Results for 1, 2 and 4 agents for various scenarios.
\r\n\tThe Biomechatronic book will cover all health-related areas of mechatronic systems with emphasis on medical and health-related areas of mechatronic system components. The book will generally include the following areas: Biomechanics applications, Biomaterial systems, Mechatronic systems, Sensor systems, Control systems, Actuator systems.
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Its objective is coordinating relatively simple agents instead of using a complex agent. The coordination of agents gives some abilities to these systems. These abilities are flexibility, robustness and scalability [1, 2].
Flexibility gives the ability of generating an effective solution to different problems. A single agent system can have flexibility but a multiagent system results a more flexible system because using multiple agents can solve and it can be adapted problems which are beyond of capabilities of a single agent. Robustness gives multiagent systems to complete the task despite of failures on the environment and the agents. A single agent system can be robust but it can never be robust as much as a multiagent system because whenever the agent in a single agent system is damaged, the task cannot be completed. However, when an agent in a multiagent system is damaged, the other agents can complete the task. Scalability gives the ability of adding new agents or new groups to the system and working properly with these new elements. This can be provided in a single agent system by changing the elements of the agent but this is not a good solution because this solution has many disadvantages such as cost, re-design and integration. On the other hand, this process can be handled just adding a new agent to the system in a multiagent system.
These abilities give multiagent systems some advantages [3] against a single agent system. These advantages are listed below.
Multiagent systems are cheaper and consume less energy. Because, its agents are simpler than the agent of a single agent system. Even in the case of having so many agents, it will be cheaper because of complexity of the agent in the single agent system.
Multiagent systems are faster. Because, the task is shared among agents. This gives the power of parallel processing and results a faster system.
Multiagent systems are more reliable. If the agent in a single agent system is damaged, the task cannot be completed. But, if any agent in a multiagent system is damaged, the system can still complete the task. This makes multiagent systems more reliable.
However, the coordination of the agents has some challenges. In this chapter, these challenges are addressed and they are explained with a study whose purpose is reconstructing an area in 3D using a multiagent system. The rest of chapter addresses the challenges which are facing while constructing a multiagent system. These challenges are selection of architecture, control techniques and communication mechanism in multiagent systems. The rest of the chapter is structured as follows. Applications areas are addressed in Section 2. An overview to the study is addressed in Section 3. In Section 4, architecture is addressed. Control techniques are explained in Section 5. How multiagent systems communicate is explained in Section 6. The results are presented in Section 7. Finally, the chapter is concluded in Section 8.
There are many applications of multiagent systems ranging from networking to robotics [4]. But, the advantages and abilities of these systems make them more suitable for some problems [1, 2].
One of the problems is area coverage. This problem can be solved using a single agent system but a multiagent system can be a better solution for this problem. The characteristics of the problem and multiagent systems is the reason for this because when an area is wanted to be covered, it is required that this process should be as fast as and as reliable as possible. These requirements make multiagent systems more suitable for this problem.
The other problem type is dynamic problems. These types of problems are not fixed sized. Their size can change according the time or some other parameters. Using a single agent system cannot fulfill the requirements when the problem size differs. The agent can be either an overhead or not capable enough for the problem. These problems can be easily solved using a multiagent system because it allows us to add or remove agents. In this way, there can be no overheads or capacity issues.
The other problem type is searching. In order to search for an object in an area, a scalable and faster system is needed. A single agent system can provide these properties but when it is constructed once, it will be hard to reconstruct it again. This yields a system which is not fully scalable and fast. However, these types of problems can easily be solved by a multiagent system. When a larger scene must be searched, adding more agents to the system can solve scalability problem and the system will be faster because there are more than one agent in the system, this approach allows searching faster in a given time interval.
There are different 3D reconstruction techniques. An image based 3D reconstruction technique is used in the study. Image based 3D reconstruction generally has a reconstruction pipeline in which there are several steps. The pipeline generally starts with data acquisition. In data acquisition, the study uses a multiagent UAV system. The reason of using a multiagent system is that their advantages and strengths are well suitable for the requirement of image based 3D reconstruction.
In order to reconstruct a scene in 3D with an image-based 3D reconstruction, the objects in the scene must be photographed in all the viewpoints. Figure 1 shows how the scene must be photographed.
Photographing an object.
The multiagent system is started with a command which gives an order to one of the agents in the system. The command is given by giving the positions of the area. This command can be given to any agent. The control mechanism of the system is designed to provide that any agent can get a mission and can share it among other agents. This control mechanism is designed for the study. There are some known and used control mechanisms but we want to benefit from the advantages of two known and used control mechanisms. These mechanisms are distributed control and centralized control. The designed control mechanism is a hybrid version of these two mechanisms. It takes the advantages of master-slave side of centralized control and the advantages of distributed mission sharing of distributed control and results a system in which any agent can be a master and any agent can give order to other agents. The control mechanism works with communication mechanism and it can even be said that the control mechanism works above communication mechanism because the most suitable communication mechanism is selected for the designed control mechanism. The selected communication mechanism is direct communication. All the agents can send and get messages with it. The messages determined when the system is designed and there can be different types of agents in the system, in other words, the architecture of the system provides heterogeneous agents. The communication mechanism is selected for this property, too. Any agent which implements it can easily join the system and be part of the mission.
When an area is selected using any of the agent, the agent shares the mission among the other agents equally. Then, the agents start the rotate around the area. They rotate as long as their mission, for example, if 60° are given for an agent, it rotates only 60°. While they are rotating, they capture the video of the scene. The master agents check if all the agents complete their mission. When all of them complete it, they all go to a location which is determined in advance. Then, the videos transferred to a computer and 3D reconstruction pipeline is started.
The 3D reconstruction pipeline includes tree main steps which is similar but its purpose and the steps not same with the work [5]. These steps are summarization of the videos as frames, extracting camera positions and creating point cloud, dense reconstruction. The summarization of the video is handled using a technique known as key framing. They are summarized because there are lots of frames in the video which sees the scene with similar view angle. These similar frames do not contribute the 3D reconstruction process. Key framing provides the selection of the frames which are identical and fulfill the view angle. The algorithm [6, 7] used in the key framing process is explained below.
Select the first frame as a key frame.
For each of the frames after the key frame, compute the similarity between the key frame and the frame.
If the similarity is above a similarity threshold, eliminate the frame.
If the similarity is under a threshold, store it and select as the last key frame.
In the next step, the camera positions are extracted and point cloud of the scene is created. This step is handled using a technique known as structure from motion. The study uses VisualSfM [8] as the structure from motion application. The application takes key frames as input then produces the camera positions and the point cloud of the scene. The most important reason to select this application is that this application uses SIFT feature descriptor. SIFT [9] feature descriptor gives the best precision results [10], which are very important for the study.
The final step of the pipeline is dense reconstruction. The study uses an MVS technique known as Clustering Views for Multi-view Stereo (CMVS) [11]. CMVS tool can be integrated to the VisualSfM application and they can be used in the same interface. The output of the VisualSfM becomes the input of the CMVS. The output of the CMVS, in other words the output of the pipeline because CMVS is the last step of the pipeline, is 3D dense of the scene. Figure 2 shows an overview of the pipeline.
Overview of the pipeline.
Architecture refers to how the agents of the system are constructed and how they differ from each other. There are two main architectures [12]. These are homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures. Architecture selection should be problem dependent. Both of them have some advantages and disadvantages against each other. According to problem and facilities, one of them can be selected.
In homogeneous architecture, all the agents have same capabilities and all of them are identical. A system which has agents from same brand can be an example of homogeneous architecture. The example can be understood well from Figure 3. The advantage of this architecture is simplicity. Implementing a homogeneous architecture is simpler than heterogeneous architecture.
A homogeneous multiagent system.
In heterogeneous architecture, the agents can have different capabilities and they can be different from each other. There can also be different agent groups to form a heterogeneous architecture. A system which is implemented with a heterogeneous architecture should not constrain the number of agents in these groups. All the agent groups should have desired number of agents and their agent number can also be different from each other. A system which has agents from some different brands can be an example of heterogeneous architecture. Figure 4 illustrates a heterogeneous architecture.
A heterogeneous multiagent system.
Heterogeneous architectures can be more flexible and cheaper than homogeneous architectures using some optimizations. Tasks can be allocated according to features of an agent. For example, while the agent which has a better camera is capturing photos, the other one which has a better processing power can handle task sharing issues. Although a multiagent system is not constructed heterogeneous agents, it can be better to design an architecture suitable for heterogeneous agents.
The study is implemented with a fixed brand agent but the agents from different brands or having different capabilities can be used. This feature is provided by the connection mechanism. The system uses a local area network (LAN) in order to communicate. The communication is handled via messages. There are some types of communication messages in our system. These messages are addressed in Section 6. One of the reasons to select this type of communication structure is providing a heterogeneous architecture. When an agent implements these messages, it can easily join our system. For example, there is a message type whose purpose is transferring command messages. This message carries information about the coverage area and the task. An agent which has features suitable for our problem and which has implementation to parse the information can take command messages and be a part of our system.
The architecture does not restrict the number of different heterogeneous agents or number of agent. There can be any number of agents as much as an agent can store the address of other agents. This property is provided by implementation of the architecture. In our implementation, all the agents have a list to store the address of other agents. This list does not keep agent dependent information but it only store the address of other agents. In this way, the agents need just the address of the other agents. This improves scalability of the system and gives the power of working with desired number of different agents. This implementation also does not restrict the number of agents from different groups. There can be any number of groups and any number of agents in these groups. These properties make our system more robust, flexible and scalable.
When the study uses a homogeneous architecture, a different model agent could not be added and this would constrain the abilities of the system. For example, assume that we want to add an agent and we have an agent from different brand. If the system does not provide heterogeneous agents, we cannot use the agent. Instead, we have to buy a new agent whose brand same as the ones in the system. This increases our costs and this is not a desired situation. On the other hand, some products can be sold in a specific time intervals. Even if we do not buy a constructed agent, its internal components are sold in same way too. This situation results a system which only can be used as long as the agents can be constructed or bought.
When our agent list would have been designed to some fixed different agents, it results a system which is heterogeneous but whenever a different agent must be added, the implementation of the system must be updated according to the agent, which is wanted to add. This situation would be laborious and could not be applied in some situations. For example, if the implementation is not proper to add a new type of agent or an agent is not proper for the system, it cannot be added. This situation has some drawbacks which are same as in the previous case.
Control mechanism is one of the challenging and vital components. They affect the whole system from agents to communication styles. A control mechanism determines how the agents are controlled; in other word, it determines how the agents decide for coordination.
Choosing a right control mechanism depends on some parameters. These are performance of agents, communication style of the system, environment, cost and mission type. There can be some parameters depending on the problem. This situation leads to finding different types of control mechanism or variating the existing ones in order to build effective systems. In this chapter, the main three control mechanisms [13] are addressed. These are centralized, distributed and hierarchical control.
In centralized control, there is a fixed agent to control the coordination of the system. This agent can be called master or mediator. The other agents are called slaves. There is a centralized control illustration in Figure 5. All slaves take orders from master. This approach creates a system in which the master agent is constructed a bit different or completely different than slaves. Depending on the problem or the facilities, differences can be set. But, these differences determine the ability of the master and the system. For example, if the master is used only in order to control of the system, it does not need to have a payload. On the other hand, if there are limited numbers of agents and the master must contribute to completion of the task, then it must have a payload.
A centralized control.
Centralized control has some advantages and disadvantages. It requires a simple consensus mechanism in which the agents just obey the master. But on the other hand, implementation of centralized control is somehow difficult because it requires design of agents and implementation of the system in two different perspectives. These are how the master and slaves are constructed and how the system is implemented. These can result a master whose cost is higher than slaves and a system which is implemented in a master perspective and in slaves perspective. For example, there must two different programs, one of them is for master and the other one is for slaves. The other important disadvantage is that, operational capability of the system depends on the master. If the master is damaged, the system cannot be used or the task cannot be completed.
In distributed control, all agents are equal for the control. There is not any master agent to control the slaves. Instead, all the agents contribute control equally. This is done by consensus. In multiagent systems, consensus means that the agents decide on an agreement which determines the behavior of the system. There are various consensus algorithms in literature [14, 15]. All of them have some differences and come with advantages and disadvantages against each other. But all of them have the same objective and all of them have the characteristics of distributed control.
Using distributed control mechanism can be advantageous. It results a system in which design and implementation are easy because all the agents are in same level, there is not any need to think about in master and slave perspectives. The other important advantage is that if any of the agents is damaged, the task can still be completed. On the other hand, implementation of a consensus algorithm is a challenging task. They are problem dependent and they affect the communication styles of the system (Figure 6).
A distributed control.
Hierarchical control acts like a tree and it has a tree characteristics. All agents can have children and can have parent. All agents are responsible for control of their children. There is a root agent at the top of the control. Actually, the root is responsible for the control of the system. It shares the task to its children and its children can share the task among their children. Figure 7 can give an idea about the mechanism. Depending on the situation, this mechanism can lead a system in which there are one type, two types or three types of different agents. In the case of three different agents, there can be a root, controllers, and leaves. The root can be responsible for sharing task among controllers. The controller can be responsible for the control of the leaves and only the leaves can contribute to completion of the task. In the case of two different types of agents, there can be a root, controllers and leaves but instead of only controlling the leaves, the controllers contribute to completion of the task. In the case of a one type of agent, there can be a root, controllers and leaves but all the agents can contribute to completion of task.
A hierarchical control.
Hierarchical control mechanism generally used in problems which requires multiple tasks and which spreads on a wide area. There are some advantages and disadvantages using hierarchical control. One of the advantages is that it has a simple consensus mechanism in which children obey the order of parents. The other important advantage is that the system is well suitable for multiple tasks which must be done simultaneously. On the other hand, implementation of the system can be difficult in both agent perspective and the system perspective. It is difficult in agent perspective because the system can have different types of agent. This allows constructing different types of agent whose requirements and capabilities are different from each other. It is difficult in system perspective because different types of agents require different implementation.
A different control mechanism is designed for the study which is mixture of centralized and distributed control. In the mechanism, there is not any fixed master. Instead, all agents can be a master as long as they have mission. When any of the agents have a mission, it shares the mission among others including itself and it became a master until the mission is completed. It is similar to distributed control because there is not any fixed master in the system. It is similar to centralized control because the tasks are shared among agents by a master. This hybrid control mechanism results a system which is very suitable for our problem. Figure 8 shows the control mechanism of the system.
Control mechanism of the system.
There are some reasons to design such a control mechanism for the study. The most important reason is that this mechanism offers some advantages against the other control mechanisms. One of the advantages is that it provides a simple consensus algorithm because whenever an agent has a mission, it just gives the mission to others and they just accept the order and then try to complete it. This algorithm is as simple as the consensus algorithm of a centralized control. The other advantage is that it provides easy design and implementations. It provides an easy design because all agents can be constructed same, there is not any need to design different types of agents. It provides an easy implementation because all agents act the same, and there is not need to implement different types of agents. The other important advantage is operational capability. When an agent is damaged, the others can still complete the mission or they can still take a mission because the master is not fixed. Thus, the system does not depend on a single agent.
If centralized control is selected for the study, there must be a fixed agent in order to control the slaves. This situation enforces the study designing two different implementations for each of the agent type. On the other hand, the study became depended to the master. If the master gets some damages, the study cannot be used.
If distributed control is selected, a consensus algorithm is needed for coordination. But, our problem is more suitable for a consensus algorithm like the one in centralized control because our area, which is reconstructed in 3D, is selected in advance. This makes our problem static and can easily be solved with the consensus mechanism of centralized control.
If hierarchical control is selected, there must be a hierarchy among agents but our problem is not suitable well for a hierarchy. A hierarchy may be needed in situations in which the mission has several tasks or it has a large task. But, our problem requires only one task and the areas are not very large.
Communication is another challenging and vital component in multiagent systems. Unlike other vital components, it does not affect the coordination directly. Instead, it provides a basis and coordination is provided using it. A communication mechanism determines how the agents communicate.
Communication is effected from components of multiagent systems and some other factors. These factors and components are environment, agents, control mechanism, architecture and weather. These have a critical role in order to select a mechanism. There are three [13, 16] main communication mechanisms. These are direct communication, communication using sense and communication using environment. Each of them has advantages and disadvantages. These are discussed in this section. Depending on the problem and facilities, one of them can be selected.
In this mechanism, the agents do not interact with each other. Instead, they use environment as a medium. Thus, they adapt to the changes in the environment. In other word, they make their next movement according to environment. This provides communication among them. This mechanism generally is known as stigmergy [17, 18]. It can be found in nature. Some insects and termites complete their tasks using this type of communication. It is inspired from nature and applied to multiagent systems.
In multiagent systems, this mechanism is provided by implementation of agents and input devices like sensors, cameras or others. Implementation of the agents determines what the agent does when it encounters with an object. Input devices provides observing and identification of the objects which are used as communication medium. All agents have the input devices. While they are observing the environment, they collect information and this information is parsed. When the information is parsed, the agents act how they are implemented according to information. For example, there can be an obstacle type whose purpose is turning the agents to left. When the agents are implemented suitable for the purpose of the obstacle type and when the agent encounters with the obstacle, they turn to left.
There are some advantages and disadvantages of the mechanism. One of the advantages is that ones the mechanism is set, it can provide a communication mechanism for a lot of agents and number of agents does not affect the system. The other important advantage is that it can be used in complex and large tasks without considering connection range. On the other hand, there are some important disadvantages of the mechanism. One of them is that the cost of using the mechanism can be very high because it can require multiple sensors and multiple sensors require more performance. This approach comes with high cost. Another important disadvantage is that designing such an environment is generally difficult. There are a lot of things to consider. These are objects in the environment, different objects which do not affect the communication, input types of the agents. When these things are determined, the system can be set.
In this communication mechanism, the agents communicate with local interactions. One of the agents senses another. In this way, they make inferences about their next movement or their next states and they contribute completing the task according to these inferences.
The mechanism is realized by sensors and implementation of the agents. The sensors sense the other agents, in other words, they gather information about the states of others. Implementation of the agents determines what the agent does when it senses an agent which is desired type or which carries desired features. According to problem, the agents can be implemented in order to sense any agents or any desired features. While they are sensing the other agents, they determine them according to their implementations and when they sense the appropriate ones, they behave according to their implementations. For example, the agents can be implemented for sensing the ones whose distances are 50 cm away from them and when they sense them, they can try to keep the distance constant.
The most important advantage of the mechanism is that it can used to solve some kind of problems. These problems are pattern formation and flocking. In order to solve these, the agents sense their neighbors and they adjust themselves according to them. In contrast, the mechanism is more suitable for distributed control and using a centralized control is much harder.
In this communication mechanism, the agents communicate with direct messages. Every agent can get and send messages to others. The messages are determined when the system is designed and all the agents use these pre-determined messages.
This mechanism is generally set on a network. Thus, all the messages are sent and get through it. The mechanism is realized using implementation of agents and a component which let agents join the network. The implementation handles what the agents do when a message is received or what kind of message will be send to other agents. The component handles the communication issues. It provides getting messages which are released to the network and sending messages to other agents, in other word, it provides an interface in order to release messages. According to implementation and the need of the system, the agents can send or get messages from any agents. While agents wait messages from others, they can do whatever they want but when they get a message from other agents, they must behave according to their implementation. For example, an agent can be programmed to sleep when any mission is not assigned to the agent but when it gets a message which carries a mission, it must start completing it.
Direct communication mechanism can be used to implement any type of control mechanism. It can be even used for a control mechanism which is derived from other control mechanisms or whose design is unique and it can be used for any type of problem. In addition, there can be any number of agents in the system but in case of sending or getting too many messages simultaneously, the system can be slower. Or it cannot be used in case of a mission which spreads on a large area. Because, a network which provides connection for long distance is required and this requires a high cost which cannot be afforded.
Direct communication mechanism used in the study. The UAVs used in the study has a feature to connect a network and the system is suitable for any kind of networks. Thus, any network can be used for communication.
The system has tree type of communication messages. These are command messages, communication messages and mission completed messages. All of them have different purpose and all of them contribute to system in different perspectives. In order to send and get these messages, the agents uses their IP address as a communication address. Thus, the agents must know IP address of other agents to send and get messages from them. All the agents have an agent list which stores other agents IP addresses. Agents can get and send these messages according to the agent list and they must behave according to messages. The following subsection explains how these message types are used in the study.
Connection messages set up a connection between two agents. In other words, it allows two different agents to recognize each other. The agent lists are filled using connection messages. These messages carry the IP address of the agent. There are two connection messages in the system. These messages are add agent and confirm agent. They are in following form and each agent can send and get these.
ADDAGENT#ip_address
CONFIRMAGENT#ip_addres
An add agent message is sent when an agent wants to add another agent to its list. Its purpose is sending an add request to other agents. In order to add an agent, the agent list of the sender must first be checked to ensure that the agent has not been added yet. If it is so, sender agent send an add agent message to the receiver agent.
Confirm agent message is sent whenever an add message is received. Its purpose is confirming the sender about the connection. A receiver agent does not need to check if the sender is on the list or not. If it takes an add message, the sender is not on the list because when a connection message is completed, both the sender and the receiver add the other agent to its list. This approach yields a system in which the agent is on same level. When an agent gets confirm agent message, it adds the sender of the message to the list. The algorithm is explained step by step below. Figure 9 shows the sender and receiver side briefly.
The sender checks if the receiver has not been added yet.
If the receiver has not been added, sends an add message.
If the receiver gets an add message, adds the sender of the message to the agent list
The receiver sends a confirm message to the sender.
When the sender gets the confirm message, it adds the receiver to its agent list.
Connection message.
When any of the agents takes a mission, it shares the mission with its agent list. Before the agent shares the mission, the mission information must be defined. The agent which shares the mission is responsible for defining mission information. The mission is shared in a command message.
In the implementation of the study, a mission information message is defined by a class. The class carries the location of the area, the location of the mission which is assigned to the agent, the number of agents in the system, the ID of the agent. The location area is the location which the master agent takes, in other word, it is the whole scene. The location of the mission is the task which is given an agent to cover. This information is required to defining the area. The number of agents in the system is required because the agent must know how many agents are there in the system. Whenever a mission is shared, all the agents are given an ID by the master agent. The ID of the master agent becomes 1 and the ID of the other agents determined relatively with the master agent. This information is required because it is used in coverage of the area and for checking if the agents complete the mission successfully.
The system must be sure that the mission is completed successfully. In order to be sure of the completion of the mission, mission completed messages are sent. There are four types of mission completed message in the system, these are error, state, success and not completed messages. They carry an IP address and they are in the following form.
ERROR#ip_address
STATE#ip_address
SUCCESS#ip_address
NOTCOMPLETED#ip_address
Actually, there are three types of scenarios to realize mission completed messages. These scenarios arise because there are differences among mission completion of master as first, mission completion of slaves as first and in the case of not taking a response from a slave.
When any of the slaves completes its mission before the master, they send a success message to the master. The purpose of the success message is informing the master about the completion. When the master agent completes the mission before the slaves, it sends a state message to the slaves which have not sent a success message yet. The purpose of state message is determining if the slave completes its mission or not and if it does not complete, determining the reason. The reason can be an error. When the slaves get the state message, they send not completed message if they have not completed their mission but they think they can complete it successfully, in other word, if they have power and facilities to complete the mission. The purpose of not completed message is informing the master about the state of the slave. When the master agent gets a not completed message from a slave, it sends states messages until the agent sends a success message or an error message. The error message is sent in the case of there is an error in the agent or the agent cannot complete the mission because of facilities or power. The purpose of error message is informing the master about the state of the slave. When the master gets an error message, it completes the mission of the sender of the message. When the master sent a state message and a slave does not response in a given time interval, it is counted as error too. The following algorithms explain scenarios and Figure 10 and Figure 11 shows the scenarios briefly.
A slave finishes first and a slave does not response.
Master finishes first.
When a slave finishes first:
The slave sends a success message to master.
Master gets the message and will not send it a state message.
When a master finishes first:
The master sends a state message to slaves.
The slaves get the message.
The slaves send a not completed message if it can complete the mission.
The slaves send an error message if it cannot complete the mission.
If the master gets a not completed message, it sends states messages until it gets a success or error message.
If the master gets an error message, it completes the mission of the sender agent.
When a slave does not response:
The master sends a state message and waits for a while.
If the slave does not response, the master completes its mission.
If communication using environment is selected, there must be some objects whose purpose is defining the coverage area for each of the agents in the scene. There must also be additional sensors or a camera implementation whose purpose is determining the objects in order to communicate. In the case of having sensors on the agent, the agents collect the information which comes from the sensors and tries to determine the coverage area from the collected information. The sensors add additional cost to the agent and the system. They add additional cost to the agent because buying and integrated a sensor to an agent requires additional time and money. In addition, the performance of the agents must be upgraded because the sensors also need process power. They add additional cost to the system because the system requires objects and buying objects requires money. In addition, positioning the objects to the scene requires a human interaction or designing a different study whose purpose is just positioning the object to the scene. In the case of using a camera implementation, while the cameras record the scene, they try to determine the coverage area. This case adds additional complexity to the system because a camera implementing requires detecting objects in the scene and integrating this implementation to the main implementation results a more complex system.
If communication using sense is selected, there must be additional sensors on the agent and there must be different implementation of the system. The additional sensors are required because the agent uses information which comes from the sensors in order to communicate. The types of the sensors can vary according to desired communication range. For example, one sensor type can sense 100 m distances but another can sense 1000 m. This situation restricts coverage area with respect to sensors and results a system whose capabilities is strictly depended on the sensors. In addition, the sensors add the system additional cost to the agent. The reason of the cost is same as with the cost of communication using environment. A different implementation is required because in this case the agents must observe other agents and determines their own coverage regions with respect to other agents.
The study is executed with one, two and four agents in four areas. The sizes of the fields are 1600, 2500, 3600, and 4900 m2, respectively. When they start their mission, a chronometer is starter and it lasts until they finish their missions and the results are recorded. The results are shown in Table 1. The results show that when the number of agents is more, the system is faster.
1600 m2 | 2500 m2 | 3600 m2 | 4900 m2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 Agent | 69 sec | 83 sec | 96 sec | 104 sec |
2 Agents | 39 sec | 46 sec | 51 sec | 55 sec |
4 Agents | 24 sec | 28 sec | 31 sec | 34 sec |
Results for 1, 2 and 4 agents for various scenarios.
The relationship between the agents and the size of the agents can be seen in Figure 12 and Figure 13.
Relationship between the number of agents and the size of the fields.
Percentage relationship between the number of agents and the size of the fields.
Figure 14 depicts the 3D point cloud obtained by the multiagent reconstruction approach. The point cloud can easily be converted in to a mesh with the available texture information acquired from the agent cameras.
An output from the study.
Multiagent systems deal with coordination of more than one agent in order to complete a task. There are several features of these systems. These features are robustness, scalability and flexibility. These features give some advantages to multi agent system. These advantages make multiagent systems cheaper, faster and more reliable. There are many applications of multiagent systems ranges from networking to robotics.
Although there are many applications and advantages of multiagent systems, designing a multiagent system is a challenging task. There are several issues to consider. The chapter addresses most encountered issues. These are architecture selection, communication mechanism selection and control mechanism selection. They must be implemented in most of systems. The chapter addresses each of them with a study. Each of them is explained in sections and the study is given as an example in each sections. The experimental results of this study shows that a multiagent system is more effective and more advantageous compared to single-agent systems.
Creativity is tilted heavily toward art more than a science discipline. There are no processes, steps, medication, or ingredients to guarantee creativity or creative performance. There are, however, many factors, such as environment, emotions, expertise, intrinsic motivation, etc., that enhance or improve the creative abilities of people. The aim of this chapter is to understand the relationship between emotions and creativity. Emotions are not a button one chooses to press or not to press. It is not thought or learned; it erupts when triggered by a phenomenon or a situation. Let us consider the emotional expression of a newborn. Have you ever wondered how newborns get to know how to cry? Most newborns announce their presence into the world with shrill noise referred to as Vitalis or the cry of life. Scientists have over the years tried to understand the message being communicated by the newborns through Vitalis without success, except to indicate that it is an expression of emotions of either distress or discomfort of being transitioned from one environment (womb) where they were completely dependent on their mother to a life outside the womb where the baby has to depend on their own lungs to survive. Though science has not been able to decode the message of the cry of life, science tells us that the cry of life is an important expression in the first few minutes of human life. The lack of it, how high or low, and how persistent tells on the kind of attention, urgency of attention, how intense or detailed examination the child will receive. The universality and the tender age (day one) at which this expression of emotions occur make it clear that emotions are a natural and vital occurrence in the life of every human being. It is safe to say that every human being at one time in his or her life have encountered a situation where a story, movie, photograph, poetry, artwork, and music stirred up some emotion within them [1].
While the exposure to the creative work of people spurs the emotion of their audience, followers, or collectors, we also know that for people to achieve the impactful creative performance, they try to connect to certain emotions to power their creativity. They go to great lengths to transfer that emotional power into their creative works to captivate and inspire their audience to follow them or be hooked on their work or their person. Great artists such as Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Tailor Swift, Kojo Antwi, and Ibrahim Mahama have always been inspired by their emotions. Love, pain, fear, rejection, and several other emotions have invoked creativity in people over the years. Yet, the subject of emotional creativity is the least researched or discussed topic in creativity. Before we zoom in to what emotional creativity is all about, let us first try to understand what emotion is. Emotion is a spontaneous psychological and physical reaction, demonstration, or expression of feelings toward an experience or anticipation of a future event. A psychologist has told us over the years that emotions are solely an activity of the brain, but new evidence has shown that this is not the case. The Institute of HeartMath, a research center specializing in the study of the physiology of emotions, has identified a relationship between emotions, the brain, and the heart. The research center explains that as we encounter or anticipate an experience, erratic patterns are sent to the emotional centers of the brain by the heart and the brain responds with signals to the heart and body in forms known as feelings [2]. These findings are affirmed by the James-Lange theory, which states that witnessing or experiencing an external event leads to a physiological or physical response [3]. For instance, if you come into contact with a bear on a lonely street on a usual night walk, your body will start to tremble and then your heart will start racing, which will send signals or patterns to the brain; the James-Lange theory suggests that the brain after receipt of the signals will interpret the physiological or physical reaction as being frightened [3]. The signaling of the body to a particular emotion leads us to the making of decisions and choices. When the brain tells me that I am frightened at the sight of a bear, I then make a decision to run, scream for help, throw something at the bear, or remain calm. We make several choices in terms of what to eat, wear, where to go to, who to visit, and the tone to communicate with based on our emotions. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the intricacies of emotions, starting with the types of emotions and how they influence our actions and abilities especially in terms of creativity or creative performance.
Paul Eckman advocated in 1972 that there were six basic emotions in the universe: fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness, and sadness [4]; this was expanded to include joy and acceptance by Pollack [5] in later years. Robert Plutchik in 1980, however, argued that humans do not necessarily exhibit one type of emotion in reaction to a particular situation all the time. He opined that in most cases, there is what is called “mixed feelings,” where two or more emotions combine as an expression over a situation. Therefore, though phycologist tells us that there are about 34,000 emotional feelings, American psychologist Dr. Robert Plutchik have argued that the 34,000 emotions are the permutations of the eight distinctive primary emotions that serve as a foundation to any form of emotion [6]. These are joy, sadness, surprise, disgust, anticipation, anger, acceptance, and fear [5, 7]. These emotions trigger certain physical and physiological activities in the body or brain such as crying, laughter, jumping, hugging, writing, dancing, or sicknesses such as depression and high blood pressure. This activity is often termed creativity depending on how unique, beneficial or detrimental, and visible the activity is to a third party, society, or the individual. When the activity is unique, visible, and beneficial and awakens the expression of joy, excitement, and surprise especially to many people, it is termed creative. When it is unique, visible, and detrimental and awakens the expression of sadness, shock, sorrow, and pain to anybody, it is termed the dark side of creativity. Continuing from the example of the bear in the last paragraph, if the person’s reaction after being frightened leads to a unique or new, beneficial, or detrimental activity or a project upon seeing the bear, there establishes a link between a person’s emotions and creative abilities. According to Hoffmann [8], emotions and feelings are intricately related to creativity, in that reactions triggered by emotions often lead to a person burying himself in work to develop a product, writing a poem, or development of “lessons learned,” which becomes a solution to other people’s problems.
Emotional creativity is defined as “a pattern of cognitive abilities and personality traits related to originality and appropriateness in emotional experience” [9]. It is a critical component in the creative process. It is the ability to create something new through the influence of emotions evoked from the personal or experiences of others. Creative works inspired by emotions are often original and greeted with Euphoria.
More often than not, people misconstrue emotions to be feelings or moods and even use them interchangeably, thus wondering how such traits can lead to creativity. There are, however, differences in these variables [10]. These differences are determined according to the timing of occurrence of these variables when a situation occurs, warranting emotional, feeling, or mood response and also the level of involvement or interactions with certain organs of the body. Emotions are triggered as a form of response to a situation; it involves interaction between the brain, the heart, and other organs of the body. Feelings come in mostly second after emotional processes have occurred, and the person is brooding over the issue and one feels physical and emotional sensations. It does not necessarily have to involve the heart; it is the reason someone can “feel cold” because of cold or icy weather, which has nothing to do with the heart as compared to feeling emotionally cold toward someone. It usually lasts longer than emotions. Moods are usually not necessarily triggered by an event, situation, or circumstances; there are times when people just wake up from sleep and claim they are not in the mood to talk or they are in a good or bad mood. In such circumstances, they sing all day when in good mood and when in bad mood wear a frown all day and bark at the least provocation; these scientists have attributed to the activities of “mood swing” hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. In situations where it occurs because of a specific situation, it can occur before feelings or after feelings have been expressed.
In all these variables, however, the determining factor for creativity or creative performance is what Psychologist Eddie Harmon-Jones calls emotional and motivational intensity. The intensity of emotional feelings, such as joy, anger, sadness, etc., generates motivational intensity, which provides the impetus for creativity [11]. According to motivational intensity theory, low motivational intensity broadens attention leading to the search for new goals to pursue. The discovery of purposeful goals increases the level of intensity for creative performance [6]. When the search for goals to pursue under low intensity is not discovered, boredom sets in, which sometimes leads to depression, stifling creativity. High motivational intensity narrows attention and focus leading to the completion of a specific goal. High intensity, therefore, fosters a high level of creativity [6]. Many argue that motivational intensity is a more important factor and a driving force in determining emotional creativity than the positivity and negativity of emotional experience. However, critics have been quick to point out that the positivity and negativity of emotional experiences form the basis for motivation. These critics have explained that the positivity or negativity of emotions is what motivates people to behave in a certain way, which sometimes leads to creative performance, and that if negative or positive emotions were not to exist, the motivational intensity would not exist for creative performance to happen. For instance, when someone is excited, the positive emotion is what will motivate the person to act in a manner, which exudes joy, and if they have been angered, then that negative emotion will motivate them to act violently against the person who offended them.
Positive and negative emotions are inevitable in life; life experiences impose such emotions as part of human development or maturity. A positive emotion can be described as a pleasant feeling in reaction to a situation or a circumstance, while a negative emotion is explained as an unpleasant and undesirable feeling in reaction to a situation or a circumstance. Some examples of situations or circumstances that awaken some pleasant or unpleasant are discussed in the following. Let us consider a situation where one loses a loved one. The act of losing the loved one is the person’s situation or circumstance; the expression of the emotion of sadness, sorrow, or emptiness is the feeling in reaction to an unwanted experience described as a negative emotion. Similarly, the joy of earning one’s first paycheck after school is the person’s circumstance, and the expression of the emotion of ecstasy is the feeling in reaction to a beautiful experience described as a positive emotion. As has previously been discussed, emotions are not always experienced or expressed in their pure forms as posited by Robert Plutchik; people sometimes experience a mixed form of these emotions [4]. For instance, getting married could invoke several different emotions, such as joy, anxiety, and fear of the unknown, in one person at the same time or at the varying time; in other words, the person is experiencing or is in a certain situation but experiencing different emotions. The mixed feeling, however, often occurs when the situation or circumstances are either within a period of expectation or situation not in finality. When the issue invoking the mixed feeling comes to finality in most cases, the individual experiences either a positive or negative emotion.
On March 10, 1999, Paul Njoroge kissed his wife Carole, three children Ryan, Kelly, Ruby, and his mother-in-law who were on board Boeing 737 Max goodbye. They were taking a short trip and were expected to return soon. He had barely made his way out of the airport when he heard from news update that the plane had crashed. He was in a state of fear and anxiety but at the same time filled with hope that God will intervene and keep members of his family alive. All these mixed emotions engulfed his being as he drove defenselessly to the airport. A crowd of anxious relatives of persons on board the plane was mounting up. As information flow stagnated and the confirmation of survivors delayed, anger began to consume Paul’s being, yet he hanged on to the slim rope of hope. He edged away from persons who had given up hope and were wailing even before hearing from officials. He did not want to entertain the thought of losing his entire family. When official confirmation reached Paul that there were no survivors and all 149 passengers had died, all hope of seeing his family immediately disappeared. He moved from fear, anxiety, and hope to anger and now pain and loneliness. Paul has since then been living with friends; he cannot bear to return home to see the shoes of his children at the living area where they had left them that day. He has a flashback of their tiny feet in those shoes, but he knows he will never see them running around the house or making noise again. Paul declared that he could never return to his house; the pain and the loneliness come alive whenever he pictures his family in that house. How Paul decides to channel this highly intense emotional trauma will determine an outcome that would be categorized as a creative performance or not. If the outcome is categorized as a creative performance, then we say his emotion has powered creativity; thus, emotional creativity has been fostered through his experience.
Negative emotions often power creativity in solitude or are championed as a solo project, while positive emotions often occur within a team. While the creative outcome of positive emotions is very helpful and impactful, it does not often strike a deep emotional chord in third parties as negative emotions do. Think about it, how many songs, artwork, architectural work, and discoveries that captivated the world were inspired by positive emotion, very few. However, if we were to survey many organizations to find out the number of groundbreaking inventions that were carried out because someone had the confidence, hope, and passion to invent, it will be numerous. Examples of creative performance or creative work inspired by positive performance though existing and prevalent, the outcome is often not traced to a specific positive emotion because positive emotions are difficult to sustain for a long period and often not centered on one person. The creative performance or creative works of negative emotions, however, gain popularity very easily, mainly for two reasons. First, negative emotions linger longer than positive ones; hence, the required intensity to motivate or inspire a creative work is often sustained until the completion of the work. Second, in many cultures around the world, people are brought up or trained to be empathetic and conditioned to think that empathy is feeling another person’s pain. So, although empathy is understanding and sharing the feelings of others, the “feelings” in the definition of empathy have been replaced with pain. Therefore, when someone develops a creative piece and shares his source of inspiration for the work and has a tint of negative emotions, such as pain, rejection, loneliness, etc., there is the tendency for the work to enjoy the widespread expression of empathy leading to acceptance and popularity.
Negative emotions at the workplace are often not welcomed in organizations. Such negative emotions, like jealousy and envy, could be detrimental to the creative and general performance of an organization [12]. A person envious of a colleague could frustrate efforts at developing a creative process or product just so recognition for good work does not go to someone other than him or her. Positive emotions that are highly desirous in organizations tend to inspire, engage, and empower the team to creative performance. Joe Forgas, a social psychologist, asserts that though negative emotions are often assumed to be detrimental to creativity or humanity, they sometimes catalyze creative production [11]. He explained that although both positive and negative emotions take varying paths, they can both lead to creativity. Joe Forgas posited that while positive feelings stimulate creativity out of the satisfaction of life, negative emotions such as sadness sharpen attention, making a person more focused and diligent toward creative performance [11]. Happenings around the world tell us that creativity and creative performance are not always an outcome of positive emotions; negative emotions can also generate creativity depending on where the aggressiveness that usually characterizes such emotions is channeled. Let us consider some notable examples of how negative emotions inspired some artists to capture the attention of the world with their creative work.
“You’re beautiful” when released in 2005 as a single reached number 1 and 2 on music charts in the UK and Australia, respectively. It reached number 1 in music charts and airplay in Canada and the USA leading to the song-winning Ivor Novello award for airplay in 2006. The song sold 625,000 copies in the UK and over three million copies in the USA [13]. It is the first single to reach number 1 on music charts in 10 major cities in the world, including Spain, Mexico, Canada, the USA, the UK, and The Netherlands. It was the first American Idol song to become the number 1 song on the USA billboard hot 100 [13]. The song received three Grammy nominations in 2007 and won the BMI Internet Award for most plays on BMI-licensed websites in 2007. This song that received global subscriptions and airplay was inspired by a negative emotion experienced by the writer and singer, James Blunt [13]. Blunt confirmed on Oprah Winfrey’s show on March 8, 2006 that the inspiration for the song was from a place of misery. He told the audience of how he spotted his ex-girlfriend at the Underground in London with her new boyfriend; this stirred in him an unwanted emotion, which inspired him to write a song that reached number 1 in major countries and sold over 3 million copies in the USA alone in just 2 minutes [13].
When Elton John, a UK artist, heard of the death of Princess Diana, his close friend, he went into a devastating depression. Elton John felt he had to pay tribute to his friend through a song, but the time was too short; he, therefore, contacted his writing partner Bernie Taupin, and the words of Candle in the Wind originally performed in 1973 were rewritten to depict the pain of losing his friend Princess Diana [14]. To date, Elton John has performed the song only once at the funeral of Princess Dianna, but when the song “Candle in the Wind” was released as a single after the funeral, it broke records by being number 1 in a large number of countries, which was affirmed by the Guinness Book of Records as the biggest-selling single of all time [14].
So far, we have discussed creativity in terms of tangibility. Often when we talk or think about creativity, what comes to mind is Mona Lisa paintings, iconic buildings, or beautiful songs or poetry, things we can see, touch or hear but what of the process of ideation? How does our emotion relate to or influence our ability to generate new or fresh ideas to solve problems. The answer is creative thinking; it is not very different from what we perceive creativity to be because before one will decide to write lyrics to a song inspired by a particular emotion, the development of the idea is first constructed in the mind before it is written and sung. Researchers at the World Economic Forum suggest that creative thinking is one of the most essential skills needed by work professionals or skilled workers and future leaders [15]. Creative thinking has been described as nurturing one’s imagination to perceive possibilities aimed at developing ideas to solve problems or create something new. The emotions impact creative thinking in similar ways as has been previously discussed. It is instructive to note that, while negative emotions are not desirous at workplaces and positive emotions are perceived to be idle for creative performance at the workplace, this line of thinking could be misleading. If positive emotions necessarily lead to creative performance at the workplace, then all advertised job vacancies would indicate a preference for sanguine personality trait as a key job requirement since it is perceived to spur positive emotions, an assertion shared by Bojanowska and Zalewska [16], who have categorized the sanguine personality trait as a happy temperament. While emotions such as happiness, enthusiasm, and confidence inspire creativity and increase productivity, those same traits could become a source of destruction in the organization. Some employees in expressing happiness or joy go about drinking, playing loud music, chitchatting, and gossiping, which tend to destruct others from working and make the company lose productive time. Negative emotions such as anger and resentment borne out of being denied promotion if controlled can be used as motivation for personal improvement [17]. This presupposes that, that not all emotions whether positive or negative lead to creativity and creative performance, there must be a deliberate attempt at controlling or stirring the emotion toward a creative outcome; to do this, one needs a special skill referred to as emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is the mindfulness and evaluation of one’s own emotions and that of others to control those emotions for purposes of influencing emotional outcomes for greater creative and productive performance [18]. The findings of recent research by Anderson [15] indicate that our ability to use our mind to understand emotions within our space or impact on our environment and control that emotion to the extent of developing new ideas or solving problems creatively is an art of emotional intelligence and application toward the achievement of organizational objectives [19]. Moore [20] posits that people who have a high level of emotional intelligence can manage the relationship in a manner that fosters creativity by showing a high level of emotional constraint and empathy, which correlates with leadership effectiveness, team success, and employee performance [20]. Emotional intelligence provides the opportunity for people to be aware of how emotions influence creativity and performance to harness specific emotional states of the person or employee for developing creative solutions within the organizational or personal goals. This is affirmed in a study conducted on young business professionals [21], where it was established that emotional intelligence improves moods, and persons with emotional intelligence can turn good moods into creativity at the workplace. The findings of this study collaborate with a Yale-led study reported in the
A story is told of how Spencer Silver, a scientist at 3M in 1968, set out to create adhesive for aircraft, but the adhesive turned out to be weak, and his creative work was rejected and put aside by the company [24]. Years later, when Art Fry, a chemical engineer in the same company 3M, experienced negative emotions of frustration, disappointment, and pain of losing his place in the choir, he used some of Spencer’s adhesive to coat one side of a paper to mark some pages of the hymn book. He realized that after unconsciously pasting and removing the paper with Spencer’s adhesive at the same spot in the hymn book, the page of the hymn book was not destroyed. When he realized the potential value of the paper with adhesive, he quickly brought it to the attention of his superiors; surprisingly, he was ordered to stop work. Art Fry, however, ignored the orders of his superiors, bypassed laid down procedures, and continued working on the project using the company’s equipment without permission. The company eventually identified the usefulness of Art Fry’s creative work, which became known as Post-it and manufactured it [24]. In this story, we realize that the creative performance led to the profitability of the company, but the act of defiance of superior orders and scholars [24] categorize dishonesty in use of the company’s asset at the time when the project was a personal one as the dark side of creativity. According to Professor Francesca Gino, of Harvard University, and Professor Dan Ariely, of Duke University, creative thinking makes people justify wrongdoing or dishonesty as long as they aim to or achieve creative performance (e.g., “I am not stealing this; I am just borrowing it; I will return it as soon as I am done”) [24]. They posit that this behavior is a slippery slope: once an individual begins to justify or make the excuse for such wrongful behavior, they are likely to engage in the dark side of creativity [24].
Can a person’s emotion lead to bad or dark creativity? There is a current debate as to whether creativity can be considered bad or dark or whether it is the intent of the use of the creative idea or product, which can lead to creativity being categorized as dark. Several research studies, such as [25, 26], argue that creativity does have a dark side if we consider not only the harmful application but the moral or ethical processes of creative ideation or performance as well. The argue that the excitement, passion, joy, or desperation of creating something new or achieving something that can transform a person from an unknown figure to a celebrity or public figure motivate people to use all means, including dishonesty, to attain a creative performance goal [25]. Such people tend to have high moral flexibility (i.e., making excuses to make unethical behavior appropriate) [25] and use it to cure themselves of guilt. If we were to go by this assertion, then most people may have engaged in the dark side of emotional creativity without even knowing. Reflect over the number of times, you were late for an appointment, and out of fear of losing a contract, you conjured and told a very beautiful and believable story to your client. Or the time when someone with amorous feelings toward you gifted you with something valuable, and when your spouse found out, you told her a story of how you were going to surprise her with it. In all these scenarios, the lie may be original, creative but did not harm anyone; hence, some will say, this is pure ingenuity and there is nothing dark about it since it did not harm anyone. However, persons who believe creativity has a dark side argue that the use of creative thinking to tell lies or deceive someone into acting in a certain way or believing something that does not exist has demonstrated the dark side of creativity.
The argument then arises that, if a notorious criminal uses deceptive but creative means to lure another wanted criminal to aid in police intelligence, will that be considered as purely creative or still darkish? Some scholars [27] assert that some creative performance adjudged as dark creativity should simply be described as creativity and that there is nothing like bad or dark creativity. This is because a creative idea or a creative piece in itself is not bad or dark, but the application of the same is what makes it bad; hence, discussions of the dark side of creativity should be centered around malevolent creativity [27]. Jia et al. [6] explain that often when people talk about creativity, they are referring to benevolent creativity, which has to do with developing or coming up with new, original, and useful ideas or products, but what is often left in the back burner is the malevolent creativity, which involves the application of the new or original idea for harmful purposes. The aspects of change or novelty, which we categorized as creativity, are those that brought improvement into our lives, business, or the world, and creators of such novelty are referred to as creative geniuses [28]. Some notable persons who readily come to mind are Michelangelo, Mozart, and Picasso who are recognized for their wonderful work of arts and Thomas Edisons, Henry Fords, Albert Einsteins, and Marie Curies who are lauded for their groundbreaking discoveries in science which changed the way the world operates [28].
Prof. Susan Krauss Whitbourne in her article titled “Does Creativity Have its Dark Side?” explains that a creative piece may not have an original intent of causing harm, but someone can apply creative thinking to that same creative piece to cause harm [28]; hence, describing the dark side of creativity from the perspective of its malevolent situates the dark side of emotional creativity in proper context. She cites the example of Facebook to describe how developers of the app created a novel product to promote social interaction, but some users use the app for cyberbullying. The app was developed for a good purpose and most people use it for the good purpose of marketing their products or social interaction, but some use it for the evil purpose of cyberbullying and circulating false news. Would such a creative product be said to be darkish just because some people are applying it in a harmful way? Runco [27] posits that in such situations, the act of causing harm should be categorized as malevolent, but the creative piece or the creative thinking behind the harm is simply creativity and not dark. It is, however, clear from most contemporary research, including that of Prof. Susan Krauss Whitbourne, a Professor Emerita of Psychological and Brain Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, that the description of the dark side of creativity or emotional creativity is about malevolent creativity.
Malevolent creativity refers to creative ideas, creative thinking, creative performance, and creative works aimed at harming someone or with destructive consequences only [6, 28]. Malevolent creativity manifests in many actions such as telling lies, dishonesty, terrorism, spreading false information, theft, bullying, and any form of abuse. Research into factors influencing malevolent creativity indicates that while social climate, cultural atmosphere, and environment affect a person’s malevolent tendencies, emotional manifestations of childhood neglect are a major cause. According to Jia et al. [6], the results of the research indicate that persons who experience childhood neglect or grow in antagonistic family settings are more likely to develop malevolent creativity in their adulthood. The findings also indicated that such individuals have difficulty in emotional recognition and regulation and, hence, have low emotional intelligence [8]. The study also found that such persons are reflective, analytical, and tenacious in their cognitive processes [6, 29], making it possible for them to draw on emotions from their childhood to inspire or motivate them to generate novel and expedient ways to attain their objectives of inflicting pain on people or damaging society as a form of revenge [8]. This finding was consistent with social information processing theory, which suggested persons whose childhood was characterized with destructive behaviors perceive neutral social information differently and interpret them as threatening, hence making them prone to acting aggressively that could induce hostile decisions, making them ready to fight [6, 30]. In all this narrative, emotions come into play. The emotions of loneliness, pain, and anger lead to a desire for revenge. When the desire for revenge meets opportunity or power, malevolent creativity is created to show the dark side of emotional creativity. This reflects the story of Adolf Hitler.
New York Times of 1986 reported details of a play by Niklas Raadstrom, a Swedish poet, based on a childhood story of Adolf Hitler written by Alice Miller, which depicted how Adolf Hitler’s personality and deeds were influenced by emotional and physical abuse suffered in his childhood [31]. The story recounts how Adolf’s father, Alois, constantly beat and humiliated him. Aside from the beatings received, he was trained by his father to hide his pain by forbidding him from crying or showing pain when abused or humiliated [31]. Adolf Hitler’s memoir recounts times when he proudly counted the strokes received from his father without shedding a tear and shared it as an achievement with his mother [31]. With his mother grieving over the death of three other children, she never had time to protect Adolf or care for him. He, however, loved his mother because on a few occasions she shielded him from the tyranny of his father out of fear of losing another child. It is mentioned in his memoir how he cherished the few times he slept on the same bed with his mother when his father was away. He often longed for that closeness but did not get much of it. He felt more neglected than belongingness. He had no one to turn to when the pain from the abuse or humiliation was unbearable or when confused, he was lonely, unhappy, and grew in that positive emotionally deficit state [32]. How this person who struggled with his grades in school except drawing and even getting a job later in life managed to scheme his way through the army and later lead Germany and the greater part of Europe baffles many. Hitler who was known as a propaganda genius relied on his oratory skills and capitalized on widespread discontent, political infighting, and economic instability in Germany at the time to develop strong propaganda leading to Hindenburg naming Hitler a chancellor in 1933 and later gaining absolute power. Upon assuming power, his government passed a law, making Germany a one-party state (Nazi Party the only party in Germany). When that objective was achieved, he turned his focus on Europe where he invaded Poland in 1939, which led to the outbreak of World War II. He spread his tentacles, and by 1941, Nazi forces occupied most of Europe and murder over six million Jews. He committed suicide in 1945.
Hitler was not born evil as most people describe him to be; he was born innocent like any other child. However, his destructive upbringing, which not only led to negative emotions but also encouraged concealment of these emotions, made him deny pain just so he could survive [33]. The emotions of powerlessness felt throughout the years of having to endure pain and denying the truth of pain, shame, and loneliness turned the innocent baby Hitler into a malicious person who equipped himself with the skill of designing schemes to amass power and inflict pain on human beings. Hitler’s action was creative as most people could not discern his objectives and was dazzled with the depth of wickedness and contempt for human beings [33]. The emotions of hatred, anger, and revenge inspiring or motivating his actions were so intense; his aggression was merciless making his creative thinking and outcome stand out with far-reaching consequence.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
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\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
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\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
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\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
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\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
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\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. Both categories of models coexist in the flow with the first dominating turbulence generation at low Reynolds number and the second at high Reynolds number, such as the case in the atmospheric boundary layer.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Zambri Harun and Eslam Reda Lotfy",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"252195",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",middleName:null,surname:"Reda",slug:"eslam-reda",fullName:"Eslam Reda"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63059",title:"Generation, Evolution, and Characterization of Turbulence Coherent Structures",slug:"generation-evolution-and-characterization-of-turbulence-coherent-structures",totalDownloads:3624,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Turbulence stands as one of the most complicated and attractive physical phenomena. The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. 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Recently, spectrum slicing wavelength division multiplexing (SS-WDM)-based FSO systems provide improved link range, high capacity, and efficiency. In this chapter, the SS-WDM-based FSO system is proposed with four channels to increase the performance of communication under various wind speed and heights of the buildings. But, atmospheric turbulence fading, scintillation, and pointing errors (PE) are the main impairments affecting the performance of FSO communication systems. Predominantly, the turbulence variation due to wind velocity, refractive index, and height of buildings has been majorly focused and analyzed for Vellore weather conditions. A case study has been experimented on how the height of buildings and the atmosphere around VIT, Vellore campus, affect the transmission of light in free space. The bit error rate of the proposed system is analyzed with distance, received power for various wind speed and different heights of the buildings.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Prabu Krishnan",authors:[{id:"243249",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabu",middleName:null,surname:"K",slug:"prabu-k",fullName:"Prabu K"}]},{id:"61221",title:"Laser Beam Propagation through Oceanic Turbulence",slug:"laser-beam-propagation-through-oceanic-turbulence",totalDownloads:914,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Using a recently proposed model for the refractive index fluctuations in oceanic turbulence, optical beam propagation through seawater is explored. The model provides an accurate depiction of the ocean through the inclusion of both temperature and salinity fluctuations to the refractive index. Several important statistical characteristics are explored including spatial coherence radius, angle-of-arrival fluctuations, and beam wander. Theoretical values of these parameters are found based on weak fluctuation theory using the Rytov method. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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