatedness of the 60 species obscured any significant differences that may exist, but a non-parametric analysis that does not assume the conditions of equal sample size and variance turned out to be the most appropriate method for our data set.",signatures:"Roelof D. Coertze and Arie M. Rijke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75909",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75909",authors:[{id:"245166",title:"Prof.",name:"Arie M.",surname:"Rijke",slug:"arie-m.-rijke",fullName:"Arie M. Rijke"},{id:"335986",title:"Dr.",name:"Roelof",surname:"Coertze",slug:"roelof-coertze",fullName:"Roelof Coertze"}],corrections:null},{id:"75527",title:"Seabirds of the Benguela Ecosystem: Utilisation, Long-Term Changes and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96326",slug:"seabirds-of-the-benguela-ecosystem-utilisation-long-term-changes-and-challenges",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Benguela Current is used by c. 82 seabird species, of which seven are endemic to it. Eggs and guano of formerly abundant seabirds were heavily harvested in the 19th and 20th centuries but decreases in seabird populations led to cessation of these industries at islands. Guano is still scraped from platforms. Seabird ecotourism has grown. There were large recent decreases in numbers of African Penguins Spheniscus demersus, Cape Gannets Morus capensis and Cape Phalacrocorax capensis and Bank P. neglectus Cormorants and redistributions of these other species away from the centre of the Benguela ecosystem towards its northern or eastern boundaries. In 2020, seabirds endemic to the Benguela ecosystem and albatrosses and petrels migrating into it had high proportions of globally Near Threatened or Threatened species. The primary threat to four Endangered endemic birds was scarcity of forage resources. A Vulnerable endemic damara tern was susceptible to habitat degradation and disturbance. The principal threat to visiting albatrosses and petrels was by-catch mortality. Identification and effective protection of Important Bird Area breeding and marine foraging and aggregation sites, and a suite of complementary measures, are needed to conserve the seabirds and ensure continuation of their economic and ecosystem benefits into the future.",signatures:"Azwianewi B. Makhado, Rodney Braby, Bruce M. Dyer, Jessica Kemper, Alistair M. McInnes, Desmond Tom and Robert J.M. Crawford",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75527",authors:[{id:"240166",title:"Dr.",name:"Azwianewi",surname:"Makhado",slug:"azwianewi-makhado",fullName:"Azwianewi Makhado"},{id:"337084",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Crawford",slug:"robert-crawford",fullName:"Robert Crawford"},{id:"346594",title:"Dr.",name:"Alistair",surname:"McInnes",slug:"alistair-mcinnes",fullName:"Alistair McInnes"},{id:"346595",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodney",surname:"Braby",slug:"rodney-braby",fullName:"Rodney Braby"},{id:"346598",title:"Mr.",name:"Desmond",surname:"Tom",slug:"desmond-tom",fullName:"Desmond Tom"},{id:"346599",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Kemper",slug:"jessica-kemper",fullName:"Jessica Kemper"},{id:"346600",title:"Mr.",name:"Bruce",surname:"Dyer",slug:"bruce-dyer",fullName:"Bruce Dyer"}],corrections:null},{id:"76354",title:"Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma Miombo Ecosystem, Southern Tanzania",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97332",slug:"avifauna-in-relation-to-habitat-disturbance-in-wildlife-management-areas-of-the-ruvuma-miombo-ecosys",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Understanding of relative distribution of avifauna provides insights for the conservation and management of wildlife in the community managed areas. This study examined relative diversity, abundance, and distribution of avifauna in selected habitat types across five Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma landscape in miombo vegetation, southern Tanzania. Five habitat types were surveyed during the study: farmland, swamps, riverine forest, dense and open woodland. Transect lines, mist-netting, and point count methods were used to document 156 species of birds in the study sites. Descriptive statistics and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare species richness and diversity across habitat types. We found differences in avifaunal species distribution in the study area whereby farmland had the highest abundance of avifauna species and lowest in the riverine forest. These results suggest that variations of avifauna species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed by human activities across habitat types; due to the reason that habitats with less human encroachment had good species diversity and richness. Therefore, to improve avitourism and avoid local extinction of species, we urge for prompt action to mitigate species loss by creating awareness in the adjacent community through conservation education on the importance of protecting such biodiversity resources.",signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi, John K. Bukombe, Hamza K. Kija, Steven D. Liseki, Sood A. Ndimuligo and Pius Y. Kavana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76354",authors:[{id:"343458",title:"Dr.",name:"Ally K.",surname:"Nkwabi",slug:"ally-k.-nkwabi",fullName:"Ally K. Nkwabi"},{id:"343480",title:"Dr.",name:"Pius Y.",surname:"Kavana",slug:"pius-y.-kavana",fullName:"Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"343482",title:"Dr.",name:"John K.",surname:"Bukombe",slug:"john-k.-bukombe",fullName:"John K. Bukombe"},{id:"343486",title:"Dr.",name:"Sood A.",surname:"Ndimuligo",slug:"sood-a.-ndimuligo",fullName:"Sood A. Ndimuligo"},{id:"343488",title:"MSc.",name:"Hamza K.",surname:"Kija",slug:"hamza-k.-kija",fullName:"Hamza K. Kija"},{id:"343492",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven D.",surname:"Liseki",slug:"steven-d.-liseki",fullName:"Steven D. Liseki"}],corrections:null},{id:"76460",title:"The Limit to the Density of Species (A Reflection on Human Intervention in Conservation and Its Effects)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97436",slug:"the-limit-to-the-density-of-species-a-reflection-on-human-intervention-in-conservation-and-its-effec",totalDownloads:284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human actions on the natural environment cannot always be considered as impacts resulting from their behavior to survive. Many of these activities have caused irreversible damage and changes in the landscape, flora, and fauna. By contrast, several actions, carried out “a priori” with the best intention, to help in the conservation of species considered in danger, have caused a dangerous decompensation. Aid for the recovery of some species of birds has led to their overpopulation. The artificial contributions of food, always in the same places, have caused an excessive increase in the number of griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus), which has produced the reduction of other endangered species, such as the black stork (Ciconia nigra) and the Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), which have been displaced from the rocks in which they nested due to the harassment of a greater number of vultures. Besides, vultures are attacking domestic livestock at the most defenseless times, such as during calving. Greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) has become out of control in numbers in Europe. The two classic breeding areas, La Camargue (France) and La Laguna de Fuente de Piedra (Spain) have produced an enormous annual number of individuals that are distributed among the few lagoons of Mediterranean Europe. The wetlands are devastated by the flamingo, which removes the mud and prevents sunlight from reaching the underwater vegetation, turning these lagoons into dead water, having to be abandoned (temporarily) by most aquatic species, including the flamingo. The shortage of food resources of natural origin, for such a disproportionate number, has caused the flamingo to invade the rice fields, accepting its grain as a substitute for the invertebrates that it habitually consumed, and which are now scarce. The same is the case with the white stork (Ciconia ciconia) in southern Europe. The increase in their population has reduced the number of reptiles and amphibians, bringing several of their species to the brink of extinction. Storks have varied their prey spectrum, consuming carrion, and preying on Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) brood. In these cases, and many others, the theory of “the more the better” is not valid. If we want to make the protection of some species compatible with the conservation of others, it seems necessary to redirect some situations …",signatures:"Luis Fernando Basanta Reyes, Manuel Calderón Carrasco and Ángel Rodríguez Martín",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76460",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76460",authors:[{id:"340460",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Luis Fernando",surname:"Basanta Reyes",slug:"luis-fernando-basanta-reyes",fullName:"Luis Fernando Basanta Reyes"},{id:"414051",title:"Mr.",name:"Ángel",surname:"Rodríguez Martín",slug:"angel-rodriguez-martin",fullName:"Ángel Rodríguez Martín"},{id:"414052",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Calderón Carrasco",slug:"manuel-calderon-carrasco",fullName:"Manuel Calderón Carrasco"}],corrections:null},{id:"76850",title:"Rhea americana Distribution: Range Expansion and Introductions of America’s Largest Bird",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97761",slug:"-em-rhea-americana-em-distribution-range-expansion-and-introductions-of-america-s-largest-bird",totalDownloads:245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Species distribution is a good predictor of several important traits, including threat status. Additionally, species expanding out of their original range can become invasive and this trend must be evaluated objectively. The greater rhea (Rhea americana) is a flightless large-sized avian species that thrives on open landscapes of South America. The species has been affected by the conversion of their savanna habitat into cropland and pastures, as well as benefited from forest conversion into fields at neighboring ecoregions. I propose to evaluate those range expansions, contractions and extirpations, as well as to depict the current species distribution. Here I show that greater rheas have expanded their range out of the “dry lands diagonal” into degraded portions of forested ecosystems—more extensively on the Amazon Forest—while persisting in human-altered landscapes of their historical range. This suggests that the species is faring well regarding conservation, which does not justify its current status at IUCN. Additionally, the potential ecological interactions of the species in newly colonized environments must be investigated. The faunal savanization undergoing in the Neotropics accounts on many new ecological interactions, of which greater rheas are a relevant part. Future actions of management may improve the species conservation profile.",signatures:"Everton B.P. de Miranda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76850",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76850",authors:[{id:"346921",title:"Dr.",name:"Everton",surname:"Miranda",slug:"everton-miranda",fullName:"Everton Miranda"}],corrections:null},{id:"75739",title:"Management of the Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) in Finland: Conservation versus Hunting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96863",slug:"management-of-the-barnacle-goose-em-branta-leucopsis-em-in-finland-conservation-versus-hunting",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) has had recent uncontrolled population increase in all of its northern distribution areas and is now one of the three most abundant goose species in the world. Not many birds, other than this have had such a naming mystery and a long time it was not known if the Barnacle Goose was a bird or a fish. So no wonder that also its conservation or possible hunting divides the opinions of people and authorities. This chapter is suggesting well regulated, sustainable, springtime hunting of these geese in such agriculture fields they will cause most serious crop losses. To be effective and meet public social approval, management actions must have a strong scientific basis and include an efficient monitoring programme. Necessary decisions to reach a consensus among stakeholders are discussed.",signatures:"Heimo Mikkola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75739",authors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],corrections:null},{id:"76449",title:"The Conservation of European Goldfinch in North Algeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97236",slug:"the-conservation-of-european-goldfinch-in-north-algeria",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents the conservation status and threat of the European goldfinch Carduelis carduelis in Algeria. Many selective pressures run into this passerine, mainly human pressure due to keeping and hatching the birds in captivity. Illegal trading is actively carried out between countries of North Africa (mainly the pathway Morocco – Algeria – Tunisia). This situation is clearly expounding a threatened status of this songbird. A scientific survey was done in north center of Algeria to assess the captivity rate of goldfinch. Systematic sampling was done in several houses of Bouira district. Goldfinch breeder’s age varies between 20 and 40 years. No income and no fixed job are the main reasons for these breeders. Results exposed serious threat of this species in center of Algeria. Management plan and conservation directions have been proposed for this species.",signatures:"Bara Mouslim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76449",authors:[{id:"344594",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bara",surname:"Mouslim",slug:"bara-mouslim",fullName:"Bara Mouslim"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6478",title:"Bats",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"90a4ab5d70985630b12f49cb23939c02",slug:"bats",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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The exponential growth of Internet data traffic and progress of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector pushes hard the telecommunication infrastructure for upgrading the transmission data rate [1]. Power and cost-efficient fiber optical access networks, like passive optical network (PON) and short-range fiber optical links are one of the key technologies enabling bandwidth hungry services like video on demand (VoD), high definition TV, and cloud computing supported by large scale high-performance computers and data centers. Such optical links typically use direct detection and on-off keying modulation (OOK) with NRZ line code. Today’s challenge for optical access networks and data centers is to increase the serial line rate of a NRZ link meeting the requirements to the physical bandwidth of the photonic and electronic components like optical signal modulators and photodiodes [2].
Solution for telecommunication infrastructure upgrade and alternative solution for increase of the serial line rate of the NRZ link is to use multi-level signaling formats such as pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), abbreviated as PAM-M or M-PAM, where multiple digital bits per symbol are encoded into M different signal amplitude levels. The four-level PAM modulation format is receiving significant attention because of its relative ease of implementation in comparison to higher-order modulation formats like quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), and m-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (m-QAM). It is clear that M-PAM offers a good trade-off between performance and complexity. Usage of PAM-4 format is effective way to double the data rate of NRZ link. Previously PAM-4 modulation formats have been investigated for application with traditional electrical networks [3, 4], but now researchers are focused on investigation of PAM-4 and M-PAM modulation formats for utilization in optical access networks as well as data center interconnections [5]. Also, there are very limited number of studies which are focused on spectrum slicing and stitching back method, which deals with bandwidth bottleneck problem by slicing the broadband signal in lower-bandwidth signal slices. This spectrum slicing and stitching back method or technique allows transmission of wide bandwidth signals from the service provider to the end user over an optical distribution network via low bandwidth equipment [6, 7]. It is ideally suited for cost sensitive fiber optical access networks where variable bandwidth and scalability as well as flexibility are important. It must be noted that this method is investigated for intensity modulated direct detection NRZ-OOK and duobinary systems, but there are no investigations on its usage together with M-PAM systems [8, 9]. It must be noted that multi-level signaling also changes some rules, which were used in NRZ coded transmission systems. For M-PAM systems it is important to implement more complex and precise level threshold detection for signal inputs, also signal-to-noise (SNR) requirements are higher than in case of NRZ. Eye time skew, amplitude compression in lower eye diagram eyes, intersymbol interference for M-PAM systems also is an issue which must be investigated. So, we can say that PAM-4 links are new science—still learning what impairments create errors in receivers [10, 11]. Significant efforts have been put on investigation of PAM-4 format in fiber optical transmission networks, however there are following aspects, which have not been studied or have been studied insufficiently. High-level PAM modulation techniques, like PAM-4, can dramatically improve the spectral efficiency and available bitrate by using the bandwidth of already existing optical, electro-optical or electrical devices. Minimal available channel spacing (which has direct impact on the utilization of resources like optical spectrum), maximal available number of channels, by wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technique, maximal transmission distance (network reach) in dispersion compensated and non-compensated M-PAM modulated WDM-PON optical access systems.
Another way to improve capacity of limited bandwidth is by using duobinary modulation format. Transmission capacity will be increased in comparison with NRZ, utilization of DB will increase the transmission capacity by improving the bandwidth efficiency and reducing channel spacing with this modulation format [12]. Duobinary modulation format is type of proficient pseudo-multilevel modulation format, and therefore is the area of interest due to its increased spectral efficiency. It has been already used to increase the channel capacity by improving the bandwidth utilization in commercial links. The most important feature of duobinary modulation format is its usage for longer transmission distances where it has high tolerance to the influence of chromatic dispersion (CD) [13].
At first, in the paper we investigate the performance and minimal channel interval of 10 Gbit/s per channel NRZ-OOK (which is basically PAM-2) modulated transmission system, then we investigate PAM-4 and raise the transmission speed up to 20 Gbit/s per wavelength and in the end compare it to NRZ and duobinary modulation formats.
At the moment passive optical networks have been standardized to next-generation NG-PON2 accordingly to ITU-T G.989.2 recommendation standards and are widely investigated. Operators are widely deploying time-division multiplexing (TDM) based passive optical networks in urban areas with bitrates up to 10 Gbit/s, but WDM-PON’s still are in stage of research [14, 15].
The ITU-T G.694.1 recommendation provides a frequency grid for (WDM) transmission systems and specifies inter-channel intervals. The same frequency grid or channel spacing is used for spectral effectiveness improvement of PON system in our research. Anchored to 193.1 THz (central channel frequency), it supports a variety of inter-mediate channel spacings ranging from narrowed 12.5 GHz to 100 GHz and wider. Depending on the selected step of the inter-channel interval are defined the following abbreviations and acronyms:
WDM—wavelength division multiplexing.
CWDM—coarse wavelength division multiplexing.
DWDM—dense wavelength division multiplexing.
There are two types of inter-channel interval definitions in (WDM) systems:
Fixed inter-channel interval (fixed grid).
Flexible inter-channel interval (flexible grid).
According to ITU-T G.694.1 rec. the minimum step of a fixed channel interval is 12.5 GHz (please see Table 1). The flexible channel step is half of the 12.5 GHz, that can be used for the inter-channel interval like 6.25 GHz. Reducing the inter-channel interval leads to increase of crosstalk and non-linear effects (NOE) of transmitted optical signal [16, 17, 18].
Nominal central frequencies grid of the DWDM grid [17].
For research of spectral efficiency increasing, the experimental 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated 10 Gbit/s bit rate per channel transmission system model was created for Next-generation WDM-PON systems based on tunable wavelength transmitters, please see in Figure 1. First step of the research is based on various channel spacing impact on the end user transmitted signal with following fixed 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel.
2-Channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel and flexible channel spacing.
As one can see in Figure 1. transmitter (Tx) part of our investigated transmission system model consists of two continuous wave (CW) laser sources—Agilent 81949A, with fixed central frequency 193.1 THz or 1552.524 nm in wavelength, and COBRITE DX-1 laser with tunable central frequency, which can be set the necessary channel spacing. Agilent 81949A continuous wave laser source was connected to the 40G intensity Mach-Zehnder (MZM) modulator, COBRITE DX-1 laser light source was connected to the second MZM intensity modulator. Both laser sources were used with minimal output power +9 dBm for Agilent 81949A and +6 dBm for COBRITE DX-1. To provide the same level of optical power for both optical channels, after the PHOTLINE 40G MZM, an optical attenuator of 3.05 dB insertion loss was additionally attached to the modulator’s optical output. Pulse Pattern Generator (PPG) with Pseudo random bit sequence (PRBS9) was used for generation of NRZ coded electrical signals. The external 10 GHz clock signal generator was used in this experiment for as a clock signal source for PPGs. Two electrical PPG non-inverted RF data signal outputs were connected to each of MZMs electrical signal inputs. The data rate for each of the PPGs was 10 Gbit/s throughout the experiment.
ITU-T G.652 standard single mode fiber (SSMF) with dispersion coefficient of 16 ps/(nm × km), and 0.2 dB/km attenuation coefficient was used in optical distribution network. Depending of SSMF fiber span length (20 or 40 km), an Erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) with additional gain was used to provide sufficient optical power level before the PIN photoreceiver.
At the receiver part (Rx), the incoming optical signal was divided by 50% power splitter with 3.5 dB insertion loss. One output of optical power splitter was connected to the optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). Second output of power splitter was connected to the optical band pass filter (BPF) OTF-350 with a tuned 35 GHz 3-dB bandwidth. After BPF filter, fiber Bragg grating dispersion compensation module (FBG DCM), with 3 dB insertion loss was connected for post-compensation purposes of chromatic dispersion (CD). To avoid the maximum optical input optical power level rating of +3 dBm before the 10G PIN photoreceiver (PD) a monitoring power splitter with a power ratio of 10–90% and power meter was used. First channel was filtered out by using optical BPF. As one can see in Figure 2(a), optical spectrum with central channel frequency 1552.560 nm (193.096 THz in frequency) is slightly shifted relative to ITU-T G.694.1 rec. Grid central frequency of 193.1 THz. By obtained results from the optical spectrum analyzer (OSA), the BPF pass band is Δλ = 0.280 nm equal to 35 GHz, where λ0 = 1552.564 nm and λ1 = 1552.424 nm.
Central channel spectrum of 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s per channel: (a) after BPF and (b) measured amplited frequency response of BPF.
An eye analyzer was used for measurements of received electrical signal quality. The eyes of received signals for both channels were open, therefore leading to error free transmission. As the eye pattern analyzer for quality measurement use special masks to determine if the signal is above or below necessary quality. We continued our research in OptSim simulation environment by creating relevant simulation model and using the previously obtained experimental data.
For more precise expected Bit-error-rate (BER) values of received signal the simulation model was created in OptSim simulation software environment. The model used BER estimator based on statistical signal analysis. As one can see in Figure 3, simulation scheme implemented in OptSim simulation software for BER measurements has the same setup as experimental system. In the OptSim simulation environment, it is necessary to perform the assembly of used electrical-optical components in order to repeat the 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated 10 Gbit/s per channel transmission system to research impact of various channel spacings.
Simulation scheme of 2-channel NRZ modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel with flexible channel interval.
According to ITU-T G.694.1 rec., see Table 2, during the experiment, the inter-channel interval for transmission system was changed from 100 GHz to 25 GHz. We started the experiment at a 20 km long fiber ODN distance with 100 GHz channel spacing. Firstly, the measurements was carried out without the chromatic dispersion (CD) post-compensation, at 20 km fiber link. For transmission over 20 km fiber span we observed negligible chromatic dispersion impact on 10 Gbit/s signal, received signal is mainly insignificant impact of dispersion [19].
Experimentally used channel interval according to ITU-T G.694.1 rec.
The 12.5 GHz channel spacing interval was not obtained in this step of research. The reason for that was too wide filter pass-band, as a result photoreceiver captured both channels simultaneously. They did not appear on the Eye Analyzer because it was not possible to synchronize between the transmitter and receiver. After obtaining the results at fixed inter-channel intervals from 100 to 25 GHz, the smallest inter-channel interval at which transmission is possible was found. The step used to search for the inter-channel interval is 6.25 GHz and half of the found step 6.25/2 = 3.125 GHz. Result of channel spacing impact was obtained from channel with fixed central frequency of 193.1 THz = 1552.524 wavelength corresponding to the laser source used by Agilent 81949A. Our transmission system has only two channels, it is not possible to choose a central channel, both channels have mainly the same effect of crosstalk. The channel interval was changed by changing the central wavelength of the second CW laser source with 6.25 and 3.125 GHz step. Instead of experiment for 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel previously calculated flexible channel interval was used in our research, please see Table 3.
Channel spacing dependence on the channel interval.
Fiber optical transmission system made by the optical components affected by various factors caused by higher attenuation mentioned in specification insertion loss. To create same simulation model in OptSim simulation software environment, it was necessary to adapt model optical elements of the actual loss. In Figure 4. we can see BER estimated from the data obtained in OptSim simulation according to different channel intervals.
BER dependence on the channel interval for a 20 km long 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel.
The BER threshold of 10−9 for our investigated transmission system was used to evaluate maximal crosstalk impact between the channels. According to the obtained results channel interval effect up to 30 GHz can be evaluated, higher than used value of BPF filter. Deterioration of the BER used for channel interval less than 30 GHz in our research, can be explained by adjacent channel overlapping. At 20 km long SSMF fiber optical link minimal channel spacing was achieved ensuring BER < 10−3 threshold at 25 GHz. In Figure 5, we can see experimental and theoretical (simulation data) eye diagrams of received signal for second channel with 100, 50 and 25 GHz channel spacing crosstalk impact, please see Figure 5.
Comparison of experimental and simulative results: eye diagrams of 20 km 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel without CD post-compensation: (a) 100 GHz channel spacing, (b) 50 GHz channel spacing, (c) 25 GHz channel spacing, (d) 100 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, (e) 50 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, and (f) 25 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim.
In second part of our research the length of ODN was increased from 20 to 40 km, by adding 20 km SSMF fiber span. The effect of chromatic dispersion was observed in upgraded transmission system. Fiber Bragg grating dispersion compensation module (FBG DCM) with −640 ps/nm was used for dispersion compensation. The BER value exceeded our defined BER threshold of 1x10−9 at 31.25 GHz channel spacing according to the obtained results of OptSim simulation software. By performing experiment, the 31.25 GHz inter-channel spacing was the last interval at which mask testing with eye diagram analyzer for received eye diagrams was possible [20]. By obtained experimental and simulation results it can be concluded that the model of optical transmission created in the simulation environment corresponds to the experimental fiber optic transmission system. Channel overlaps at 40 km long fiber section, with use of dispersion compensation, seeFigure 6 and without dispersion compensation see Figure 7. Results, with BER below our inter-channel interval, please see Figure 8.
Comparison of experimental and simulative results: eye diagrams of 40 km 2-channel NRZ modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel with CD post-compensation: (a) 50 GHz channel spacing, (b) 31.25 GHz channel spacing, (c) 25 GHz channel spacing, (d) 50 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, (e) 31.25 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, and (f) 25 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim.
Comparison of experimental and simulative results: eye diagrams of 40 km 2-channel NRZ modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel without CD post-compensation: (a) 50 GHz channel spacing, (b) 31.25 GHz channel spacing, (c) 25 GHz channel spacing, (d) 50 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, (e) 31.25 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim, and (f) 25 GHz channel spacing in the environment of OptSim.
BER dependence on channel interval for a 40 km 2-channel NRZ-OOK modulated optical transmission system with 10 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel.
Our defined BER threshold of 1 × 10−9 was exceeded at the 31.25 GHz channel interval where the BER of received signal was 7.4 × 10−11.
In our research we investigated the 4-channel 10 Gbaud/s (20 Gbit/s) per channel PAM-4modulated WDM-PON access system with minimal allowable channel spacing, which has a direct impact on the utilization of resources like optical spectrum. The research was made with and without fiber chromatic dispersion (CD) fiber Bragg grating compensation module (FBG DCM). We evaluate system performance and found the maximal transmission distance for multichannel PAM-4 modulated WDM-PON transmission system operating at 20 Gbit/s per channel. In OptSim simulation software we created transmission system model to evaluate the performance of 4-channel PAM-4 modulated WDM-PON transmission system operating at 10 Gbaud/s or 20 Gbit/s per channel under the condition with BER threshold of 10−3, by use of Reed Solomon (RS 255,223) forward error correction (FEC) code for 10 Gbit/s PONs [21, 22]. The theoretical FEC relationship restores 1.1 × 10−3 pre-FEC BER to a 10−12 post-FEC in the PON standards. As it is shown in Figure 9, the PAM-4 modulated WDM-PON simulation scheme was created in OptSim simulation software environment. Here the Matlab software was used for BER estimation of received PAM-4 signals. WDM-PON simulation model consists of 4 channels, with central frequency 193.1 THz for second channel and chosen 50 or 100 GHz, according to the previously mentioned ITU G.694.1 rec. According to our previously channel interval research of flexible channel spacing like 37.5 and 25 GHz also was realized. However, the quality of received signal was low, with crosstalk impact and error-free transmission was not possible, performance was above our defined BER threshold 1 × 10−3.
Simulation scheme of 4-channel PAM-4 modulated WDM-PON transmission system operating at 10 Gbaud/s per wavelength.
We evaluated the performance of WDM-PON architecture in terms of maximal transmission reach. Optical line terminal (OLT) is located in central office (CO) and consists of four transmitters (OLT_Tx). Each OLT_Tx transmitter consists of two pseudo-random bit sequence (PRBS) generators and NRZ drivers, as a result two electrical signals are generated where one of them has twice larger amplitude than other for each particular electrical signal. An electrical coupler is used to couple both electrical signals in such a way generating electrical PAM-4 signal. Afterwards, additional electrical filters were used for ensuring of optimal system performance. Generated PAM-4 signal was send to external MZM with 3 dB insertion loss and 20 dB extinction ratio. Continuous wavelength (CW) laser with linewidth of 50 MHz and output power of +3 dBm is used as the light source [23].
Optical signals from four transmitters are coupled together by using optical coupler with 1 dB insertion loss. Chromatic dispersion pre-compensation by FBG DCM, with additional 3 dB insertion loss is realized for all channels before launching optical signal in ITU-T G.652 single mode fiber (SMF), used for transmission in optical distribution network (ODN). After transmission in ODN, all channels are separated by arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) demultiplexer which insertion loss is 3.5 dB. Here we applied various channel spacings—50 or 100 GHz (3-dB bandwidth is 20 GHz) for research of the crosstalk impact. Each receiver of optical network terminal (ONT) consists of PIN photoreceiver (sensitivity is −19 dBm for BER of 10−12). An optimal electrical Bessel low-pass filter (LPF) with bandwidth (3-dB bandwidth is 7.5 GHz), was adopted for more successful system performance. An electrical scope was used for evaluation of received signal bit patterns quality, accordingly, eye diagrams.
As it is shown in Figure 10(a) in B2B configuration for first investigated 100 GHz channel spacing, the signal quality is good, eye is open and error-free transmission can be provided. After 59 km transmission which was the maximum transmission distance without use of FBG DCM, the BER of received signal was 7.5 × 10−4, please see Figure 10(b). Dispersion compensation FBG DCM module was implemented to evaluate transmission distance in terms of maximal reach. As it is shown in Figure 10(c) by using this technique of FBG DCM, the maximum achievable transmission distance 74 km was reached, where BER of received signal was 9 × 10−4. Extra 15 km or 25.4% of link length was gained.
Eye diagrams of received signal (a) after B2B transmission, (b) after 59 km transmission without use of CD pre-compensation, (c) after 74 km transmission with use of CD pre-compensation for 4-channel 20 Gbit/s per channel PAM-4100 GHz spaced WDM-PON transmission system.
Therefore, basis on our research data we can conclude that narrower channel spacing for 4-channel PAM-4 10 Gbaud/s WDM-PON system is 50 GHz. As it is shown in Figure 11(a) in B2B configuration for second investigated 50 GHz channel spacing, the signal quality is good, eye is open and error-free transmission can be provided. After 58 km transmission, which was the maximum transmission distance without use of FBG DCM, the BER of received signal was 8 × 10−4, shown in Figure 11(b). In our research we show the eye diagrams of received signal for the second channel, the drop in BER performance can be explained by the impact of crosstalk between channels. Dispersion compensation FBG DCM module was implemented to evaluate transmission distance in terms of maximal reach. As it is shown in Figure 11(c), by using this technique of FBG DCM, the maximum achievable transmission distance was 72 km, with BER of received signal 5.5 × 10−4. Extra 14 km or 24% of link length was gained.
Eye diagrams of received signal (a) after B2B transmission, (b) after 58 km transmission without use of CD pre-compensation (c) after 72 km transmission with use of CD pre-compensation for 4-channel 20 Gbit/s per channel PAM-4 50 GHz spaced WDM-PON transmission system.
It was shown, that maximal transmission distance with BER below FEC limit of 10−3 for 100 GHz spaced 4-channel PAM-4 WDM-PON system can be increased by 15 km or 25.4% by use of implemented FBG DCM. In case of 50 GHz channel spacing, maximum transmission system reach can be increased by 14 km or 24% by use of FBG DCM.
In case of research we improve our previously made 4-channel PAM-4 WDM-PON system simulation model capacity by increasing number of multilevel channels and implement the use of different modulation formats in terms of system performance by maximal achievable reach. Several modulation formats have been proposed in the past and have become standards. In this research are investigated several modulation formats for use in WDM-PON architecture-based system, like NRZ, PAM-4 and duobinary (DB). Alternative solution instead widely used direct detection on-off keying modulation format NRZ-OOK with physical bandwidth limitations is to use more spectrally efficient multi-level formats such as PAM-4 [24, 25]. Another way to improve the bandwidth efficiency and reduce channel spacing is by using duobinary modulation format [12]. The most important feature of this multi-level modulation format duobinary is a viability of usage for longer transmission distances without regeneration with high tolerance to chromatic dispersion CD influence. As we know duobinary is used to increase the channel capacity by improving the bandwidth utilization [13].
The goal of our created 8-channel 20 Gbit/s per channel WDM-PON simulation model evaluate maximum transmission reach using different modulation formats, discussed previously in this paper like NRZ, PAM-4 and perspective duobinary modulation format. As it is shown in Figure 12 the 8-channel WDM-PON simulation scheme with different optical transmitters (Tx) located in CO Optical Line Terminal (OLT_Tx) part for each modulation format realization are shown. According to ITU-T G.694.1 rec. Frequency with grid central frequency of 193.1 THz and channel spacing of 50 and 100 GHz are chosen for research of crosstalk impact on modulation formats under research [26].
Simulation scheme of 8-channel 20 Gbit/s transmission speed per channel PAM-4, DB and NRZ modulated WDM-PON optical transmission system.
In first simulation model PAM-4 transmitter is designed like previously, from two 10 Gbit/s NRZ coded electrical data signals (where one of them has twice larger amplitude), by coupled together with electrical coupler. Coupled PAM-4 electrical signal filtered with electrical Bessel low-pass filter (3-dB bandwidth is 10 GHz) and send to external MZM [21].
Second simulation model duobinary transmitter was realized with 20 Gbit/s bit rate per channel. Data source element with pseudo random bit sequence (PRBS) has only one logical output, where the output signal is divided in two signals. One of those signals is inverted by logical NOT element. Afterwards each data signal sent to NRZ drivers and filtered by Bessel low-pass filters (3-dB bandwidth is 5 GHz). Each NRZ coded electrical signal is passed to inputs of dual-arm MZM, at the end forming the DB transmitter [27].
Third simulation model NRZ transmitter consists of one NRZ driver with electrical signal input of data source with PRBS sequence. Afterwards NRZ coded data signal are directly connected to MZM RF signal input.
Following fixed parameters of optical and electrical elements was used: continuous wavelength (CW) laser output power + 6 dBm, extinction ratio 20 dB and 3 dB insertion loss of MZM, ITU-T G.652 SSMF with dispersion coefficient 17 ps/(nm × km), dispersion slope 0.056 ps/nm2 × km and 0.2 dB/km attenuation coefficient [28]. Bandwidth of electrical LPF filters has been adjusted for optimal performance of each modulation format and have not been changed during research.
Each receiver consists of 40 GHz PIN photodiode with sensitivity equal to −19 dBm at 10 Gbit/s reference bit rate, dark current of 10 nA and responsivity of 0.8 A/W [29]. An electrical LPF filter bandwidth was adopted at receiver side for more successful system performance depending on the used modulation format. During the simulations LPF bandwidth of 15 GHz was chosen for PAM-4 modulated signals, and 10 and 17 GHz for DB and NRZ modulated electrical signals.
The BER threshold of 10−3 with additional FEC was used for our investigated WDM-PON transmission system to compare performance in terms of maximal network reach for PAM-4, DB, NRZ modulated optical signals. During the simulations it was observed that maximal achievable distance has minimal crosstalk impact on BER for all modulation formats, which was negligible, depending on our chosen channel spacing.
As it is shown in Figure 13(a,c and e) in B2B configuration for narrowest investigated 50 GHz channel spacing, the signal quality is good, eye is open and error-free transmission can be provided. After transmission the BER of received DB modulated signal with maximum reached distance of 62 km was 3.7 × 10−4. PAM-4 and NRZ modulated signals shows 50 km and 27 km maximal reached transmission distance, where BER of received signal was 5.8 × 10−4 and 3.1 × 10−4, please see Figure 13(b
Eye diagrams of received (a) PAM4, (c) DB and (e) NRZ signals after B2B transmission, and after maximal reached transmission distance: (b) 50 km with PAM-4, (d) 62 km with DB, (f) 27 km with NRZ modulated signals for 8-channel 20 Gbit/s per channel WDM -PON transmission system.
Nowadays the WDM-PON systems rely on fixed wavelength transmitters and are expected to become more cost-efficient at high per user data rates. It was examined that different types of optical modulation formats are available for passive WDM fiber optical access networks. Implementation and research of multilevel modulation formats like PAM-4 and duobinary can dramatically improve the spectral efficiency and available bitrate by using the bandwidth of already existing optical, electro-optical or electrical devices. Theoretical simulations and experimental research methods showed possibility to double the available transmission speed in optical access networks by using the same bandwidth, e.g., instead of 10 Gbit/s transmit 20 Gbit/s signal by using 10 GHz electrical and electro-optical equipment, if PAM-4 modulation method is used. In our research we investigated existing optical modulation formats—widely used NRZ, DB and PAM-4 for optical access networks, by experimentally demonstrating and modeling system transmission in RSOFT OptSim simulation environment and Matlab software. As it shown by simulation results, narrowest channel spacing provides higher spectral efficiency. However, better signal quality and system performance are achieved with larger channel spacing interval, e.g., 100 GHz, mainly due to crosstalk between channels. From experimental data we can clearly see that the chromatic dispersion limits transmission capacity when bit rates increase. Implementation of the efficient compensation solution may sufficiently extend the reach of optical link and improve the transmission quality in our investigated WDM-PON systems.
This work has been supported by the European Regional Development Fund within the Activity 1.1.1.2 “Post-doctoral Research Aid” of the Specific Aid Objective 1.1.1 “To increase the research and innovative capacity of scientific institutions of Latvia and the ability to attract external financing, investing in human resources and infrastructure” of the Operational Programme “Growth and Employment” (No. 1.1.1.2/VIAA/1/16/044).
Pollination is a multi-million-year-old ecosystem process from which both flowering plants and pollinators get benefitted. Pollinating animals come to flowers for a variety of reasons, including food and shelter. Pollen rubs or falls onto pollinator’s bodies when they visit flowers. As the pollinator passes from one flower to the next, it transfers the pollen to another flower. This transfer is important in the life cycle of all flowering plants because it is required to begin seed and fruit production. Pollinators are important for healthy, productive agricultural ecosystems and nature.
Indeed, the interactions between plants and their pollinators are among the most beautiful examples of coevolution on the planet. While some pollinators are generalists, visiting a wide variety of flowers, many pollinators have acquired preferences for certain flower kinds, and vice versa. Most pollinators have their favourite colour of flower: Bees prefer blue flowers, butterflies prefer pink and red flowers, flies choose yellow and white flowers, beetles and bats prefer white flowers, while hummingbirds prefer red flowers. In addition, the phenology, form, and food reward offered by the flower can all impact which pollinators visit [1]. Bees, for example, can see ultraviolet light and have a better sense of bilateral symmetry. As a result, flowers that want to attract bees will likely use these visual signals to lure the bee to the flower’s centre [2].
Though some plant species depend on wind or water currents to carry pollens from one flower to another, but majority of plant species (approx. 90%) prefer animal assistance in this task. Around 200,000 different species of animals do this task of pollen transfer. Out of these, 1,000 are of vertebrates (birds, bats and tiny mammals), with the remainder being invertebrates, such as moths, bees, flies, beetles and butterflies [3].
Plant-pollinator interactions may be one of the most ecologically significant types of animal–plant interactions: without pollinators, many plants would be unable to set seed or reproduce, and without plants to provide pollen, nectar, and other rewards, countless animal populations would decline, with knock-on effects for other species [4].
Plants and their pollinators have had a significant impact on each other’s growth, frequently leading to diversification and even an exclusive partnership. The Madagascar Star Orchid (
Mutualisms between plants and pollinators extend back to the Cretaceous period, when insects began to feed on flowers and flowers achieved higher reproductive success through the transfer of pollen by insects. At least 67 percent of blooming plants rely on insects for pollination today [5], with the rest relying on birds and mammals. Pollinators are just as important as light and water for these plants to survive [6].
Pollinators comprise a diverse group of animals that include species of butterflies, flies, moths, wasps, beetles, ants, birds, weevils, thrips, midges, bats, monkeys, marsupials, rodents, and reptiles, but are dominated by insects, particularly bees. Bees and flies visit more than 90% of the world’s major plant types, while the other species visit fewer than 6% of the crop varieties (Table 1). The western and eastern species of honey bees i.e.,
Many species of flower visitors have been reported to visit flowering crops in the literature. For instance, a mega-study that included 90 percent of all agricultural pollination studies from throughout the world discovered that 785 different bee species visit crop blooms [8]. Bees are the most prolific and diverse pollinators in most parts of the world, with over 20,000 species recorded [9, 10]. With over 1,20,000 species, flies are an important group in agriculture, although only a few families are effective pollinators [11]. In colder climates, such as high altitude/latitude environments, flies outweigh bees in both diversity and quantity as pollinators [12]. In addition to bees and flies, butterflies, beetles, moths, wasps, ants, thrips and vertebrates also pollinate plants, including some crops. Pollinating butterflies and moths are found all around the planet, but in the tropics they are more numerous and diversified [13]. The enormous variety of insect pollinators was discussed by Kevan and Baker [14]. Some birds and bats, in addition to insects, are essential pollinators [15, 16]. Bird pollinators are mostly found in warm (tropical/subtropical) climates, whereas bats pollinate tropical forests and some desert cactus. Pollinators that are less well-known have also been reported for a variety of plant species. These include, among others, cockroaches [17], mice [18], squirrels [19], lizards [20, 21, 22] and snails [23]. The less well known pollinators are not known to have major roles in supporting agricultural production.
Bees play a significant role in pollination in most terrestrial environments around the world. Honeybees and thousands of species of native bees pollinate garden crops, meadows and woodland plants in the United States. The majority of bees visit flowers in search of pollen or nectar to nourish themselves and their young ones. Crop pollination and honey production are significantly reliant on honeybees. Solitary bees are among the most common native pollinators and named because most of them live solitary lives and do not assemble to live in colonies. Blueberries, sunflowers, apples, watermelon, alfalfa and strawberries are among the commercial crops pollinated by solitary bees. Solitary bees build their nests in a variety of unusual locations, such as sticks, mud mounds, and termite holes. A few species build mud nests and saps, plant resins on the edge of rocks and trees to make domed nests. Many bees excavate their nests into the soft inner pith of stems and twigs, or exploit abandoned beetle burrows. Some solitary bees, on the other hand, create tunnels in bare or partially vegetated, well-drained soil to make their nests. These bees can be generalist or specialist feeders, depending on the species. Generalist bees visit a wide variety of floral types collect nectar and pollens. Being more hardy species, these are able to thrive in degraded settings dominated by weedy or invasive plants. While specialists are more vulnerable to the detrimental effects of landscape or habitat changes since they depend on a single plant species for nectar and pollen.
Bumblebees are social bees, which means these bees reside in colonies, share tasks, and have many generations that overlap in the spring, summer, and fall. The bumblebees require a suitable sized cavity in to build their nest. These bees usually build their nest underground in abandoned rat burrows and sometimes in hollow trees or walls or under a clump of grass above ground. Bumblebees usually feed on a wide variety of plants.
Ants are gregarious insects that enjoy nectar in large quantities. These active insects are frequently seen visiting flowers in search of energy-dense nectar. Ants do not have any wings, so they have to crawl into each bloom to get their meal. They are more likely to collect nectar from flowers that are not efficiently cross-pollinated. Ants are drawn to low-growing, inconspicuous blooms close to the stem. Small’s stonecrop (
Butterflies, like all pollinators, are inextricably related to their surroundings, and abrupt changes in the ecosystem can have fatal consequences for localised populations or species. The butterfly’s habitat requirements differ from stage to stage, and each has its own set of requirements that must be taken into account in order to create acceptable habitat. The life cycle of a butterfly is divided into four stages: egg, caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Butterfly deposit its eggs on leaves of trees and shrubs, flowers and grasses.
Being oligolectic, most butterfly species remain confined to one or a few closely related species of plants as these plant species effectively act as host plants for their caterpillars. The females usually lay their eggs on or near the host plant for the survival of their caterpillars. The caterpillars of monarch butterflies, for example, only consume milkweed, and adult females of monarch butterflies lay eggs on or near milkweed plants. Newly hatched caterpillars feed on the leaves, stalks, flowers and fruits of their host plants, which also act as a protective barrier against predators. Caterpillars begin to transform into adult forms after several weeks of eating and growing. This is the pupal stage of a butterfly’s life, which is a non-feeding, sedentary stage. Pupae do not require nourishment, but they do require a safe place to convert into their adult forms, such as sticks, tall grass or a pile of leaves.
Adult butterflies feed almost entirely on nectar. Butterflies prefer flowers that are brightly coloured, aromatic, and have flat, broad surfaces on which to land. Adult butterflies like the nectar of daisies such as zinnias, asters, marigolds, goldenrods, dahlias and asters, dogbane, butterfly weed, ironweed, phlox and milkweed. Rotting fruit, tree sap, mud puddles, animal excrement and urine are also sources of nutrients, minerals and salt for adult males of some species. Adult butterflies can feed, bask, and rest on the leaves and stems of the host plants, which provide perching locations. Wind, rain and predators can all be protected by vegetation and modest woodpiles.
The moths are nocturnal in nature and some species are pollinators of night-blooming flowering plants, especially in the southern United States and Mexico. The female yucca moth, for example, has mouthparts that allow her to capture pollen and lay her eggs in the stigma of the yucca flower. The life and propagation of yucca plants are entirely dependent on the yucca moth. Each flower’s pistil (female component) terminates in a three-lobed stigma. Pollen masses must be driven down into this centre stigmatic opening in order for pollination to occur. Using her particularly modified mouthparts, the female yucca moth collects pollen from flower anthers. She gathers the sticky pollen and rolls it into a ball. She then “stuffs” or “combs” the pollen ball into the stigmas of the flowers she visits. The yucca flower will not develop into a fruit or pod with seeds unless this procedure occurs.
When a female moth visits a flower, she walks up to the base of the flower and inserts her ovipositor into one or more of the six chambers to lay an egg. The egg is protected in the chamber while it develops. The yucca will have begun to grow a pod with little seeds by the time the egg hatches into a tiny caterpillar. In this association, both the yucca plant and the yucca moth benefit.
Flies and beetles are two important pollinator groups. Certain species of flies show resemblance with bees by mimicking bee coloration and patterns. Both bees and flies possess transparent membranous wings and but flies can be distinguished on the basis of having only one pair of wings. Some pollinating beetles are small in size and difficult to spot as these beetles resemble with the black specks present on the petals of flowers, while others are large and more colourful. There are hundreds of thousands of species of pollinating flies and beetles, many of which have yet to be documented. The habitat requirements of different species vary. For each of their life phases, such as egg, larva, pupa, and adult, flies and beetles require food, water, and cover in adequate quantity and quality. Pollination is greatly aided by syrphid flies.
Wasps, like bees, have extremely high energy requirements that must be satisfied in order for them to survive. Pollen and nectar from a variety of flowers are vital for wasps. True wasps have stingers, which they utilise to catch insects or spiders for their larvae to feed. Small fig wasps are common throughout the tropics. Many tropical ecosystems rely on figs as a keystone species. Fig wasps pollinate about 1,000 different varieties of figs.
Figs are unique because of how the flowers are contained within the immature fruit. To mate, lay eggs, and pollinate the small flowers, fig wasps enter through a tiny pore. Both are severe examples of obligatory symbiosis, in which the plant and the insect are entirely dependent on one another to survive.
These small insects perform one of the most important ecosystem services on the planet, ensuring that both our culinary experiences and the world’s environment flourish. Nearly 75% of the plant species cultivated for food, fibre, spices, beverages, condiments and pharmaceuticals are pollinated by animals (Table 2). The status of pollinator populations has huge economic impacts on agriculture. While some crops such as corn and wheat, are wind pollinated and some others like potatoes reproduce vegetatively, a whopping 35% of agricultural yield relies on animal pollinators [25]. Roubik published a comprehensive list of 1330 tropical crop species, including a list of viable breeding systems and pollinating taxa [24].
Sr. No. | Pollinator group | Species name |
---|---|---|
1. | Bumble bees | |
2. | Beetles | |
3. | Honey bees | |
4. | Hover flies | |
5. | Stingless bees | |
6. | Thrips | |
7. | Wasps |
Species list of known pollinators for global crop.
1. | Fruits, berries and nuts | Almonds, Apple, Apricot, Avocado, Blackberry, Blueberry, Cacao, Cashew, Cherry, Chestnut, Citrus, Coffee, Coconut, Cranberry, Date, Fig, Gooseberry, Grapes, Guava, Huckleberry, Kiwi, Litchi, Mango, Olive, Papaya, Peach, Pear, Plum, Pomegranate, Raspberry, Strawberry, Vanilla, Watermelon |
2. | Herbs and spices | Black Pepper, Cardamom, Chive, Clove, Coriander, Fennel, Lavender, Mustard, Nutmeg, Parsley, Pimento, Tea, White Pepper |
3. | Legumes | Beans, Cowpea, Lima Beans, Lupines, Mung Bean/Green or Golden Gram, Soybean |
4. | Seeds and grains | Alfalfa, Buckwheat, Canola, Flax, Oil Palm, Safflower, Sesame, Sunflower |
5. | Vegetables | Asparagus, Beet, Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Cantaloupes, Carrot, Cauliflower, Celeriac, Celery, Cucumber, Eggplant, Endive, Green Pepper, Leek, Lettuce, Okra, Onion, Parsnip, Pumpkin, Radish, Rutabaga, Squash, Tomato, Turnip, White Gourd |
6. | Others | Cotton, Kenaf |
Common agricultural crops benefited by insect pollination [24].
Williams examined the pollinator requirements for 264 crop species in Europe and found that 84 percent of them rely on animal pollination to some extent [26]. To put this in context, pollinators contribute over about $200 billion to the global economy [27].
The benefits of pollinators can easily be expanded to global biomes exceeding our gardens, kitchens, and dinner tables. With so many of the world’s plants depending on pollinators for reproduction, these flower-loving friends are inadvertently supporting soil stabilisation, carbon sequestration and animal habitats. Sustaining healthy pollinator populations leads to supporting healthy ecosystems. The native pollinators not only provide a significant portion of the food and add to the economy, but they also play an important part in the natural ecosystem. The native pollinators help to keep the plant communities healthy and able to reproduce. They also support plants to provide cover and food for wildlife, to prevent erosion and keep waterways clean. The fruits and seeds produced by pollinated plants form an important part of the diet of birds and mammals. Many insects, including butterflies, use flowering plants as egg laying and nesting places.
The significance to a plant or the loss of its pollinators depends on whether the pollination relationship is facultative or obligate [28]. Some plants grow as a result of vegetative reproduction and are thus unaffected by the loss of pollinators. Others have vast seed banks or live a long time, so they may not be in immediate risk of extinction if their pollinator goes extinct. Most plants have several pollinators, and most pollinators pollinate multiple plant species, rather than a rigid one-pollinator-one-plant relationship. The composition of communities varies with environment, and what appears to be a specific relationship between a plant and a pollinator species may shift over time. Plants that are dioecious and self-incompatible, those with a solitary pollinator, and those that proliferate only by seeds are the most vulnerable to pollinator loss.
Many pollinator habitats have been destroyed or disrupted as a result of human activities. Invasive plant species have fragmented and damaged many remaining habitat regions and such habitats become less suitable for pollinators and other wildlife. These habitat alterations may result decline in food sources, nesting and mating sites of native pollinators. Many pesticides have negative effects on pollinators and their habitats due to overuse and poor application. Herbicides diminish forage plant diversity by eliminating wildflowers, and some pesticides harm pollinators directly, particularly pollinating insects. Honeybees, for example, might outcompete indigenous pollinators for local nectar resources, putting them at greater risk of extinction. Pollinator populations have declined significantly as a result of habitat degradation and fragmentation. At least 185 pollinator species are designated as threatened or extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and two bat species and 13 bird species are recognised as endangered in the United States.
A number of threats to pollinators have been identified. These include habitat alteration, habitat fragmentation, introduction of alien pollinators and pesticide poisoning [28].
Many bees not only require large numbers of flowers to provide nectar and pollen, but also need a variety of flowering plants for their sustainability throughout the growing season. Oligolectic insects, such as some bees and butterfly larvae depend on specific plants for survival and persistence of their populations.
In addition to food requirements, pollinating organisms often have specific nesting requirements. Some bee species nest in cavities in the ground such as old rodent burrows, spaces under rocks, or holes excavated in sand or soft dirt. Many other types of bees nest in hollow twigs. As land is developed for human activity, the availability of twigs, rodent burrows and suitable nesting substrates typically decrease.
In the present scenario, large-scale monoculture of crops and intensive cropping practices reduce the amount of land available to support wild vegetation. With the increasing mechanisation of agriculture, the decrease in number and area of hedgerows and uncultivated patches reduced the number of native plants available as pollen and nectar sources [29, 30].
Gess and Gess determined that grazing livestock alters habitat sufficiently to affect pollinators [31]. They documented changes in availability of nesting sites, water resources, and vegetation that have direct negative effects on species diversity and population size of bees and wasps. Trampling of vegetation by livestock can directly destroy the nests of ground-nesting species and can compact the soil, constraining nest formation. In addition, the people who tend livestock in these areas of South Africa collect wood for fuel, thus reducing the availability of hollow twigs that provide nesting sites for some bee pollinators. Grazing also affects bees by decreasing water availability. Both ground-nesting and cavity-nesting bees must collect water for use in nest construction. Most bees cannot obtain water from livestock water tanks with steep sides, or even ponds without sloping edges, but need to stand at the edge of shallow water.
Tampering with the natural water supply to provision cattle or produce crops often modifies water availability for bees. Dramatic reductions in bee number and species diversity have been documented in areas of the Guana caste Province of Costa Rica that were deforested to support cattle [32, 33]. Vinson
Although habitat fragmentation is a problem, preserving large tracts of a particular vegetation type may not be enough to maintain pollinator populations. Janzen and colleagues censured euglossine bee populations in parks and reserves in Costa Rica and determined that even within the same park, different habitats vary dramatically in bee diversity [36]. Many of the bee species travel long distances to pollinate plants that do not occur within the habitats in which they were collected. This finding indicates that preservation of diverse patches within an area may be essential to maintain adequate pollinator populations.
Several studies have indicated that introduced honeybees decrease the foraging success of native pollinators by competing with them for resources [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Such example is provided by honeybees in Australia. Honeybees were introduced in Australia approximately 150 years ago, and so far they were considered beneficial to the native flora. However, Paron concluded in a recent study that honeybees may actually be harmful to the native flora as they may displace native pollinators, they may be ineffective at pollinating native flowers and they may interact in complex ways with native pollinators to reduce the amount and efficiency of pollen transfer [38].
Foraging on pesticide-treated plants is a major source of bee mortality, yet honeybees are often expected to pollinate crops that have been treated with pesticides. The susceptibility of bees to chemical poisoning is usually related to their surface area-volume ratio. Bumblebees are often more tolerant of pesticides than honeybees because of their smaller surface area-volume ratio and honeybees are in turn more tolerant than most small native bees. Chemical poisoning results in abnormal communication dances and mistakes in indicating distance and direction to food sources, in addition to direct mortality.
One source of pesticides that affects pollinators is the broad-spectrum insecticides used to control grasshoppers on rangelands in the South-Western United States. The rangelands are sprayed with these insecticides to save the grasses for cattle forage. The sprays kill many other insects in addition to grasshoppers, including local pollinators. The grasshopper-spraying campaigns overlap the flowering period of a number of endemic rangeland plants that grow among the grasses and many of these plants are listed as endangered or threatened [44]. Additionally, these campaigns also imbricate the period of emergence and active foraging of majority of the native bee species [45].
Another example of how pesticide application can affect plant reproductive success through its action on pollinators comes from the studies conducted in forests of New Brunswick, Canada [46]. These forest areas were sprayed with Matacil (aminocarb insecticide) to control spruce bud worm,
An area must have sufficient food, shelter, water, and nesting grounds to lure local pollinators. To ensure that habitat demands are met, habitat management actions should be implemented. For instance, landowners can acquire, build, or plant extra nesting sites for bees and butterflies. Depending on the type of native pollinator targeted, various habitat management strategies are used.
Plant-appropriate vegetation: Planting gardens or meadows with a variety of native wildflowers, trees, grasses and shrubs is the easiest approach to attract local pollinators. Wildflowers and indigenous grasses will offer food such as nectar, pollen and larval host plants. For pollinators, trees and dense shrubs provide crucial shelter, nesting and overwintering places. Considering pollinator species have different preferences, planted areas should have diverse amounts of vegetation and areas of light, full shade and partial shade. Planting should take place in wind-protected areas.
Native plants should be chosen since these have evolved with local pollinators and are adapted to local soils and temperature. Native plants should make up at least 75% of a habitat’s surface area. The cultivation of invasive species should not be avoided because such plants disrupt the ecosystem’s natural structure and composition resulting in degrading pollinator and other wildlife habitat. The area of mowed lawn should be restricted in favour of native wildflowers, shrubs, and grasses. The existing lawns should be mowed less frequently to allow plants to offer pollinator habitat. Annuals should be avoided in favour of perennials. Perennials are often higher in nectar content and provide a more reliable food source than annuals because they bloom year after year. Plants that reproduce in “doubles,” such as marigolds and roses, should be avoided because such plants are designed for ornamentation rather than pollen and nectar availability. The species of wildflowers should be grown in a clump to attract more pollinators and not grown individually. Throughout the growing season, nectar and pollen flowers should be available. The variation in flower shape and colour will deliver nectar and pollen to a variety of pollinators. Bell, tube, or trumpet-shaped flowers, as well as those with clusters of tubular florets, are favourites of birds and butterflies, especially when surrounded with a flat surface for perching. They favour flowers that are brilliantly coloured such as oranges, yellows and reds. Yellow, blue, and purple flowers are most appealing to bees. The flowers that bloom at night attract moths and bats.
Use pesticides carefully: Pesticides, the chemical toxins, do not distinguish between beneficial and harmful insects. As an insecticide is used to kill a crop-eating insect, it may also harm important natural pollinators. Pesticide treatment has the potential to harm or kill all pollinator species, as well as to effect other wildlife. Pollinators can be poisoned by such chemicals through contaminated food or directly from the contaminated surfaces of florets, leaves, soil, or other things when they come in contact with them. To sustain the whole spectrum of native pollinators, usage of such chemicals should be restricted or kept to a bare minimum. To address pest infestations, landowners should use non-chemical or organic methods.
Provide water: The pollinator species require water to survive. Bees and butterflies should be attracted to a source of pesticide-free water mud and other beneficial insects drawn to a birdbath, fountain, tiny pond, or mud puddle. For butterflies and bees, a moist salt lick can be made. A damp patch on the earth can be created by using a dripping hose, drip irrigation line, or birdbath and additionally, a small amount of sea salt or wood ashes can be mixed to meet the mineral needs of butterflies and bees.
Insects, being diverse and dominant, are the key component of a healthy ecosystem. Humans determine whether an insect is beneficial, benign or pestiferous. Majority of them are beneficial to humans either directly or indirectly as food, pollinators, pollution indicators, scavengers, for production of useful products etc. The insects represent their dominance as pollinator. Bees and flies visit more than 90% of the world’s major plant types, while the other species visit fewer than 6% of the crop varieties. The effectiveness of pollinators varies according to factors such as their abundance; their ability to reach individual plants of the same species and to collect, transfer and deposit the pollen to the appropriate plant organ. Insect pollinators are in decline which is tentative, considering the lack of comprehensive data [48], but it is still a matter of concern. Losses in diversity and abundance are particularly strong under intensive agricultural management [49, 50]. Despite their significance, pollinators are declining and often overlooked in terms of their contributions to healthy ecosystems. No pollinators would mean no seeds or fruits and therefore the collapse of agriculture. No plant reproduction in the wild means that many plants will become locally extinct. Human activities have destroyed and fragmented native pollinator habitats. This diversity needs protection by integrating conservation measures with sustainable agricultural practices, which may raise crop yields and protect both wild and managed species of bees and other pollinators.
A range of conservation measures in intensively-farmed regions can help to maintain diversity, by preserving the resources that pollinators need. Some of the measures are at farm-level such as planting flower strips among crops, reintroduction of hedges and planting trees while as others are implemented at landscape-level such as the conservation of natural and semi-natural habitats in agricultural landscapes. There is no “one size fits all” approach to conserve all species, due to their varying preferences for different food sources and nesting sites. Reversing the decline in pollinators is the key to feed mouths in future and must be seriously given a thought and action plan.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The toxic and allergic reactions of synthetic dyes are compelling the people to think about natural dyes. Natural dyes are renewable source of colouring materials. Besides textiles it has application in colouration of foods, medicine and in handicraft items. Though natural dyes are ecofriendly, protective to skin and pleasing colour to eyes, they are having very poor bonding with textile fibre materials, which necessitate mordanting with metallic mordants, some of which are not eco friendly, for fixation of natural dyes on textile fibres. So the supremacy of natural dyes is somewhat subdued. This necessitates newer research on application of natural dyes on different natural fibres for completely eco friendly textiles. The fundamentals of natural dyes chemistry and some of the important research work are therefore discussed in this review article.",book:{id:"9203",slug:"chemistry-and-technology-of-natural-and-synthetic-dyes-and-pigments",title:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments",fullTitle:"Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments"},signatures:"Virendra Kumar Gupta",authors:[{id:"305259",title:"Dr.",name:"Virendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Gupta",slug:"virendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Virendra Kumar Gupta"}]},{id:"49647",title:"Fiber Selection for the Production of Nonwovens",slug:"fiber-selection-for-the-production-of-nonwovens",totalDownloads:10512,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The most significant feature of nonwoven fabric is made directly from fibers in a continuous production line. While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). Raw materials have not only delivered significant product improvements but also benefited people using these products by providing hygiene and comfort.",book:{id:"5062",slug:"non-woven-fabrics",title:"Non-woven Fabrics",fullTitle:"Non-woven Fabrics"},signatures:"Nazan Avcioglu Kalebek and Osman Babaarslan",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}]},{id:"41409",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7038,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"296",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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