Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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He is JSAP Fellow, IEEJ Fellow, and IEICE Fellow.",institutionString:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals"}],chapters:[{id:"63477",title:"Evaluation Methods of Mechanical Properties of Micro-Sized Specimens",slug:"evaluation-methods-of-mechanical-properties-of-micro-sized-specimens",totalDownloads:586,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64415",title:"Morphology Controlled Synthesis of the Nanostructured Gold by Electrodeposition Techniques",slug:"morphology-controlled-synthesis-of-the-nanostructured-gold-by-electrodeposition-techniques",totalDownloads:559,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"64406",title:"Cu Wiring Fabrication by Supercritical Fluid Deposition for MEMS Devices",slug:"cu-wiring-fabrication-by-supercritical-fluid-deposition-for-mems-devices",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"63479",title:"Pulse-Current Electrodeposition of Gold",slug:"pulse-current-electrodeposition-of-gold",totalDownloads:532,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64201",title:"Electrodeposition of Gold Alloys and the Mechanical Properties",slug:"electrodeposition-of-gold-alloys-and-the-mechanical-properties",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64607",title:"Hard Pure-Gold and Gold-CNT Composite Plating Using Electrodeposition Technique with Environmentally Friendly Sulfite Bath",slug:"hard-pure-gold-and-gold-cnt-composite-plating-using-electrodeposition-technique-with-environmentally",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64769",title:"Electrodeposition of High-Functional Metal Oxide on Noble Metal for MEMS Devices",slug:"electrodeposition-of-high-functional-metal-oxide-on-noble-metal-for-mems-devices",totalDownloads:482,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64336",title:"Multi-Physics Simulation Platform and Multi-Layer Metal Technology for CMOS-MEMS Accelerometer with Gold Proof Mass",slug:"multi-physics-simulation-platform-and-multi-layer-metal-technology-for-cmos-mems-accelerometer-with-",totalDownloads:680,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Nowadays, it is evident that graphene is a very promising material for many optics, photonics and plasmonics applications [1–3]. Graphene layers (single layer as well as two‐ and multi‐layer waveguides) may support highly localized electromagnetic waves, i.e. surface plasmon‐polaritons (SPPs), both TE and TM polarized [4–9]. Tight confinement and large propagation length of plasmons make it possible to observe strong light‐matter interactions in graphene‐based structures [10]. Practically, only graphene ribbons of finite weight may be used. Unfortunately, the edges of such ribbons lead to undesirable increase in losses [11]. The possible way to solve this problem is the use of cylindrical 2D surfaces [12]. Graphene‐based cylindrical waveguides may operate in single‐ and multi‐mode regimes in the frequency range from THz to mid‐IR [13–15]. They may support TE‐polarized plasmons [16], similar to the single graphene layer [4].
For realizing any plasmonic devices, one should have the instrument for manipulating by plasmon‐polaritons. This goal may be achieved, for example, by the combination of plasmonic and optically active materials [17–22]. Among other optically active materials, the use of magnetic ones leads to cross‐coupling between magnetic properties of materials and optical fields: different mechanisms may lead to optically induced magnetic fields [23–26] and excitation of localized plasmons may lead to a major increase in magneto‐optical effects [27–31].
It is well known that magnetic field (or magnetization) in cylindrical optical fibres may lead to the rotation of the energy distribution (i.e. speckle‐pattern) into cross‐section of the fibre [32–35]. The nature of this effect is magnetic field‐induced breaking of degeneracy of the modes with opposite signs of azimuthal mode index (i.e. rotating in opposite azimuthal directions). Recently, we have shown that in graphene‐coated optical fibre one may control such rotation by both magnetic field and chemical potential of the graphene [36], but for observable rotation it is necessary that the fibre length should be of a few centimetres. Recently, we have shown that in case of magneto‐active nanowire covered by graphene layer one may achieve the rotation of some plasmonic modes by up to ∼100° on the scale of about 500 nm at mid‐infrared frequencies [37]. Tuning carrier concentration in graphene by chemical doping or gate voltage allows controlling of SPP properties and notably the rotation angle of high‐order azimuthal modes.
In this chapter, we summarize our previous results and discuss some magnetic‐free ways to obtain similar effects. Our results may open the door for the application of straintronic control in plasmonics and the design of one‐way propagation plasmonic devices.
The chapter consists of introduction, three sections and conclusions. In Section 2, we review basic properties of SPPs propagating in cylindrical graphene‐based plasmonic waveguides. We discuss conditions of propagation of both TM and TE fundamental modes and TM‐like high‐order SPPs. This section also covers some features of effective magnetic field induced via inverse Faraday effect. In Section 3, we show the possibility of rotation of SPPs, which are supported by graphene‐coated gyrotropic nanowire. Section 4 discusses the similar effects of the spiral graphene‐based plasmonic waveguide.
2. Surface plasmon‐polaritons in graphene‐covered nanowires
Cylindrical graphene‐based plasmonic waveguides of different configurations have been well investigated in the literature [13–16]. It has been shown that such a waveguide may support high‐order azimuthal plasmonic modes and may work in the single‐mode regime.
Let us consider a nanowire with the dielectric permittivity εwire covered by a graphene layer. This structure is embedded in the medium with permittivity εout. The radius of nanowire is R. We will use cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z). The nanowire axis is supposed to be the z‐axis. We describe graphene by a 2D conductivity σg [38], which depends on the temperature T, the angular frequency ω, the scattering rate Γ and the chemical potential (or the Fermi energy) μch ≈ ħvF(πn)1/2, where vF ≈ 106 m/s is the Fermi velocity. For example, n ≈ 8 × 1013 cm−2 corresponds μch ≈ 1 eV. We use a standard model of graphene surface conductivity calculated within the local random phase approximation with the dominant Drude term at SPP energies below the Fermi level [39, 40].
We will consider monochromatic plasmons propagating along the nanowire axis (z‐axis) by putting electric and magnetic fields E, H ∞ exp[i(βz − ωt)] into Maxwell\'s equations (β = β′ + iβ″ is a complex propagation constant, ω is a circular frequency). Components of electric and magnetic fields in the cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z) inside the nanowire (i.e. at 0 < r < R) are the following:
In Eq. (1), a multiplier exp[i(mϕ + βz − ωt)] has been omitted. Equations describing fields outside the nanowire (at r > R) Eout, Hout may be derived from Eq. (1) by substitutions:
g→p,Im(gr)→Km(pr),Am→Cm,Bm→Dm,εin→εout.E2
In all formulae, Im(x) and Km(x) are modified Bessel\'s functions of the first and second types, respectively; operation ‘means differentiation with respect to the argument; g2 = β2 – ω2εinμ0, p2 = β2 – ω2εoutμ0, where μ0 is the magnetic constant. Parameters p and g are related to the field confinement of mode. Constants Am, Bm, Cm and Dm are determined by boundary conditions and mode normalization procedure. The boundary conditions at r = R are the following: Ez,min=Ez,mout, Eφ,min=Eφ,mout, Hz,mout−Hz,min=−σgEφ,min and Hφ,mout−Hφ,min=σgEz,min.
The characteristic (or dispersion) equation for the mth plasmonic mode may be obtained from boundary conditions with fields expressions (1) and (2).
For m = 0, electromagnetic waves may be classified into TE and TM modes. High‐order modes have all non‐zero components of electric and magnetic fields.
Dispersion relation for TE‐polarized fundamental mode (m = 0) reads [16]
iωμ0σg=gI0(gR)I1(gR)+pK0(pR)K1(pR).E3
Both terms on the right‐hand side are positive; so, we may conclude that condition Im[σg] < 0 is necessary. But this condition is not sufficient. Let us suppose that |Re[σg]| << |Im[σg]|. This condition is satisfied near the inter‐band transition (i.e. when 1.667 < ħω/μch < 2). Cut‐off limit (i.e. p → 0) leads to critical coupling among the core radius, frequency and dielectric permittivity. The limit gcrR << 1, which corresponds to small core radius, small difference of permittivities of the inner and the outer mediums, or low frequency, leads to the condition of ωμ0|Im[σg]|R=2. Estimations of critical radius for the frequency range 100–600 THz (near‐infrared to visible light) give R ∼1 μm.
High‐order TE‐like SPPs modes may propagate in the structures with much larger radius, and, thus, are of interest for practical plasmonic applications.
TM‐SPPs have been investigated in details in [13, 14]. Dispersion relation of TM fundamental plasmonic modes is
εoutK0(pR)pK1(pR)+εinI0(gR)gI1(gR)+iσgω=0.E4
This mode exists for any radius values and frequencies of electromagnetic wave, when Im[σg] > 0.
The modes with index |m| > 0 exist above the cut‐off frequency. The number of supported modes at the fixed vacuum wavelength λ0 may be estimated as Re[i2πR(εwire+εout)c/(σgλ0)]. An increase of the core permittivity leads to an increase in the number of supported modes.
Comparison of the SPPs characteristics of graphene‐covered nanowire and gold‐coated nanowire in the frequency range of 30–50 THz shows [13] that the effective mode index of SPPs mode in graphene‐covered nanowire is much larger than that of gold‐coated nanowire, indicating that plasmon mode in graphene‐covered nanowire has a much shorter SPP wavelength and better mode confinement. SPPs mode in graphene‐covered nanowire has a much smaller mode area: the mode energy of graphene‐covered nanowire is mainly localized inside the nanowire, while the mode energy of gold‐coated nanowire resides outside the Au coating.
Field expressions (1) with (2) allow one to calculate the inverse magneto‐plasmonic effect [41]: i.e. the effective magnetic field induced by propagating SPPs due to the inverse Faraday effect Heff=αIm[E×E*]. For mode with m = 0 SPPs may be classified into TE and TM modes. It is easy to show that TE mode cannot produce any magnetic field, while TM mode can induce azimuthal magnetic field. Magnetic field components induced by any single mode do not depend on the azimuthal angle ϕ. For modes with m ≠ 0, all components of magnetic field are non‐zero. Change in the propagation direction leads to a change in the Heff rotation direction. Modes with greater |m| induces longitudinal component of magnetic field as well. The value of this component increases with an increase in mode number. We have found also that in two‐mode regime it is possible to induce azimuthally periodic magnetic field distribution. This distribution may be rotated by these two mode phase shift controls.
3. Gyrotropic graphene‐coated nanowires
Let us consider a gyrotropic nanowire covered by a graphene layer (see Figure 1). We will use cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z). The nanowire axis is supposed to be the z‐axis, which coincides with the gyration axis. Such situation may be realized, for example, in magnetic nanowires magnetized along the wire axis. The electrodynamic properties of the nanowire may be described by the following dielectric permittivity tensor:
ε^wire=ε0(ε⊥−iεa0iεaε⊥000ε∥)E5
Figure 1.
Geometry of the problem.
Here, ε0 is the electric constant (we will use SI units throughout the chapter). Graphene layer may be described by 2D conductivity σg, which depends on the temperature T, the angular frequency ω, the scattering rate Γ and the chemical potential μch. It may be calculated in local random phase approximation [39, 40], for example. We will take into account the presence of graphene only as a specific boundary condition [38]. We will suppose that the outer medium is the air, i.e. it has dielectric permittivity εout = ε0.
Characteristics of SPP modes propagating in graphene‐covered non‐gyrotropic nanowire have been investigated in details [13–16]. In Section 2, it has been discussed that plasmonic modes in such structure may induce a complex distribution of magnetic field via inverse Faraday effect. Here, we suppose that intensity of plasmonic modes under consideration is small enough, and one may neglect the inverse Faraday effect inside magnetic nanowire.
Now, one has to solve Maxwell\'s equations inside each medium. We suppose that electromagnetic wave has harmonical time dependence and propagates along the z‐axis, i.e. E, H ∼ exp[−iωt + iβz], where β = β′ + iβ″ is a complex propagation constant. Electromagnetic field distribution inside magnetic nanowire with permittivity tensor (Eq. (5)) may be expressed similarly to that of circular microwave waveguides and optical fibres filled by gyrotropic medium [42–44]. Field outside the nanowire has a usual form (see Eqs. (1) and (2)). These fields should satisfy the boundary conditions at r = R: Ez,min=Ez,mout, Eφ,min=Eφ,mout, Hz,mout−Hz,min=−σgEφ,min and Hφ,mout−Hφ,min=σgEz,min. So, we will have the dispersion equation. Solving this equation, one will obtain β for each azimuthal mode index m.
Standard characteristics of SPP are the SPP wavelength λSPP = 2π/β′, and propagation length LSPP = (β″)−1. When LSPP becomes less than λSPP for chosen m, the corresponding SPP mode becomes overdamped and cannot propagate in the structure.
Analytical analysis shows that dispersion equation has terms with the first and third powers of the mode index m. This leads to non‐reciprocity for modes with the opposite azimuthal propagation direction, i.e. modes with different signs of m will propagate with slightly different velocities.
Let us suppose that at z = 0 one has a field distribution with azimuthal dependence ∼cos(mϕ). Such distribution may be described by superposition of two modes with m = ±|m|, which are excited without phase shift:
where E˜i,±m(r) are the radial distributions of the field, i = r, φ, z. Indeed, due to the difference between propagation constants β±m, this distribution will differ for opposite signs of m, but in the first approach we will suppose that E˜i,+m(r)≈E˜i,−m(r). Correctness of such assumption will further be approved by numerical calculations of field distributions. Different values of propagation speed will lead to phase shift at chosen z = z0 and, thus, to the rotation of field distribution on the angle (β′−m – β′+m)z0/2m. This formula is similar to the one for microwave waveguide filled by gyrotropic medium [43]. For the characterization of rotation angle, we will use the specific rotation angle for each mode defined as following:
θ=β′−m−β′+m2m.E7
Propagation length will also differ for modes with opposite signs of m. This may lead to the fact that at certain value of z, one of the modes becomes negligibly small. At such length, defined by the condition
|β″−m−β″+m|z0>>1,E8
the initial azimuthal intensity distribution becomes spatially homogeneous.
For numerical solution of dispersion equation and investigation of field distributions, we will use the following parameters: linear frequency of electromagnetic wave f = ω/2π = 100 THz (wavelength in vacuum λ0 = 3 μm), nanowire radius R = 50 nm (quantum effects in graphene structures should be taken into account at the size of the structure less than ≈20 nm [45]). For simplicity, we will assume that ε⊥ = ε|| = ε. The value of ε will be set at 2. We will consider the room temperatures (T = 300 K) and graphene scattering rate Γ = 0.1 meV. Due to the fact that rotation may be observed only for modes that depend on azimuthal angle, we will consider the modes with |m| ≠ 0.
Figure 2 shows the electric field distribution of some high‐order modes at z = 100 nm for different values of εa. Graphene chemical potential is μch = 1 eV. Dash‐dot lines show the calculated position of maximum. One can see that the calculated rotation angles are in good agreement with numerical modelling. Change in the sign of gyrotropy εa (i.e. change in magnetization or magnetic field direction) leads to opposite rotation of field distribution. The difference between radial distributions of the fields with opposite signs of m has no evident effect. For high‐index modes in giant gyrotropy case, condition (8) is not satisfied, and one can see the blurring of distribution we have mentioned above.
Figure 2.
Electric field distribution of some lower modes at z = 100 nm for different values of εa. Dash‐dot lines show the calculated position of the first maximum. Calculated rotation angles are shown as well. For εa > 0 rotation angles are the same as for corresponding case of εa < 0, but distribution rotates in opposite direction. Graphene chemical potential is μch = 1 eV.
A change in graphene conductivity (or its chemical potential) may lead to greater difference in propagation constants of the modes with opposite signs of m. This may be used for adjusting the rotation angle, similarly to graphene‐covered optical fibre [36]. Dependences of the specific rotation angle, calculated by Eq. (7) for some lower modes, are shown in Figure 3. This figure also contains SPP wavelength and propagation length. One can see that specific rotation angle reaches a maximum at certain chemical potential, for which values are different for each mode. For lower modes, the maximum corresponds to higher chemical potential values. These maximal values are indicated by dashed lines. Maximal rotation angle decreases when mode number increases. An increase in gyrotropy |εa| leads to some shift of the maximum to lower chemical potentials. For positive values of gyrotropy, the specific rotation angles are negative but equal to the absolute value in the case of negative gyrotropy. For the graphs of SPP wavelength and propagation length change, the sign of εa leads to the exchange of the lines for m > 0 and m < 0.
Figure 3.
Dependences of the specific rotation angle, SPP wavelength and propagation length versus chemical potential of graphene. The vertical dashed lines show the position of maximum of specific rotation angle for corresponding mode.
In general, the specific rotation angle may be adjusted approximately twice by changing the chemical potential of graphene.
It should be noted that the maximal specific rotation is observed near the inflection point of dependence of SPP wavelength versus chemical potential for the mode with higher wavelength. At such chemical potential values, corresponding modes have propagation length less than SPP wavelength, i.e. when the modes become evanescent. One can also see that for maximal rotation angles propagation lengths of the modes with opposite sign of m differ significantly. Thus, condition (8) plays a crucial role.
Propagation characteristics of the modes depend on the permittivity of nanowire, its radius and frequency of electromagnetic wave. All these values may be used for achieving the maximal rotation of desirable mode, but this question needs to be investigated separately.
Rotation angle linearly depends on the length of nanowire. So, the maximal rotation may be reached at the propagation length of SPPs. But one has to keep in mind condition (8) to avoid a non‐desirable blurring of distribution.
It should be noted that for practical application of the effect under investigation, high values of εa are needed. It takes values εa ∼ 0.001–0.01 at wavelengths approximately equal to be considered here to be used in magneto‐optics materials frequently [29]. Faraday rotation angle and Verdet constant are used frequently used for characterizing gyrotropic materials. Faraday rotation angle may be defined as follows [43]: θF = zω[(ε + εa)1/2 − (ε − εa)1/2]/(2c) = BVz, where B is the external magnetic induction and V is the Verdet constant. For εa << ε, gyrotopy is proportional to BV. The high values of Verdet constant in the THz frequency range (0.1–10 THz) have some semiconductors: (Cd,Mn)Te (103 rad T−1 m−1) [46], InSb (104 rad T−1 m−1) [47], HgTe (106 rad T−1 m−1) [48]. In such materials, the values of εa may be reached, which are necessary for practical application, but proposed structure should be redesigned for THz frequencies (radius of the core should be increased). We should note that at THz frequencies propagation length of SPPs is much greater than in infrared domain as considered here. Thus, it is possible to achieve a greater rotation angles but at greater scales.
4. Spiral graphene‐based waveguides
Let us consider a dielectric cylinder (core of the waveguide) with dielectric permittivity εin = εrinε0 (ε0 is the electric constant) and radius R, which is coiled by graphene strip (see Figure 4a and b). Such cylinder is embedded in the dielectric medium with dielectric permittivity εout = εroutε0. Both mediums will be considered as non‐magnetic (μin = μout = μ0). We will use cylindrical coordinates (r, ϕ, z). Let us suppose that the z‐axis coincides with the cylinder axis.
Figure 4.
Geometry of the problem. Perspective (a) and top projection (b) views of the part of the meta‐tube. Schemes illustrating the coupling between the tilt angle θ and tilt number n (c) and influence of the graphene strip width W on dispersion characteristic of the plasmonic modes with m = ±1 (d), n = 0 for the solid line corresponds to the non‐chiral structure formed by graphene rings, n = 9 for dashed lines approximately corresponds to the tilt angle 45°.
The net of cylindrical surface may be represented as meta‐surface formed by graphene strips with width W and spacer width G (see Figure 4c). Such meta‐surface may be described by 2D conductivity tensor σ^ of which components depend on the tilt angle θ [49, 50]:
In Eq. (9), σg is the graphene conductivity, which may be divided into intra‐ and inter‐band contributions σg = σintra + σinter, while σC is the effective meta‐surface conductivity caused by capacitive coupling between graphene strips. Such representation is valid when the wavelength of electromagnetic wave is much longer than the periodicity of the structure.
For fixed periodicity of the surface L = W + G, the tilt angle may get discrete values: θn = arcsin[nL/2πR], where n is an integer number, which may be interpreted as the count of graphene spirals (or the count of spacers in the meta‐surface between two enclosed strip edges). We will call this number the ‘tilt number\'.
For investigation of electrodynamics of such structure, one should solve Maxwell\'s equations inside each medium taking into account the boundary conditions: Ez,in=Ezout, Eφin=Eφout, Hzout−Hzin=−σϕϕEϕin−σϕzEzin and Hϕout−Hϕin=σzzEzin+σzϕEϕin. Considering the waves propagating along the cylinder axis, one may put electric and magnetic fields E, H ∼ exp[−iωt + ihz + imϕ], where ω is the circular frequency, h is the propagation constant and m is the azimuthal mode index.
The calculations show that propagation constants for the modes propagating along the z‐axis with opposite azimuthal rotation direction (we will denote these propagation constants as h+|m| and h−|m|) are different, similarly to the plasmonic modes in gyrotropic graphene‐covered nanowires (see Section 3). Thus, if one has azimuthal field distribution at an input of the waveguide z = 0 proportional to cos[mϕ], at the output z = z0 one will have rotated field distribution. Rotation angle may be calculated as ψ = z0(Re[h−|m|] – Re[h+|m|])/2|m|, while z0|Im[h−|m|] – Im[h+|m|]| << 1. To characterize the rotation effect, we will also use the specific rotation angle ψ0 = ψ/z0.
Figure 4(d) shows the dispersion characteristics (mode refractive index Re[hm]/k0 and the propagation length 1/2Im[hm]) for the structure formed by graphene strip with the periodicity L = 50 nm, core radius R = 100 nm for the frequency of electromagnetic wave f = 50 THz via graphene strip width for the modes with m = ±1 and two values of the tilt angles (n = 0 corresponds to the non‐chiral structure formed by graphene rings, n = 9 approximately corresponds to the tilt angle 45°). We assume that εrin = 3, and εrout = 1. For the fixed periodicity L, a decrease in strip width leads to an increase in the spacer width. One can see that there is a critical strip width when the structure cannot support plasmonic mode. This critical width is different for a different mode index m. For non‐zero tilt number modes with the opposite azimuthal rotation directions (i.e. ±|m|) have different critical width. The mode rotating in the same direction as chirality of the structure exists at lower graphene width but has low propagation length, while the opposite mode has a bulk behaviour when graphene width reaches the critical value.
Figure 5 shows the specific rotation angle for the spiral waveguide with the periodicity L = 50 nm, graphene strip width W = 45 nm and the spacer width G = 5 nm via the tilt number of the structure. Other parameters are the same as for Figure 2. One can see that at n < ncr ≈ 10, specific rotation angle of lower modes is greater than that of higher modes. At n > ncr, the opposite behaviour take a place. Maximal specific rotation reaches up to few hundreds of degrees, and it is observed near the tilt angle of about π/4, when non‐diagonal components of conductivity are maximal, similarly to the TE‐TM coupling for the fundamental plasmonic mode. The maximums of higher modes are shifted to greater tilt angles. We should note that the rotation angle strictly depends on the graphene chemical potential, which may be controlled by gate voltage or chemical doping. The maximal values of the specific rotation angle are much higher than that of gyrotropic graphene‐covered nanowires for the similar set of parameters (see Section 3). Negative tilt numbers (and tilt angles) correspond to the opposite chirality of the structure. Such situation will be observed for the backward waves propagating in the structure, and the specific rotation angle will have negative values. Thus, the structure is strictly non‐reciprocal. This property may be used for one‐way wave propagation if we have graphene strip width lower than the critical one for the negative azimuthal mode index: mode with the positive azimuthal index will still propagate along the structure, while in the opposite direction only the mode with the negative azimuthal index will propagate.
Figure 5.
Specific rotation angle for the spiral waveguide with the periodicity L = 50 nm, graphene strip width W = 45 nm and the spacer width G = 5 nm via the tilt number (or the tilt angle) of the structure. The upper panel shows the specific rotation angle for first four modes for graphene chemical potential μch = 0.5 eV. The lower panel shows the specific rotation angle for the mode with |m| = 1 for different values of graphene chemical potential.
One may see that even at maximal possible tilt angle the specific rotation angle is still high enough. This fact makes the concept of surface plasmon‐polaritons control by the shear strains very promising for practical applications. Let us imagine that we have a non‐chiral structure formed by nanowire longitudinally covered by graphene strips (see Figure 6). This situation corresponds to the tilt angle θ = 90o. Non‐diagonal components of the surface conductivity tensor will be equal to zero, and no rotation of high‐order plasmonic modes will be observed. If shear strains are applied to such a structure, the spiral waveguide will be formed with the tilt angle defined by the strain value and field distribution at the output of the waveguide will be rotated.
Figure 6.
The schemes illustrating formation of the spiral waveguide by shear strains (a) and control of spiral waveguide parameters by axial strains (b).
Another way to control plasmons in the structure under investigation by external strains is to apply an axial strain to the structure. An axial strain will lead to the change in the spacer width G and the periodicity of the structure L. From Eq. (9), we may see that the relation W/L affects significantly the meta‐surface conductivity. In the situation under discussion W/L may be controlled by the axial strain. It is seen from Figure 4(d) that even a change in the strip width on some nanometres leads to a significant difference in the propagation constants of counterrotating azimuthal modes. Thus, proposed structure should be very sensitive to an axial stresses.
5. Concluding remarks
In this chapter, we have investigated in detail two ways of breaking of the degeneracy of the plasmonic modes with the opposite azimuthal rotations for graphene‐coated nanowires: by external magnetic field and by surface spiral structure. This breaking of the degeneracy may lead to a giant spatial rotation of high‐order plasmonic modes, and to the redistribution of the intensity of electromagnetic wave.
The open problem is the self‐consistent problem of SPPs propagation in plasmonic magnetic nanowires. Magnetization of the nanowire, in general, will lead to the change in SPPs properties, while SPPs themselves will induce an effective magnetic field, which will change the magnetization of the nanowire. This effect should be taken into account especially for non‐linear SPPs. To the best of our knowledge, this problem is still unsolved.
The effects discussed in Section 4 are caused by the off‐diagonal components of the surface conductivity tensor. In addition to the considered structure, some similar effect may be observed for the nanowires covered by strained graphene layer. Recent investigation of graphene conductivity under a non‐mechanical distortion shows that it may have anisotropic conductivity tensor with the off‐diagonal components as well [51]. This fact opens the door for further investigations of SPPs control by artificial strains.
The predicted effects may play a crucial role in the polarization rotation in metamaterials consisting of multiple proposed structures. On the other hand, redistribution of the electromagnetic wave intensity may be interpreted in terms of local change in the photonic density of states, which may be used to control the radiation of quantum dots placed near such plasmonic nanowire. These results open the door to novel plasmonic applications ranging from nanowire‐based Faraday isolators and one‐way devices to the magnetic and strain control in quantum‐optical applications.
Acknowledgments
The work was supported in part by Stratégie internationale NNN‐Telecom de la Région Pays de La Loire, Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung, President of Russian Federation (project # MK‐1653.2017.2), Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants ## 16‐37‐00023, 16‐07‐00751 and 16‐29‐14045), and Act 211 Government of the Russian Federation (contract No 02.A03.21.0011).
\n',keywords:"surface plasmon‐polaritons, graphene, optical activity, magneto‐plasmonics, metasurface",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54221.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54221.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54221",totalDownloads:933,totalViews:281,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 10th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 21st 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nowadays, graphene plasmonics shows a great number of features unusual for traditional (metal‐based) plasmonics from high localization and large propagation distance of surface plasmon‐polaritons (SPPs) through the existence of both TE‐ and TM‐polarized SPPs to the possibility of controlled SPPs by graphene chemical potential (or, equivalently, by gate voltage or chemical doping). Cylindrical graphene‐based plasmonic structures have some advantages in contrast to planar geometry: absence of edge losses, existence of high‐order azimuthal modes, etc. In this work, we discuss some ways to obtain an optical activity in cylindrical graphene‐based plasmonic structures and its possible applications to SPPs manipulation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54221",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54221",book:{slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications"},signatures:"Dmitry A. Kuzmin, Igor V. Bychkov, Vladimir G. Shavrov and Vasily V.\nTemnov",authors:[{id:"178503",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Bychkov",fullName:"Igor Bychkov",slug:"igor-bychkov",email:"bychkov@csu.ru",position:null,institution:{name:"Chelyabinsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"179169",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Shavrov",fullName:"Vladimir Shavrov",slug:"vladimir-shavrov",email:"shavrov@cplire.ru",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195716",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry",middleName:null,surname:"Kuzmin",fullName:"Dmitry Kuzmin",slug:"dmitry-kuzmin",email:"kuzminda@csu.ru",position:null,institution:{name:"Chelyabinsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"196537",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasily",middleName:null,surname:"Temnov",fullName:"Vasily Temnov",slug:"vasily-temnov",email:"vasily.temnov@univ-lemans.fr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Surface plasmon‐polaritons in graphene‐covered nanowires",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Gyrotropic graphene‐coated nanowires",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Spiral graphene‐based waveguides",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bao Q., Loh K.P. Graphene photonics, plasmonics, and broadband optoelectronic devices. ACS Nano. 2012;6(5):3677–3694. DOI: 10.1021/nn300989g'},{id:"B2",body:'Grigorenko A.N., Polini M., Novoselov K.S. Graphene plasmonics. Nature Photonics. 2012;6:749–758. DOI: 10.1038/nphoton.2012.262'},{id:"B3",body:'Garcia de Abajo F.J. Graphene plasmonics: challenges and opportunities. ACS Photonics. 2014;1(3):135–152. DOI: 10.1021/ph400147y'},{id:"B4",body:'Mikhailov S.A., Ziegler K. New electromagnetic mode in graphene. Physical Review Letters. 2007;99:016803. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.016803'},{id:"B5",body:'Hanson G.W. 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Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Igor V. Bychkov",address:null,affiliation:'
Chelyabinsk State University, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vladimir G. Shavrov",address:null,affiliation:'
Kotel’nikov Institute of Radio‐Engineering and Electronics of RAS, Moscow, Russian Federation
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vasily V. Temnov",address:null,affiliation:'
Institut des Molécules et Matériaux du Mans, Université du Maine, France
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1. Introduction
Endomembrane trafficking plays a crucial role for maintaining fundamental cellular functions (signal transduction, cellular homeostasis, etc.) and in response to environmental stimuli. The membrane trafficking pathways start from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) then go through the Golgi apparatus to different destinations including vacuoles/lysosomes, endosomes, and the plasma membrane (PM) [1].
In plant cells the membrane trafficking system comprises three major trafficking pathways: the biosynthetic secretory pathway, the endocytic pathway, and the vacuolar transport pathway. (i) The biosynthetic secretory pathway transports newly synthesized proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane and/or the extracellular space. (ii) The endocytic pathway functions in the recycling of PM-localized and extracellular factors between the PM and the endosomal compartments. (iii) The vacuolar transport pathway drives the transportation of newly synthesized protein to the vacuole (Figure 1) [3].
Figure 1.
The membrane trafficking pathways are grouped into three major categories: (i) the biosynthetic secretory pathway, (ii) the endocytic pathway, and (iii) the vacuolar transport pathway (modified from Inada and Ueda [2]).
Each trafficking pathway is mediated by the following steps: (i) budding of the transport vesicle from the donor membrane, which is mediated by ARF/SAR1 GTPase (and coat proteins in many cases); (ii) transport and targeting of the transport vesicle; (iii) tethering of the vesicle by tethering proteins under the regulation of RAB GTPase and fusion of the transport vesicle to the target membrane mediated by soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor attachment protein receptors (SNARE); and (iv) recycling of the transport machinery components to the donor membrane (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The general machinery of membrane trafficking. Each trafficking pathway is mediated by the following steps: (i) budding of the transport vesicle from the donor membrane, which is mediated by ARF/SAR1 GTPase (and coat proteins in many cases); (ii) transport and targeting of the transport vesicle; (iii) tethering of the vesicle by tethering proteins under the regulation of RAB GTPase and fusion of the transport vesicle to the target membrane mediated by SNARE proteins; and (iv) recycling of the transport machinery components to the donor membrane [2, 4].
In eukaryotic cells, small GTP-binding proteins involve the largest family of signaling proteins. The activation of small GTP-binding proteins (GTPases) is essential for vesicle formation from a donor membrane. Four main subfamilies have been identified in plants: (i) ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF)/secretion-associated RAS superfamily (SAR), (ii) RAB, (iii) Rho-like proteins in plants (ROP), and (iv) RAN [5, 6, 7]. Over the evolution of eukaryotic organisms, the conservation of GTPases explains their significance in cellular signaling processes [7, 8, 9]. Small GTPases serve as molecular switches that transduce signals by exchanging between the GTP- and GDP-bound conditions. Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), GDP dissociation inhibitors (GDIs), and GTPase-activating proteins are regulators of small GTP-binding proteins.
GEFs activate small GTPases, which in turn interact with specific effectors to stimulate downstream pathways. GAPs trigger the intrinsic GTPase activity, thereby accelerating the inactivation of the GTPases’ regulatory activity. GEFs convert the GDP-bound inactive form of the GTPases to the GTP-bound active form by stimulating the dissociation of GDP from the GDP-bound form. In the “active” state, the GTP-bound GTPases interact with various downstream effector proteins that execute diverse cellular functions. GTPases are inactivated through either the intrinsic capability of the GTPase to hydrolyze GTP to GDP + Pi or an interaction with another protein group, the GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). These proteins catalyze the hydrolytic activity of GTPases, which then return to the inactive state GDP-bound state [6]. The improvement of fluorescent protein-labeled GTPases and cargo molecules has enhanced the assignment of subcellular locations for these proteins within the endomembrane system.
The traffic between organelles is bi-directional. (i) Starting at the ER and leading toward the destination organelles (the forward trafficking) is called anterograde transport, and (ii) the reverse pathway is called retrograde transport.
2. Membrane trafficking pathways
2.1 The biosynthetic secretory pathway
2.1.1 Anterograde transport (forward trafficking)
2.1.1.1 ER-to-Golgi protein transport
The conventional trafficking pathway starts at the ER; protein synthesis and modification occurs and undergoes further modification [10]. Proteins leave the ER via COPII carriers to reach the Golgi. ER and Golgi compartments are closely associated with each other to ease the movement of cargo between them [11]. This ER-to-Golgi transport is termed “anterograde transport” and is mediated by COPII proteins, which are highly conserved in eukaryotes [12]. From the ER, synthesized proteins are exported to the cis-Golgi and are transported via Golgi stacks where protein modifications occur. Modified proteins are sorted into the extracellular space or storage and lytic organelles from the Golgi. In plants, proteins can also be sorted from the Golgi into the chloroplast [13].
The accumulation of secretory cargo, deformation of the membrane, and formation of transport vesicles are mediated by COPII. In mammalian cells and in most of the plant cell types, the ER and Golgi are in close proximity, and the COPII cycles on and off the ER with a fast turnover rate [14, 15]. COPII coat proteins are mostly distributed in the cytosol and concentrate at ERES that appear in association with motile Golgi stacks in plant cells. These proteins also accumulate in punctate structures that are not associated with the Golgi (Figure 2B).
The recruitment of COPII coat proteins involves SAR1 GTPase and its GDP/GTP exchange factor, SEC12 [16, 17]. The Arabidopsis genome encodes five genes for SAR1, seven genes SEC23, three genes for SEC24, two genes SEC13, and two SEC31 isoforms [18].
The assembly of COPII occurs at distinct sites on ribosome-free transitional ER (tER) or ER exit sites (ERESs) [19]. The cytosolic GTPase SAR1 is activated by the ER membrane-associated GEF SEC12, and then SAR1 associates with the ER lipid bilayer membrane, and after the COPII coat composed of the SEC23-24 and SEC13-31 heterodimer complexes is recruited [20, 21, 22]. The cargo recruitment complex involving SEC23-24 and SAR1 sorts transport and ER resident proteins [23, 24]. The COPII coat includes four proteins, assembled as an internal receptor/cargo-binding dimer of SEC23 and SEC24 and an outer cage dimer of SEC31 and SEC13. SEC16 is important for ER protein export by recognizing the COPII assembly region at the ERES [25]. The cargo selection is achieved by the SEC23/SEC24-SAR1 complex (pre-budding complex) [26]. This complex recruits SEC13-SEC31, which offer the outer layer of the coat and manage membrane deformation to constitute COPII vesicles. The SEC16 and SED4 are the other additional proteins for the COPII assembly. SEC16 comprises COPII coat component domains and has an important role as a scaffold for coat assembly [27]. SEC16 is a key organizer of ERESs in yeast and mammalian cells [28, 29]. The two encoded from Arabidopsis SEC16 genes resemble the human small isoform, and it was shown that they are important for ER export and tER organization in HeLa cells [29].
COPII is also involved in the physical deformation of the ER membrane that drives the COPII carrier formation [30]. SAR1-mediated GTP hydrolysis leads to COPII carrier un-coating and follows the exposure of the carrier membrane to fusion with the Golgi membrane [31].
In the GTP-bound conformation, SAR1 protein binds directly to the lipid bilayer which it does by an N-terminal amphipathic alpha-helix [32]. In the GDP-bound conformation, SAR1 binds membranes with lower affinity [25, 31].
The SED4 is responsible for the rate of ER-to-Golgi transport as an integral membrane protein at the ER membrane [32]. The deletion of SED4 causes to reduce the transportation rate of ER-to-Golgi in S. cerevisiae wild-type cells [33]. The SED4 and SEC12 have close homology with the cytoplasmic domain, but no GEF activity has been reported in S. cerevisiae [34].
It has been reported that SAR1 reduces the mechanical rigidity of the lipid bilayer membrane to which it binds in yeast [35]. Because of the ability of SAR1, it was suggested that membrane-bound SAR1-GTP decreases the energetic cost for the other COPII coat proteins (Sec13, Sec31, etc.) to generate curvature [35].
In Arabidopsis, three SAR1 homologs have been identified (AtSARA1a, AtSARA1b, and AtSARA1c). AtSARA1A and AtSARA1B have a 93% amino acid sequence identity [36]. The AtSARA1a expression level correlated with the secretion activity level from ER membranes. The AtSARA1a mRNA upregulation has been reported to cause the blockage of ER transport to the cis-Golgi compartment [37]. The COPII protein-encoding genes are ubiquitously expressed except SAR1 (At1g09180) and a SEC31 (At1g18830) isoform by microarray analyses [18]. Tissue specificity was observed for the SEC31 isoform At1g18830, while all other genes appear to be ubiquitously expressed in all tissues and developmental stages [18].
SAR1 accumulation was observed to concentrate predominantly in crude ER fractions of Pisum sativum L. seedlings [38]. The COPII protein coat recruitment by SAR1p has been intensively studied [39]. In human development and disease, the SEC24 and SAR1 isoforms have specificity for the trafficking of selective cargo [40, 41]. In plant cells, specific amino acid sequences in the primary proteins affect the selective export of membrane cargo [42]. Diacidic sequence induces the accumulation of SEC24A to ERESs. The interaction occurs between the K channel KAT1, which contains the specific amino acid sequence in the cytosolic tail, and SEC24A [43, 44].
Different export signals in SEC24 proteins might lead to selective accumulation of cargo in COPII carriers in mammalian and plant cells. It was suggested that more efficient intracellular trafficking is likely achieved by cargo specialization of COPII isoforms in multicellular organisms [45]. Figure 3 shows the basic diagram of the retrograde and anterograde transport in plant cells [47].
Figure 3.
Model of membrane trafficking to the vacuole in plant cells. The vacuolar trafficking pathway involves three trafficking routes in Arabidopsis (i) depending on the sequential action of RAB5 and RAB7, (ii) AP-3-dependent but RAB5- and RAB7- independent pathway, and (iii) RAB5-dependent and AP-3-independent route (modified from Ebine et al. [46]).
The COPII machinery has significant importance for ER-to-Golgi transport in the early secretory pathway in plants [48]. The retention of secretory cargo molecules or membrane proteins that cycle between the ER and Golgi apparatus leads to blockage of the ER export [14, 43, 48]. COPII machinery is involved in biotic and abiotic stress responses in plants. It has been shown that functional SEC24A is essential for systemic turnip mosaic virus movement by interaction in a signal specific manner with the N-terminal domain 6-kDa viral protein 6 K [49]. In high-temperature conditions, overexpression of SEC31A has been reported in the IRE1 mutant which leads to improvement of the male sterility phenotype in Arabidopsis [50].
2.1.2 Retrograde transport (reverse trafficking)
2.1.2.1 Retrograde transport and COPI
Of the 12 ARF isoforms, ARF1 is targeted to the Golgi and post-Golgi structures in plant cells. Arabidopsis ARF1 has been shown to be involved in different trafficking pathways including ER-Golgi traffic, vacuolar trafficking, and endocytosis and/or recycling [51, 52]. Arfs are divided into three classes and express six isoforms, namely, Arf1 to Arf 6 (with Arf2 being absent in human) in the mammalian system.
ARF1 manages ER-to-Golgi transport and Golgi-derived transport to the plasma membrane, depending on the COPI vesicle coat protein components [53, 54]. A large number of ARF in plants suggest the possibility for highly regulated vesicle trafficking [53]. Similar to other small GTPases, ARF GTPases cycle between an active state, when associated with GTP (membrane-bound form), and an inactive state when bound to GDP (predominantly cytosolic form).
In its GDP form, ARF1 is present in the cytosol and is recruited to the surface of Golgi membranes by a GEF. A SEC7-type GEF stimulates the binding of GTP to ARF1. This progression can be inhibited by the fungal metabolite Brefeldin A (BFA) in mammalian cells [55]. In the same system, the GDP-bound form of ARF1 interacts with p24 cytosolic tails [56]. The cytosolic ARF1 activation initiates COPI biogenesis. The GTP-bound form of ARF1 interacts with coatomer, which can also interact directly with the p24 cytosolic tails. In this manner, the p24 cytosolic tail can interact both with ARF1 and coatomer [56]. The conformational change of ARF1 occurs by the GTP/GDP exchange that may cause its dissociation from p24 cytosolic tails [56].
COPI vesicles mediate different transport steps, including ER-to-Golgi intermediate compartment transport, Golgi transport, and/or intra-Golgi transport (anterograde transport and/or retrograde transport) [57, 58]. Two types of COPI-coated vesicles form containing anterograde or retrograde cargo (KDEL receptor), and low amounts of Golgi enzymes have been reported to exist at the Golgi apparatus level [59]. COPI proteins are involved in transport along the endocytic pathway [60]. During the selective transport of vesicles, the coat proteins must distinguish between cargo and resident proteins of the donor organelle. Arabidopsis has single genes for γ-COP and δ-COP and multiple genes for the other COPI subunits [61]. COPI coatomer forms a coat around vesicles budding from the Golgi. Two different sizes of COPI (COPIa and COPIb) vesicles have been identified by multiparameter electron tomography analysis in Arabidopsis [62]. COPIa coats are retrograde transport vesicles, and COPIb vesicles are restricted to medial- and trans-cisternae and are involved for retrograde transport within the Golgi stack. The multiple copies of COPI in plants suggest the presence of different classes of COPI vesicles. The protein complex COPI coatomer is composed of seven subunits (α, β, β’, γ, δ, ε, and ζ-COP). COPI represents approximately 0.2% of soluble cytosolic protein indicating their roles as unassembled precursors of COPI vesicles [63].
In intracellular transport, cargo transmembrane protein sorting at each step depends on the specific interaction of certain signals in their cytoplasmic tails with the correct coat proteins [64]. In yeast and mammalian cells, the cytosolic dilysine motif is essential for the ER localization of type I membrane proteins [65]. The two lysine residues must be in the −3, −4 (KKXX) or − 3, −5 (KXKXX) positions relative to the carboxy (C) terminus [65]. For ER localization, the lysine residue at the −3 position is the most critical residue [66]. In mammals, lysine residue mutations within the KKXX motif lead to the expression of reporter proteins at the cell surface [65]. In contrast, the same mutation leads to vacuolar transfer in yeast [67]. The p24 proteins have been suggested to function in Golgi-to-ER retrograde transport, as they contain cargo receptors on their luminal side and coatomer and/or ARF1 receptors on their cytoplasmic side in mammalian cells [68] COPI is necessary for recycling p24 proteins to the ER from the Golgi apparatus [69].
In general p24 proteins are only found in the ER. The binding of p24 proteins to COPI is mediated by dilysine motifs at the −3 and − 4 positions of p24 [69]. Up to 11 different p24 family members proteins have been identified in Arabidopsis. The p24 proteins appear to bind COPI with higher affinity than COPII. In the cytosolic tail of the Arabidopsis p24 (Atp24), the dilysine motif is important both for binding of coatomer subunits and ARF1 [70].
ARF1 has been shown to localize to Golgi and endosomes and regulate cell proliferation, cell elongation, and fertility, whereas ARF6 is associated with plasma membrane and important for actin remodeling and receptor endocytosis in plant cells [54]. The ARF6 overexpression was shown in breast cancer cells and also involved ERK signaling during invasion. On the other hand, the use of ARF1 protein as a prognostic marker for gastric cancer has been reported [71].
Low expression level of ARF1 (Q71L) mutant in tobacco mesophyll protoplasts has been reported to lead to wtp24 accumulation in the Golgi apparatus [69]. These studies verify the COPI-recycling mechanism can efficiently function in plants. COPI-binding dilysine motif-deficient p24 mutants are transported to the PVC and vacuole [69]. It was observed that p25 may function as an anchor for the p24 proteins in retrograde transport [69].
2.1.2.2 Intra-Golgi transport
Two different models for intra-Golgi transport were suggested: (i) vesicular transport and (ii) cisternal progression/maturation.
Between two different models, the direction of COPI vesicles is a critical distinguishing factor. (i) The vesicular transport model assumes that anterograde cargo is transported between static cisternae by coordinated budding and fusion reactions of anterograde-directed COPI vesicles [72]. Retrograde-directed COPI vesicles antagonize the continuous loss of material at the trans-Golgi. Therefore, two different COPI vesicles are involved for this model, one mediating anterograde transport and the other mediating retrograde transport. (ii) In the cisternal progression/maturation model, Golgi cisternae are stable compartments. In anterograde COPII vesicles, secretory cargoes are transported from one cisterna to the next, which finally disassemble at the trans-Golgi. Anterograde cargo would not leave the lumen, and resident Golgi proteins are maintained in the cisternae [72].
The COPI vesicles contain Golgi enzymes at a concentration that is up to 10 times higher than that found in the cisternae in animal cells [73]. The cisternal progression/maturation model does not clarify the presence of anterograde cargo within COPI vesicles or different anterograde cargo transportation rates in animal cells [74].
The “cisternal progression/maturation” model is the most widely accepted model for distinct and essential trafficking tasks in the Golgi. The stack of Golgi cisternae involves the historical record of progression from entry at the cis-face to exit at the trans-face [75]. The cargo molecules stay within a given cisternae as it passes, across a regular of seven locations within the Golgi stack on its way to the trans-face, and exit from the Golgi by transport carriers. In the cisternal progression, the newly arrived cargo in the Golgi exited with exponential kinetics rather than exhibiting a discrete lag or transit time [76]. Conserved oligomeric Golgi (COG) complex proteins accelerate the tethering of the vesicles to the target cisternae [77]. Resident Golgi proteins are assumed to recycle from older to younger cisternae. In retrograde COPI vesicles, transmembrane Golgi proteins may recycle. Peripheral Golgi proteins may recycle by dissociating from a given cisternae and then bind and combine to a younger cisternae.
2.2 Vacuolar trafficking
Plants have a complex vacuolar transport system different from that of mammalian systems by assigning evolutionarily conserved machinery to unique trafficking pathways. These pathways provide a fundamental basis for plant development at the cellular and higher-ordered levels [78]. Plants have evolved unique and complex vacuolar trafficking pathways compared with non-plant systems (Figure 3) [46].
The diverse functions of plant vacuoles are fulfilled through tight regulation of trafficking to and from the vacuoles, which involves evolutionarily conserved machinery components including Rab GTPases [79]. However, the basic framework of the Rab GTPase action is well conserved in eukaryotic cells [80]. Recent comparative genomic studies suggest that each eukaryotic lineage has acquired a unique repertoire of Rab GTPases during evolution [81] Autophagy-related and Golgi-independent transport from the ER to the vacuole is another example of such trafficking pathway [82]. This pathway also involves an exocyst subcomplex, although Rab and SNARE molecules associated with this pathway have not been identified thus far.
2.2.1 RAB GTPases
RAB GTPases constitute the largest family of small GTPases; 57 members are encoded in the Arabidopsis genome [83]. Based on their similarity to animal RAB GTPases, RAB GTPases are grouped into eight clades, i.e., RAB1/RABD, RAB2/RABB, RAB5/RABF, RAB6/RABH, RAB7/ RABG, RAB8/RABE, RAB11/RABA, and RAB18/RABC in angiosperms [84]. Plants also harbor a unique set of Rab GTPases partly characterized by diversification of the RAB5 group acting in endosomal/vacuolar trafficking pathways [85]. RAB7 is also proposed to regulate vacuolar traffic in plants [86]. In animal cells, a sequential action of RAB5 and RAB7 mediated by the effector complex HOPS [18] and a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for RAB7 consisting of SAND1/Mon1 and CCZ1 is responsible for the maturation from early to late endosomal compartments (Figure 4) [86].
Figure 4.
RAB and the other proteins in intracellular trafficking (modified from Malaria Parasite Metabolic Pathways [47]).
Future studies on the molecular mechanisms of these plant-specific vacuolar trafficking pathways will reveal how plants have used unique vacuolar trafficking routes and how plants have developed their unique vacuolar trafficking pathways during evolution. The tethering of transport vesicles to the target membranes is mediated by the interaction between RAB GTPases and specific sets of tethering factors, many of which have been shown to be RAB effectors, which bind to specific RABs at the GTP-bound active state in yeast and animal systems [80]. After the tethering of transport vesicles by the tethering factors, soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor attachment protein receptors lead to the membrane fusion [80]. Tethering factors comprise long coiled-coil proteins and protein complexes called tethering complexes. Each tethering step is mediated by a specific tethering complexes such as COG (functioning in retrograde trafficking within the Golgi), HOPS-CORVET (tethering with the lysosome/vacuole), and exocyst (functioning in the last step of the secretory pathway). In plants, homologous genes encoding these tethering complex proteins are also found, whereas some fibrous coiled-coil proteins are not conserved [84].
2.3 The endocytic pathway
Endocytosis in plant cells has an essential role for basic cellular functions and communication with the environment. Through the formation of closed membrane vesicles (60–120 nm), the uptake of extracellular molecules or the internalization of plasma membrane lipids and proteins is achieved [37]. During the life cycle of the plant, endosomes have vital importance for different processes including lateral organ differentiation, hormone signal transduction, root hair formation, embryo patterning, and plant immunity [36, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92]. Transportation of various cargo molecules involved in a broad range of physiological processes from the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm is achieved by this pathway. Figure 5 shows the general organization of the endosomal trafficking system in plants [36].
Figure 5.
The general organization of the endosomal trafficking system in plants. Current models of retromer localization and function place the retromer recycling complex in the TGN, in the MVB, or both [36].
As in animal cells, endocytosis in plant cells is mediated by (i) clathrin-mediated (CME) and (ii) clathrin-independent pathways (CIE) [93].
2.3.1 Clathrin-mediated pathway
In plants, the major endocytic mechanism depends on the coat protein clathrin. This pathway starts at the plasma membrane by clathrin-coated vesicle formation. CME is important for different physiological processes involving cell signaling, cell adhesion, nutrient uptake, developmental regulation, etc. The pathway starts by clathrin-coated vesicle formation at the plasma membrane; in the cytosolic parts of different transmembrane cargo molecules, the clathrin coat binds to specific binding sites. The recruitment of the pioneer proteins to the plasma membrane is ensured by the cargo molecules and enhanced by the initiation of an endocytic pathway. Clathrin involved in a variety of other processes such as the salt stress response, the defense response, cryptogein-induced signaling, and cytokinesis [94, 95, 96]. Many viruses act as endocytic cargoes for the entry into the cell [97]. A large number of “coat-associated clathrin adaptor proteins” and “scaffold proteins” serve as cargo adaptors by interaction with specific cargoes. Short linear sequence motifs or covalent modifications such as phosphorylation or ubiquitylation in cargo proteins are important for cargo adaptor interactions [98]. Most cargo adaptors also interact directly with lipids and with other coat proteins. These complex interactions cause the initiation of clathrin coat assembly and its further expansion [99]. Binding of the clathrin coat proteins to the cytosolic sites of different transmembrane cargo molecules is essential for the cargo recruitment to the region of the plasma membrane that will form the vesicle.
Because of the difficulty of visualizing and manipulating, studies on cargo and lipids are very difficult [100]. The most widely studied one is the maintenance of polar localization of auxin transporters, namely, the PIN proteins. Polar localization of PIN proteins involves three steps: (i) nonpolar secretion, (ii) clathrin-dependent endocytosis, and (iii) polar recycling [91]. Dynamic regulation of PIN polarity provided with this mechanism is important in response to environmental and developmental stimuli [101, 102]. Mutations in Rab5 or clathrin cause endocytosis disruption and auxin-related developmental defects [91]. Endocytosis works as a negative feedback of the signaling process. After internalization, flagellin-sensitive 2 (FLS2) is targeted for degradation by ubiquitination which then terminates the signal transduction process [103, 104]. The polarly localized Arabidopsis boron transporter 1(BOR1), the tomato ethylene-inducing xylanse receptor (LeEIX2), and the iron transporter 1 (IRT1) are the other plasma membrane cargoes in plant cells [92, 105]. For accurate development and growth regulation, the equilibrium of cargo localization in the endomembrane system and the dynamic trafficking machinery is essential during the plant life cycle.
2.3.2 Clathrin-independent pathway
Several endocytic pathways that do not use clathrin-coated vesicles are involved in a CI pathway that was mediated by caveolae. Some of these pathways are constitutive, whereas others are activated by specific signals or by pathogens [106]. Furthermore, their mechanisms and kinetics of endocytic vesicle formation, associated molecular machinery, and cargo direction are different. Some members of the ARF and Rho subfamilies of small GTPases have been suggested to have key roles in regulating different pathways of CI endocytosis [107]. CI pathways are grouped in terms of those that use a “dynamin-mediated scission mechanism” (dynamin-dependent) and those that require other processes (dynamin-independent). A second characteristic is a contribution of small GTPases in several CI pathways [108].
2.4 The endomembrane system in plant development and plant defense
The dysfunction of the endomembrane system can affect plant development and signal transduction [109, 110]. The interaction between the actin cytoskeleton and the endomembrane system involves various aspects of plant cell function and development [111, 112, 113].
The actin cytoskeleton is involved for the dynamic feature of the ER [114]. Microtubules have been reported to also influence the mobility of the ER, but to a lesser degree or at a much slower rate [115]. ARF1 plays an essential role in normal cell growth, plant development, and cell polarity and is ubiquitously expressed in all organs of Arabidopsis [116, 117]. In de-etiolated pea shoots, ARF1 was concentrated mainly in the crude Golgi fractions [38]. Antisense RNA studies show that ARF also affects cell expansion and cell size in Arabidopsis [118]. BFA-visualized exocytic trafficking defective1 (BEX1) has been reported to require for recycling of PIN transporters and auxin-mediated development in Arabidopsis [52]. BEX1 encodes ARF1A1C which localizes to the TGN/EE and Golgi apparatus. For normal venation patterning, polar auxin transport by PIN1 is required [118, 119]. Vascular network defective 4 (VAN4) is required for cellular growth and venation development [120]. VAN4 encodes a putative TRS120 subunit of the TRAPPII complex protein that functions as a Rab-GEF and/or tethering factor [121]. VAN4 is involved in polar localization and the recycling of PIN proteins. VAN3/SFC, ARF-GAP, and VAN7/GNOM ARF-GEF have been reported to regulate venation pattern by regulating the activity of the ARF GTPase [122].
Another relation with endomembrane trafficking and plant development was revealed by the continuous vascular ring mutants (COV1). Parker et al. have reported that the COV1 mutant is involved in ectopic differentiation of vascular Arabidopsis cells [123]. Afterward, COV1 has been reported as a TGN-localized membrane protein that is required for Golgi morphology and vacuolar protein trafficking and for the development of myrosin cells in leaves [124].
The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is important for the cytosolic and nuclear protein degradation, whereas certain proteins are degraded by autophagic degradation. De-ubiquitylating enzymes (DUBs) are essential for endosomal trafficking by affecting the fate of endocytosed cargo [125]. Endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) components are crucial for plant growth and development. Mutations of ESCRT or ESCRT-associated proteins in plants lead to ubiquitin accumulation, embryonic and seedling lethality, and misregulation of different signaling pathways, which can be associated with endosomal sorting defects in Arabidopsis [10, 126]. ESCRT mutations in Arabidopsis cause it to die at different developmental stages [127]. Under optimal growth conditions, autophagy seems to be unessential for plant life cycle. But a lack of autophagy can be the reason of the carcinogenesis and neurodegenerative diseases in the mammalian system [128].
Plants protect themselves with the help of small RNA-dependent immune system in response to biotic stress [129]. sRNAs are short regulatory RNAs (20–30 nucleotides) that silence genes with complementary sequences [130]. Against pathogens, several groups of plant sRNAs have important roles in plant defense. Plants send sRNAs in extracellular vesicles (exosomes) to the pathogen to silence virulence genes [130, 131, 132]. Host Arabidopsis cells have been shown to secrete exosome-like extracellular vesicles to deliver sRNAs into fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. These sRNA-containing vesicles accumulate at the infection sites of plant and are occupied up by the fungal cells. Transferred host sRNAs cause silencing of virulence-related genes critical for pathogenicity. Plant extracellular vesicles, mainly exosomes, have been reported to play a crucial role in cross-kingdom sRNA trafficking between Arabidopsis and the fungal pathogen B. cinerea [129].
3. Conclusions
The functional organization of eukaryotic cells requires the exchange of proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides between membrane compartments through transport intermediates. Transport from one compartment of this pathway to another is mediated by vesicular carriers, which are formed by the controlled assembly of coat protein complexes (COPs) on donor organelles. The plant endomembrane system is mostly conserved among eukaryotes but shows complex features. The structural organization of the endomembrane system is important for correct membrane trafficking and plant physiology. The trans-Golgi network (TGN) is a unique subcellular structure, which is a sorting center that integrates upstream cargoes from secretory vesicles, the plasma membrane, and other organelles. The TGN functions as an early endosome compartment, adding to the complexity of sorting mechanisms in plant cells. Protein sorting at the ER-Golgi interface is important for the protein defects. However, the specificity and quantity of cargo sorting control mechanisms between endosome compartments are not completely clarified. More comprehensive studies on endomembrane trafficking will be necessary for the illumination of development, disease responses, hormone signaling (ABA and auxin), and plant immune system via sRNAs in exosomes in plant cells.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grant to B. Cevher-Keskin from ICGEB (CRP/TUR09-03) and COST Action (CA16212)-TUBITAK 217O401. I’m grateful to Prof. Dr. Mahmut TOR for valuable suggestions and Faik Keskin for the preparation of the figures.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"GTPases, ARF1 (ADP-ribosylation factor 1), SAR1 (secretion-associated RAS superfamily 1), COPI (coat protein complex I), COPII (coat protein complex II), membrane traffic, clathrin",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71734.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71734.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71734",totalDownloads:220,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 9th 2020",datePublished:"December 9th 2020",dateFinished:"April 9th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The functional organization of eukaryotic cells requires the exchange of proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides between membrane compartments through transport intermediates. Small GTPases largely control membrane traffic, which is essential for the survival of all eukaryotes. Transport from one compartment of this pathway to another is mediated by vesicular carriers, which are formed by the controlled assembly of coat protein complexes (COPs) on donor organelles. The activation of small GTPases is essential for vesicle formation from a donor membrane. In eukaryotic cells, small GTP-binding proteins comprise the largest family of signaling proteins. The ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) and secretion-associated RAS superfamily 1 (SAR1) GTP-binding proteins are involved in the formation and budding of vesicles throughout plant endomembrane systems. ARF1 has been shown to play a critical role in coat protein complex I (COPI)-mediated retrograde trafficking in eukaryotic systems, whereas SAR1 GTPases are involved in intracellular coat protein complex II (COPII)-mediated protein trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi apparatus. The dysfunction of the endomembrane system can affect signal transduction, plant development, and defense. This chapter offers a summary of membrane trafficking system with an emphasis on the role of GTPases especially ARF1, SAR1, and RAB, their regulatory proteins, and interaction with endomembrane compartments. The vacuolar and endocytic trafficking are presented to enhance our understanding of plant development and immunity in plants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71734",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71734",signatures:"Birsen Cevher-Keskin",book:{id:"10026",title:"Electrodialysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Electrodialysis",slug:"electrodialysis",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10026.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"312702",title:"Dr.",name:"Birsen",middleName:null,surname:"Cevher Keskin",fullName:"Birsen Cevher Keskin",slug:"birsen-cevher-keskin",email:"bcevherkeskin@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Membrane trafficking pathways",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The biosynthetic secretory pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Anterograde transport (forward trafficking)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"2.1.1.1 ER-to-Golgi protein transport",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.2 Retrograde transport (reverse trafficking)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.1.2.1 Retrograde transport and COPI",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.1.2.2 Intra-Golgi transport",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Vacuolar trafficking",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.1 RAB GTPases",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.3 The endocytic pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.1 Clathrin-mediated pathway",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.2 Clathrin-independent pathway",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.4 The endomembrane system in plant development and plant defense",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"3. 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DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pct195'},{id:"B125",body:'Kalinowska K, Isono E. All roads lead to the vacuole-autophagic transport as part of the endomembrane trafficking network in plants. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2018;69:1313-1324. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx395'},{id:"B126",body:'Nagel M-K, Kalinowska K, Vogel K, Reynolds GD, Wu Z, Anzenberger F, et al. Arabidopsis SH3P2 is an ubiquitin-binding protein that functions together with ESCRT-I and the deubiquitylating enzyme AMSH3. PNAS. 2017;114(34):7197-7204. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1710866114'},{id:"B127",body:'Kolb C, Nagel M-K, Kalinowska K, Hagmann J, Ichikawa M, Anzenberger F, et al. FYVE1 is essential for vacuole biogenesis and intracellular trafficking in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Physiology 2015;67:1361-1373. DOI: 10.1104/ pp.114.253377'},{id:"B128",body:'Rusten TE, Simonsen A. ESCRT functions in autophagy and associated disease. Cell Cycle. 2008;7(9):1166-1172. DOI: 10.4161/cc.7.9.5784'},{id:"B129",body:'Zhang C, Wu Z, Li Y, Wu J. Biogenesis, function, and applications of virus-derived small RNAs in plants. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2015;6:1237'},{id:"B130",body:'Baulcombe D. RNA silencing in plants. Nature. 2004;431:356-363. DOI: 10.1038/nature02874'},{id:"B131",body:'Cai Q , Qiao L, Wang M, He B, Lin F-M, Palmquist J, et al. Plants send small RNAs in extracellular vesicles to fungal pathogen to silence virulence genes. Science. 2018;360:1126-1129. DOI: 10.1126/science.aar4142'},{id:"B132",body:'Rovenich H, Boshoven JC, PHJ B, Thomma BP. Filamentous pathogen effector functions: Of pathogens, hosts and microbiomes and microbiomes. Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 2014;20:96-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2014.05.001'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Birsen Cevher-Keskin",address:"bcevherkeskin@gmail.com;, birsen.keskin@tubitak.gov.tr",affiliation:'
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