Thermophysical properties of water and nanoparticles.
\r\n\t2. Animal and vegetal protein hydrolysates
\r\n\t3. Macroalgae seaweeds extracts
\r\n\t4. Beneficial microorganisms, etc.
\r\n\tThe elucidation of the agricultural function (i.e. improving nutrient use efficiency, quality, and tolerance to abiotic stresses) and action mechanisms of PBs will permit to develop a second generation of PBs where synergies and complementary mechanisms can be functionally designed to feed the future.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-553-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-552-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-554-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4c1b31fff4d04b36466a40927904f210",bookSignature:"Dr. Vijay Singh Meena, Dr. Hanuman Prasad Parewa and Dr. Sunita Kumari Meena",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11327.jpg",keywords:"Ecological Diversity, Mutualistic Symbiosis, Temperatures, Frost, Salinity, Acidity, Nutrients, Water, Crop Yield, Grain, Straw, Biofortified",numberOfDownloads:88,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vijay Singh Meena has worked in various aspects of soil aggregation, carbon management index as well as carbon and nitrogen sequestration potential under climate-resilient agriculture. He identified the carbon management index as the key indicator to measure soil degradation in different agro-ecosystems. He has edited 10 books on microbes, organic farming, and agricultural sustainability and received several scholarships and awards during his academic and professional career.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Hanuman Prasad Parewa has specialized in the field of soil fertility, INM, and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. His research revealed that integrated application of fertilizer, FYM and bio inoculants highly effective for sustainable wheat and Mung bean production and soil quality.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Sunita Kumari Meena has previously served as a research scholar at both Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, and at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. She has published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, Ecological Engineering, Scientia Horticulturae, Environmental Science and Pollution Research and Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"350226",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Meena",slug:"vijay-meena",fullName:"Vijay Meena",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350226/images/system/350226.png",biography:"Vijay Singh Meena is currently working as a Project Coordinator (Soil Scientist) at CIMMYT-BISA, Pusa, India. His previous position includes that of Scientist (Soils) at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (Indian equivalent to USDA-ARS). He has worked in various aspects of soil aggregation, carbon management index and carbon and nitrogen sequestration potential under climate resilient agriculture. He identified carbon management index as the key indicator to measure soil degradation in different agro-ecosystems. His research revealed that the application of FYM and vermicompost along with vegetative barrier across the slope are highly effective in sustaining the soil quality. Dr. Meena and his team identified that the combined application of organic and inorganic sources is important in sustaining the productivity of soils and prevent soil erosion. He is instrumental in the preparation and distribution of > 4000 soil health cards to different farmers. Dr. Meena and his team reported that the long-term judicious application of organic and mineral fertilizer positively influenced soil aggregation, carbon distribution, water stable aggregates, maize and wheat yields and reduced the runoff and soil loss (without fertilization) and recommended the dose of fertilizers. The concept of CMI was found to be effective in assessing the best nutrient management practices in sloppy crop lands as it showed significant correlation with yield, runoff and soil loss. The estimation of CMI values of any fertilization management can indicate the soil degradation status quantitatively thus helpful in mitigating land degradation in the hilly agro-ecosystem.\nHe also edited seven Springer books and three Elsevier books on microbes, organic farming and agricultural sustainability. He has received several scholarship and awards during his academic and professional career. In a nutshell, Dr. Vijay Singh Meena is doing an excellent work in the field of natural resources management for sustainable agricultural production.\nHe has accumulated more than 5000 citations in international literature and has a RG score of 40.99.",institutionString:"Borlaug Institute for South Asia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Borlaug Institute for South Asia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"421007",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanuman Prasad",middleName:null,surname:"Parewa",slug:"hanuman-prasad-parewa",fullName:"Hanuman Prasad Parewa",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000039VgHSQA0/Profile_Picture_1622440886234",biography:"Hanuman Prasad Parewa, a BHU alumnus, is presently the faculty member at College of Agriculture (Agriculture University, Jodhpur) Sumerpur, Pali, Rajasthan. He was awarded the UGC scholarship and Rajeev Gandhi National Fellowship for his Ph. D. programme in Soil Science & Agriculture Chemistry. He has 8 years of experience in undergraduate and post graduate teaching and research in the field of soil science and more than 2 years of experience in extension and administration. He has delivered 10 TV talk and 8 radio talks for the benefit of the farming community. He has published 2 books, 5 practical manuals, various papers in national and international journals, book chapters, and folder. He has specialized in the field of soil fertility, INM and PGPR. His research revealed that integrated application of fertilizer, FYM and bioinoculants highly effective for sustainable wheat and Mung bean production and soil quality. He has awarded many times in national and international seminars for best oral and poster presentation. He was appreciated by Hon’ble Vice Chancellor, Agriculture University, Jodhpur for his outstanding contribution in the field of teaching, student welfare, university development activities and development of soil science laboratory.",institutionString:"Agriculture University, Jodhpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"421009",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunita",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari Meena",slug:"sunita-kumari-meena",fullName:"Sunita Kumari Meena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000039VgK1QAK/Profile_Picture_1622441296623",biography:"Dr. Sunita Kumari Meena is Assistant Professor (Soil Science) at the Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa-Samastipur (Bihar), India. She served as a research scholar at both Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi and at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. She has received several fellowships and awards based on her work in soil science. She has published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, Ecological Engineering, Scientia Horticulturae, Environmental Science and Pollution Research and Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology as well as contributing chapters to books. She had book editing experiences with Elsevier.",institutionString:"Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"80142",title:"Using Biostimulants Containing Phytohormones to Recover Hail-Damaged Essential Oil Plants",slug:"using-biostimulants-containing-phytohormones-to-recover-hail-damaged-essential-oil-plants",totalDownloads:52,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81866",title:"Agronomic Biofortification of Food Crops: A Sustainable Way to Boost Nutritional Security",slug:"agronomic-biofortification-of-food-crops-a-sustainable-way-to-boost-nutritional-security",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81383",title:"Zinc Biofortification in Rice 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59824",title:"Nonlinear Radiative Heat Transfer of Cu-Water Nanoparticles over an Unsteady Rotating Flow under the Influence of Particle Shape",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74807",slug:"nonlinear-radiative-heat-transfer-of-cu-water-nanoparticles-over-an-unsteady-rotating-flow-under-the",body:'The interaction of thermal radiation has increased greatly during the last decade due to its importance in many practical applications. We know that the radiation effect is important under many isothermal and nonisothermal situations. If the entire system involving the polymer extrusion process is placed in a thermally controlled environment, then radiation could become important. The knowledge of radiation heat transfer in the system can, perhaps, lead to a desired product with a sought characteristic. Magnetohydrodynamic 3D flow of viscoelastic nanofluid in the presence of nonlinear thermal radiation has been examined by Hayat et al. [1]. Shehzad et al. [2] proposed the nonlinear thermal radiation in 3D flow of Jeffrey nanofluid. Refs. [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11] are some of the works associated with stretching sheet problem of thermal radiation.
Nanotechnology has been widely utilized in the industries since materials with the size of nanometers possess distinctive physical and chemical properties. Nanofluids are literally a homogeneous mixture of base fluid and the nanoparticles. Common base fluids embody water, organic liquids, oil and lubricants, biofluids, polymeric solution and other common liquids. Nanoparticles are created from totally different materials, like oxides, nitrides, carbide, ceramics metals, carbons in varied (e.g., diamond, graphite, carbon nanotubes, fullerene) and functionalized nanoparticles. Nanofluids have novel properties that are potentially helpful in several applications in heat transfer, as well as microelectronics, pharmaceutical processes, heat exchanger, hybrid-powered engines, domestic refrigerator, fuel cells, cooling/vehicle thermal management, nuclear reactor agent, in grinding, in space technology, ships and in boiler flue gas temperature reduction. Choi [12] was the first who composed the analysis on nanoparticles in 1995. Later, Maiga et al. [13] initiated the heat transfer enhancement by using nanofluids in forced convective flows. The laminar fluid flow which results from the stretching of a flat surface in a nanofluid has been investigated by Khan and Pop [14]. Recently, a number of researchers are concentrating on nanofluid with different geometries; see [15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Experimental studies have shown that the thermal conductivity of nanofluids is determined by the parameters related to: nanoparticles, concentration, size, spherical and nonspherical shapes, agglomeration (fractal-like shapes), surface charge and thermal conductivity, base fluids (e.g., thermal conductivity and viscosity), nanofluids (e.g., temperature), the interfacial chemical/physical effect or interaction between the particles and base fluid and others. For more details, readers are referred to the studies [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
Impact of nonlinear thermal radiation on 3D flow and heat transfer of Cu-water nanoliquid over unsteady rotating flow have been considered. The heat transfer characteristics are studied in the presence of different particle shapes, thermophysical properties and nonlinear thermal radiation. The principal equations of continuity, momentum, energy and mass equations are transferred into a set of nonlinear similarity equalities by applying the appropriate transformations. The condensed equalities are solved numerically, and the impacts of relevant parameters are discussed through plotted graphs and tables.
An unsteady laminar flow over a permeable surface in a rotating nanofluid is considered in this study. The copper-water motion is 3D due to Coriolis force in the present problem. The Cartesian coordinates are
Influence of
Boundary conditions for the problem are,
where velocity components in
Copper (Cu) | 385 | 8933 | 400 |
Water | 997.1 | 4179 | 0.613 |
Thermophysical properties of water and nanoparticles.
The radiative heat flux expression in Eq. (5) is given by:
where
Parameters
where volumetric heat capacity of the solid nanoparticles is
Particle shapes | Sphere | Tetrahedron | Column |
---|---|---|---|
3 | 4.0613 | 6.3698 |
Values of the empirical shape factor for different particle shapes.
Now, we introduce similarity transformations:
with
Using Eqs. (2)–(6) and (10), we can have
The transformed boundary conditions are as follows:
where
Rosca et al. [11] mentioned that the pressure term
The physical quantities of interest in this problem are the skin friction coefficients in
Surface shear stress
Using Eqs. (16) and (17), we obtain
where
Numerical solutions of nonlinear coupled differential Eqs. (11)–(13) subject to the boundary conditions (14) constitute a two-point boundary value problem. Due to coupled and highly nonlinear nature, which are not amenable to closed-form solutions; therefore, we resorted to numerical solutions. In order to solve these equations numerically, we follow most efficient fourth-fifth order Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg integration scheme along with shooting technique. In this method, it is most important to choose the appropriate finite values of
To get a clear insight into the physical situation of the present problem, numerical values for velocity and temperature profile are computed for different values of dimensionless parameters using the method described in the previous section. The numerical results for the local Nusselt number are presented for different values of the governing parameters in Table 3.
Ω | Pr | Nusselt number | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.2 | 0.36722 | 0.35144 | 0.32983 | |||||
0.3 | 0.29671 | 0.29256 | 0.28353 | |||||
0.4 | 0.21897 | 0.22635 | 0.23028 | |||||
0.01 | 0.33069 | 0.32112 | 0.30611 | |||||
0.02 | 0.29005 | 0.28739 | 0.27973 | |||||
0.03 | 0.24936 | 0.25364 | 0.25333 | |||||
5.776 | 0.35865 | 0.34247 | 0.32053 | |||||
6.587 | 0.36722 | 0.35151 | 0.32990 | |||||
7.578 | 0.37598 | 0.36090 | 0.33978 | |||||
0.5 | 0.36722 | 0.35144 | 0.32983 | |||||
1 | 0.33266 | 0.31642 | 0.29491 | |||||
1.5 | 0.30957 | 0.29332 | 0.27217 | |||||
1.2 | 0.36722 | 0.35144 | 0.32983 | |||||
1.4 | 0.32565 | 0.31078 | 0.29076 | |||||
1.6 | 0.28807 | 0.27416 | 0.25572 | |||||
1% | 0.43665 | 0.42492 | 0.40752 | |||||
2% | 0.36722 | 0.35144 | 0.32983 | |||||
3% | 0.30841 | 0.29212 | 0.27084 |
Numerical values of Nusselt number for different physical parameters.
Figure 1 portrays the effect of
Influence of
Figures 3 and 4 depict the effect of
Influence of
Influence of
Influence of the solid volume fraction parameter
Influence of
The effect of temperature ratio parameter
Influence of
Figure 7 demonstrates the effect of the Prandtl number
Influence of
The temperature distribution
Influence of
Figure 9 shows the effect of
Influence of
Influence of
In the present analysis, impact nonlinear radiative heat transfer of Cu-water nanoparticles over an unsteady rotating flow under the influence of particle shape is considered. Effects of various parameters are studied graphically. The main points of the present simulations are listed as follows:
The highlight of this study is that temperature profile is more enhanced in column-shaped nanoparticles when compared to tetrahedron- and sphere-shaped nanoparticles.
Temperature profile and thermal boundary layer thickness increase with increasing values of
The thermal boundary layer thickness and temperature profile enhance with increasing values of
Higher values of rotating parameter enhance the velocity profile and corresponding boundary layer thickness. It has quite opposite behavior in angular velocity profile.
Unsteady parameter increases the velocity profile and corresponding boundary layer thickness.
Perovskite-structured materials have received increasing attention, since being discovered in the 1830s, because of their rich physical properties [1]. As shown in \nFigure 1a\n [2], the general chemical formula for such compounds is ABX3, in which A and B are different cations, and X is an anion that bonds to both the A and B cations. Owing to the flexibility of bond angles inherent in the perovskite structure, there are many different distortions that can occur from the ideal structure. Importantly, A can be organic cations, like methylammonium (MA+) or formamidinium (FA+) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8], B can be metal ions, such as Pb2+ and Sn2+ [9, 10, 11, 12], and X is usually halide ions [13], and such a class of materials is known as organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites. It was reported that a stable structure of hybrid perovskites can form where 0.81 <
\n
However, a vast array of prior research on perovskite optoelectronic devices has been centered on polycrystalline films. The polycrystalline samples usually suffer from grain boundaries, relatively higher trap densities and defects, and low stability, which would obviously obscure their potential in applications [35, 36, 37]. More recently, researchers have paid more attention to perovskite single crystals, which possess promising characteristics of no grain boundaries [15], relatively low trap density [38], large charge carrier mobility, and long carrier diffusion length [39, 40, 41]. In this regard, extensive efforts are being devoted to developing effective methods to improve the perovskite crystal quality and optimize the device performance. Existing in the forms of bulk or thin crystals, perovskite crystal samples have been widely applied in various optoelectronic applications [39, 42], and have made rapid and great strides in research progress [43, 44, 45, 46].
\nIn this chapter, we aim to summarize the recent achievements, ongoing progress, and the challenges to date in the area of hybrid perovskite single crystals, practically MA-based ones (MAPbX3, X = Cl, Br, and I), from the perspective of both materials and devices with an emphasis placed on the optimization of crystal quality, and provide an outlook on the opportunities offered by this emerging family of materials in field of optoelectronic applications.
\nAccording to the lower solubility of MAPbX3 in HX (X = Cl, Br, and I) solution as the temperature decreases, Tao’s group introduced the STL method to synthesize a MAPbI3 bulk single crystal (\nFigure 2a\n) [47]. After the reaction between methylamine (CH3NH2) and hydro-iodic acid (HI) in a cold atmosphere, the obtained white microcrystal MAI was reacted with Pb(CH3COOH)2∙3H2O in aqueous HI, and the solution was then cooled to 40°C. A 10 mm × 10 mm × 8 mm black MAPbI3 single crystal was grown in about one month (\nFigure 2b\n). Lin’s group discovered a more efficient way, and they synthesized the single crystals with a size of 5 mm in just around 10 days [48]. Lin et al. selected high-quality seeds and dropped them back into fresh solution and obtained single crystals sized up to 1 cm (\nFigure 2c\n). Furthermore, MAPbBr3 − xClx and MAPbI3 − xBrx mixed-halide perovskite crystals were studied using such method [49]. Hydro-bromic acid with hydrochloric acid or hydro-iodic acid were mixed in different molar ratios into methylamine and lead (II) acetate solution to fabricate single-halide and mixed-halide perovskite crystals (\nFigure 2d\n). The time-consuming factor is the biggest drawback of this method, which has indirectly led to the domination of other crystallization methods.
\n\n
As a radically faster perovskite crystal synthesis approach, the ITC method has widely been applied in recent years. It was observed that the exhibited crystals from such method can be shape-controlled, higher quality, and obtained quicker compared with other growth techniques. Bakr et al. introduced this method to rapidly grow high-quality bulk crystals [50]. As shown in \nFigure 2e\n, an orange MAPbBr3 crystal and a black MAPbI3 crystal were grown within 3 hours. Chen’s group further studied the effect of molar ratio of MAX and PbX2 in the precursor solutions on the crystal quality [52], e.g., perovskite crystals with different sizes and shapes were obtained after a 6-hour ITC crystallization process when changing the MAX: PbX2 ratios from 1:1 to 2:1.
\nWith an aim of growing a large-sized bulk perovskite crystal, such ITC method was further modified. Using such technique, the strategy of incorporation of seed crystal growth has been proven to be favorable for single crystals as large as convenient. Liu’s group reported various large-sized perovskite crystals via using the modified ITC method, from which a number of larger-sized crystal (7 mm) were obtained through choosing good-quality seed crystals and repeating and carefully controlling the ITC process several times (\nFigure 2f\n). Moreover, Liu’s group also successfully grew MAPb(BrxI1 − x)3 single crystals with a finely-tuned bandgap [51]. The application of the different solubility of different perovskite single crystals at varying temperatures contributes to the time-saving feature of such ITC method.
\nAnother main method to grow perovskite crystals is the AVC method (\nFigure 2g\n), which was first introduced from Bakr’s group [15]. In this method, the solvent plays a significant role because two or more solvents should be selected, of which one should be a good solvent that is less volatile, and the other is a bad solvent that is more volatile. The principle of this method can be described as follows: when the bad solvent slowly diffuses into the precursor solution, the proficiency of the crystal formation increases at the bottom of the sample vial owing to the insolubility of the material in the bad solvent. Other groups, like Loi’s group and Cao’s group, also applied this method to obtain the high-quality crystals [38, 53]. Although the AVC method costs more time than the ITC method, its temperature-irrelevant characteristic is appealing to its widespread use.
\nBulk perovskite single crystals with thick sizes may cause the increase of charge recombination, which would lead to the degradation of their device performance and impede the practical applications. In this regard, growing thin perovskite crystals with a large area represents an effective approach to overcome the above obstacle and thus advances the further practical applications. Bakr et al. introduced a cavitation-triggered asymmetrical crystallization strategy, in which a very short ultrasonic pulse (≈1 s) was applied in the solution to reach a low supersaturation level with anti-solvent vapor diffusion and a thin crystal with several-micrometers grew on the substrates within hours (\nFigure 3a\n) [54]. Liu’s group synthesized perovskite crystal wafers with a much thinner thickness using a dynamic flow micro-reactor system [55]. They put two thin glass slides in parallel into a container with a predefined separation to grow single crystals within the slit channel, as shown in \nFigure 3b\n. Su’s group further used a space-limited ITC method and grew a 120-cm2 single crystal on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)-coated glass, of which the operation and the obtained 0.4-mm-thin single crystal are shown in \nFigure 3c\n [56]. Meanwhile, Wan et al. reported a space-confined solution-processed method to grow the perovskite single-crystalline films with adjustable thickness from nanometers to micrometers (\nFigure 3d\n) [57]. Benefitting from the capillary pressure, the perovskite precursor solution filled the whole space between two clean flat substrates, which were clipped together and dipped in the solution.
\n\n
Currently, more promising approaches have been employed to grow thin single crystals with high quality and large scale. A one-step printing geometrically-confined lateral crystal growth method (\nFigure 3e\n) was introduced by Sung’s group to obtain a large-scaled single crystal [58]. During the process, a cylindrical metal roller with a flexible poly-(dimethyl-siloxane) (PDMS) mold was wrapped and then rolled on a preheated SiO2 substrate (180°C) with an ink supplier filled with the precursor solution. Alternatively, millimeter-sized single crystals were synthesized by Song’s group by a facile seed-inkjet-printing approach (\nFigure 3f\n) [59]. Perovskite precursor solution was injected onto a silicon wafer, and then the ordered seeds were formed on the substrate with the evaporation of the droplets. Thereafter, the substrate with a saturated perovskite solution was covered and the single crystals can be grew as the solvent dried at room temperature. Seeds were used to inhibit the random nucleation and trigger the growth of single crystals.
\nAs discussed above, some optimized space-limited approaches have been introduced and developed to synthesize perovskite thin crystals in recent years. Especially, size−/thickness-controlled thin crystals have also been widely used in various optoelectronic devices. With the aim to growing large-scaled and thickness-controlled thin crystals with longer carrier diffusion lengths, fewer defects, and higher efficiency, more promising strategies will be rewarding in the future.
\nThere are two normal ways to study the optical properties of hybrid perovskite crystals: absorption and PL measurements. Bakr et al. characterized the steady-state absorption and PL properties for MAPbBr3 and MAPbI3 crystals, as shown in \nFigure 4a\n and \nb\n [50]. Sharp band edges were observed in the absorption plots and the band gap values were determined to be 2.18 eV for MAPbBr3 crystals and 1.51 eV for MAPbI3 crystals; while the PL intensity peaks are located at 574 nm for MAPbBr3 and 820 nm for MAPbI3. As for the MAPbCl3 one, absorption measurement result revealed an edge at 435 nm (\nFigure 4c\n) [60]. Clearly, the optical absorption of perovskite crystals exhibited a clear-cut sharp band edge, which indicated that the single crystals are predominantly free from grain boundaries and have relatively low structural defects and trap densities.
\nSteady-state absorption (
More recently, there have been more broad publications on the apparent disparity in optical properties (i.e., absorption and PL) between perovskite single crystals and thin films, which can be attributed to the incorrect measurements as a result of reabsorption effects. Snaith’s group performed a detailed investigation of the optical properties of MAPbBr3 crystals as compared to those of the polycrystalline films by employing light transmission spectroscopy, ellipsometry, and spatially resolved and time-resolved PL spectroscopy [61]. They showed that the optical properties of the perovskite crystals were almost identical to those of polycrystalline films, and their observations indicated that the perovskite polycrystalline films were much closer to possessing ‘single-crystal-like’ optoelectronic properties than previously thought, and also highlighted the discrepancies in the estimation of trap densities from the electronic and optical methods (\nFigure 4d\n). For the further development of perovskite crystals, more detailed experimental investigations combined with theoretical calculations that focus on the optical features are required, which would assist in the preparation of the high-quality perovskite single crystals and the development of the high-performance device applications.
\nAs for hybrid perovskite crystals, in addition to the remarkable optical properties, their promising electrical properties have caught the great attention. In general, there are five common methods to measure the transport mobilities in perovskite crystals, including the space charge limited current (SCLC), time-of-flight (TOF), Hall Effect, THz pulse and field-effect transistor (FET) measurement methods. Among these methods, the SCLC method is widely employed to determine the carrier mobility and trap density of perovskite crystals. The current–voltage (
\n
Although the above measurement approaches have been widely used in the perovskite crystals, the obtained results from different groups are sometimes different. Sargent et al. demonstrated that one main challenge that may explain these order-of-magnitude discrepancies is that the Hall Effect, TOF, and SCLC methods all probe the mobilities near the respective Fermi levels during the experiments, and the (non-equilibrium, high-injection-level) Fermi level is widely different in each experiment [64]. In this regard, they developed a contactless method to measure the mobility of a perovskite crystal directly [64]. Plus, THz pulse measurement was also used to estimate
Carrier lifetime (
The widely studied hybrid perovskite solar cells with high performance are usually made from polycrystalline films; however, the current studies have also focused on the developments and optimization of single crystal perovskite solar cells, owing to their significant advantages. Huang et al. fabricated photovoltaic devices based on MAPbI3 bulk crystals by depositing gold (Au) as anodes and gallium (Ga) as cathodes (\nFigure 6a\n) [63]. A red-shift of 50 nm of the EQE cutoff to 850 nm showed that MAPbI3 crystals increased the upper limit of short-circuit current density (
\n
In addition to the vertical-structured solar cells, Huang’s group also fabricated the lateral structure perovskite crystal device (\nFigure 6d\n) [73], which showed a
Photodetectors which can convert incident light into electrical signals are critical for various industrial and scientific applications. To evaluate the photodetector performance, several parameters are important, including responsivity (
Quantity | \nUnit | \nDefinition | \n
---|---|---|
Photocurrent ( | \nA | \nCurrent through a photodetector resulting from illumination. | \n
Dark-current ( | \nA | \nCurrent through a device in the absence of illumination. | \n
Photoresponsivity ( | \nA/W | \n\n | \n
Detectivity ( | \nJones | \n\n | \n
Gain ( | \n— | \n\n | \n
Linear dynamic range ( | \ndB | \nLDR is calculated by LDR = 20log( | \n
External quantum efficiency ( | \n% | \nCarrier number divided by the number of incident photons. | \n
Internal quantum efficiency ( | \n% | \nIt is the ratio of carrier number to the number of incident photons that are absorbed by the device. | \n
Parameters for evaluating the perovskite single crystal photodetectors.
Huang’s group fabricated perovskite crystal photodetectors that exhibited a high sensitivity capacity, which led to a narrow-band photo-response with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of less than 20 nm under V = −1 V (\nFigure 7a\n) [49].
\n
Although perovskite crystal photodetectors have shown better performance, macroscopic crystals cannot be grown on a planar substrate, restricting their potential for device integration. To overcome this shortcoming, Bakr et al. grew large-area planar-integrated crystal films onto the ITO-patterned substrates (\nFigure 7c\n) [42], and the fabricated photodetector possessed a high
UV detection is a key technology in the fields of flame detection [80], remote security monitoring [81], environmental monitoring [82], and so forth. Researchers have endeavored to develop UV photodetectors based on perovskite crystals considering their excellent UV absorption properties. Visible-blind UV photodetectors based on MAPbCl3 crystals a suitable bandgap of about 3.11 eV were fabricated (\nFigure 8a\n) [60], and the device showed the dark current as low as 4.15 × 10−7 A at 15 V and a drastically high stability (\nFigure 8b\n). Planar-integrated MAPbCl3 crystal UV photodetectors on ITO-deposited glass substrate were reported by Sargent et al. (\nFigure 8c\n) [83], which showed decreased
\n
NIR photodetectors have widespread uses in telecommunications [86], as well as thermal and biological imaging [87, 88, 89, 90]. Meredith’s group demonstrated the perovskite crystal that overcame the large bandgap and presented photodetectors with performance metrics appropriate for NIR detection by using the trap-related linear sub-gap absorption (\nFigure 8e\n) [84]. A strong NIR photo-response was achieved in photodiodes based on MAPbI3 crystals illuminated by a continuous 808-nm laser (∼10 mW/cm2). The photodiodes could also respond to a laser with a wavelength as long as 1064 nm (\nFigure 8f\n).
\nIn addition to the common light detections from UV to IR, perovskite crystals have been employed for the detection of X-rays, which have important applications in medical diagnostics, clinical treatment, and the non-destructive testing of products [53]. Huang et al. fabricated a sensitive MAPbBr3 crystal X-ray detector with the structure of Au/MAPbBr3/crystal/C60/BCP/Ag or Au (\nFigure 9a\n) [53]. Through reducing the bulk defects and passivating surface traps, the devices showed a detection efficiency of 16.4% at a near zero bias under irradiation with continuum X-ray energy up to 50 keV. The lowest detectable X-ray dose rate was 0.5 μGyair/s with a sensitivity of 80 μC/Gyaircm2, which is four times higher than the sensitivity achieved in
\n
Similar to X-ray detectors, the
Huang’s group further reported a Cl− dopant compensation of MAPbBr3 single crystal process to fabricate a low-cost
With the exceptional PL efficiency and high color purity, perovskite crystals can also perform as high-performance LEDs [97]. Most of the existing perovskite LEDs employ a polycrystalline film with sizes of nanometers to micrometers, and coherent light emission is a challenge [98]. In Yu’s work, the LEDs with the structure of ITO/MAPbBr3 micro-platelet/Au cathode had the turn-on voltage of about 1.8 V and could last for at least 54 h with a luminance of ∼5000 cd/m2 (\nFigure 10a\n) [99].
\n\n
The excellent properties, including a small trap density, long lifetime and electron–hole diffusion length, and large carrier mobility, also make perovskite crystals suitable for laser devices with low lasing thresholds and high qualities. Xiong’s group grew typical MAPbI3 triangular nano-platelets and optically pumped them by a femtosecond-pulsed laser (\nFigure 10b\n) [100], and the peaks centered at
Hybrid perovskite single crystals have shown great potential in high-performance optoelectronic devices; however, several challenges and issues still remain in terms of their practical applications. They mainly include (1) the effects of surface defects, (2) the large-area fabrication, as well as (3) the stability of the perovskite single crystal devices and (4) the health and environmental concerns.
\nThe absence of grain boundaries makes perovskite crystals acquire better optical and charge transport properties than their polycrystalline counterparts. However, the surface of crystals usually possesses lots of chemical impurities, dangling bonds, surface dislocations, and under-coordinated atoms, and becomes disordered owing to hydration, thus decreasing the carrier mobility and carrier diffusion length and promote the recombination of carriers near the crystal surface [76, 104, 105, 106]. Thus, the further decrease of defects, especially the surface defects, is required, aiming to gain high-quality perovskite crystals. To realize high-performance optoelectronic devices based on perovskite crystals with low-level surface defects, more research should be carried out on the surface passivation.
\nHybrid perovskite thin crystals are freer of grain boundaries and exhibit better transport properties than those of the polycrystalline candidates, so their large-area fabrication will ensure a promising future. However, the embedding of volatile and vulnerable organic components on fragile inorganic framework makes them difficult to be fabricated with a large area by deposition techniques or solution-based methods [42, 54]. Furthermore, thin crystals were grown directly on conductive substrates like FTO- or ITO-glass [42, 56], and tailored substrates, such as SiO2/Si [97], which provide in-situ growth for thin crystals and be directly made into devices. Nevertheless, these large-area thin crystals have rough surfaces and a great number of surface defects, and thus their optoelectronic properties remain inferior to the bulk counterparts. Further optimization of growth methods for large-area thin crystals is needed for industry productions in future.
\nLow stability of the current hybrid perovskite crystal devices hinders their broad practical application. Several factors that affect the device stability, like ion migration [107, 108], can cause hysteresis and photo-induced phase separation, and the interaction between single crystals and their surroundings lies in the degradation of perovskite by humidity and light [109, 110, 111]. Therefore, to further enhance the stability of single crystal devices, optimized device structures should be designed to control the ion migrations. Meanwhile, various compositions and interface engineering approaches are also intensively investigated to confront this critical issue. In addition, encapsulation has been demonstrated to be a valid method to protect hybrid perovskite devices.
\nThe growth of hybrid perovskite crystals adopt heavy metal ions, like lead (Pb) or tin (Sn), and organic functional groups, which can impact both the environment and human health. This critical issue needs to be overcome, aiming for further commercialization. As for the common MAPbI3 perovskite crystal, the Pb-ion is toxic to both the human health and natural environment; while the organic solvents used during the growth process of crystals are also toxic and easily penetrate into the human body [112]. To solve these problems, capsulation and recycling are needed in the use of crystal materials and organic solvents. Furthermore, other alternative metals to Pb, with a lower toxicity, are also being studied, such as bismuth and antimony [113, 114], and thus, the optoelectronic properties of these Pb-free perovskite crystals need to be explored further for device applications.
\nMore recently, hybrid perovskite crystals, having different dimensional forms: bulk and thin crystals, and micro−/nano-plates, have been widely explored as functional layers for optoelectronic devices owing to their excellent physical properties combined with the advantage of ease of processing. Although these types of devices are still in the early stages of development, a strong potential for a variety of technological and commercial applications clearly remains. Here, we presented a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in hybrid perovskite crystals with respect to the background knowledge on the optoelectronic properties and charge transport dynamics of crystals, and their applications in the area of optoelectronic devices, and a fundamental understanding of the device performance. We summarized the main growth methods for the bulk crystals and also some modified and optimized approaches to synthesize thin crystals. The detailed discussions are focused on charge transport characteristics, operation mechanisms, and challenges, aiming to provide a critical understanding of further advance in materials design and device engineering in a variety of optoelectronic technologies.
\nIn conclusion, the research progress achieved to date in the area of perovskite crystal optoelectronic devices, with the emphasis placed on challenges faced by the research community, has been summarized systematically, and finally perspective on the opportunities offered by this emerging family to photoactive materials in practical and commercial technologies is also proposed. Further exploration of high-quality perovskite crystals, combined with an in-depth understandings of working mechanism of devices, indicates a promising future for wide applications with markedly-enhanced performance.
\nThe author acknowledges support from Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA) (DE180100167) from the Australian Research Council (ARC).
\nThere are no conflicts to declare.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Soto-Cerda and Sylvie Cloutier",authors:[{id:"93579",title:"Dr.",name:"Braulio",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Soto-Cerda",slug:"braulio-soto-cerda",fullName:"Braulio Soto-Cerda"},{id:"104021",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Cloutier",slug:"sylvie-cloutier",fullName:"Sylvie Cloutier"}]},{id:"31479",doi:"10.5772/32885",title:"Genetic Diversity in Citrus",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-citrus",totalDownloads:4453,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"2252",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Aydin Uzun and Turgut Yesiloglu",authors:[{id:"93085",title:"Dr.",name:"Aydin",middleName:null,surname:"Uzun",slug:"aydin-uzun",fullName:"Aydin Uzun"},{id:"103938",title:"Prof.",name:"Turgut",middleName:null,surname:"Yesiloglu",slug:"turgut-yesiloglu",fullName:"Turgut Yesiloglu"}]},{id:"31483",doi:"10.5772/35119",title:"Genetic Diversity of Rice Grain Quality",slug:"genetics-of-grain-quality",totalDownloads:4509,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"2252",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Rosa Paula Cuevas and Melissa A. Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"103042",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Cuevas",slug:"rosa-paula-cuevas",fullName:"Rosa Paula Cuevas"},{id:"104257",title:"Dr.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"melissa-fitzgerald",fullName:"Melissa Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"31481",doi:"10.5772/33361",title:"Genetic Diversity in Apricot",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-apricot",totalDownloads:4101,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"2252",slug:"genetic-diversity-in-plants",title:"Genetic Diversity in Plants",fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity in Plants"},signatures:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz and Kahraman Gurcan",authors:[{id:"95067",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadir Ugurtan",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"kadir-ugurtan-yilmaz",fullName:"Kadir Ugurtan Yilmaz"},{id:"130537",title:"Dr.",name:"Kahraman",middleName:null,surname:"Gurcan",slug:"kahraman-gurcan",fullName:"Kahraman Gurcan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65131",title:"Diversity of Cacao Pathogens and Impact on Yield and Global Production",slug:"diversity-of-cacao-pathogens-and-impact-on-yield-and-global-production",totalDownloads:1700,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Cacao, Theobroma cacao L., an important cash crop in foreign exchange earnings and also a major income source for many smallholder farmers in growing ecologies of West Africa. Global cocoa production has been rising fairly steadily over the years by increasing production in growing countries with most of the production taking place in areas of high pathogen biodiversity. Thus, the sustainability of the cocoa economy is under threat as diseases of various statuses now constitute the most serious constraint to production. Most important among these is the black pod disease caused by Phytophthora genus with annual losses of 30–90% of the crop. This economically important pathogen is very diverse in nature and varied across growing countries including species such as palmivora, megakarya, capsici and citrophthora distinguished based on chromosome number, sporangial characteristics and pedicel length. World losses of 20–25% in cacao production are due to black pod disease, an estimate of 700,000 metric tons on global scale reducing global cocoa production. High cacao loss to diseases is a prime factor limiting production; consequently, significant effort is required to deal with problems associated with disease control to ensure a sustainable cacao. The effective and sustainable management of black pod disease requires integrated approach encompassing different control measures.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Dele Adeniyi",authors:null},{id:"67634",title:"Cacao Growth and Development Under Different Nursery and Field Conditions",slug:"cacao-growth-and-development-under-different-nursery-and-field-conditions",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Experiments were conducted between 2004 and 2018 to examine cacao growth, development, establishment and yield under varying experimental conditions comprised of seed mucilage handling before sowing, sowing methods and its effects on seedling growth and development, timing of mycorrhizal inoculation on root and shoot growth and development and effects of shade and dry season drip irrigation on growth and yield of field-grown cacao. Results show that cleaning cacao seed mucilage before sowing enhanced sprouting rate and percent germination. The use of manure mixed with sawdust and loamy soil aided excellent seed germination, seedling vigor and root development. Inoculating cacao seeds with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) at point of sowing and early stages in the nursery aided root development and enhanced field establishment and survival during the dry season. Dense shade retarded cacao growth and development during the rainy season, while no shade enhances optimum growth and canopy development. The use of drip irrigation strategies in young cacao plantations increased seedling survival from less than 45% under no irrigation to above 95% at the end of the second dry season. This showed that irrigation during dry season can significantly enhance cacao establishment and survival.",book:{id:"7005",slug:"theobroma-cacao-deploying-science-for-sustainability-of-global-cocoa-economy",title:"Theobroma Cacao",fullTitle:"Theobroma Cacao - Deploying Science for Sustainability of Global Cocoa Economy"},signatures:"Idowu Babadele Famuwagun and Samuel Ohi Agele",authors:null},{id:"68383",title:"Major Natural Vegetation in Coastal and Marine Wetlands: Edible Seaweeds",slug:"major-natural-vegetation-in-coastal-and-marine-wetlands-edible-seaweeds",totalDownloads:740,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"For thousands of years, seaweeds grown in coastal and marine have been used as food, materials and medicines by the people. Edible seaweeds directly consumed, especially in Asian, are used for preparing food due to the their components containing minerals, essential trace elements, and various natural compounds. At the last decades, they have been getting more and more attention in food and pharmaceutical industries because of their biological activities such as anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-microbial, and anti-oxidant activity. Therefore, in the present study, we have worked on to understand the structure of edible seaweeds. It is worthy to mention that they can be considered as source of some proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibers, antioxidants, and phytochemicals.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Ilknur Babahan, Birsen Kirim and Hamideh Mehr",authors:null},{id:"67540",title:"Aphid-Plant Interactions: Implications for Pest Management",slug:"aphid-plant-interactions-implications-for-pest-management",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Aphids are important herbivores and important pest of many field and forest crops. They have specialized long and flexible stylets which are adapted to feeding on phloem sap. To establish successful feeding on host plant, they need to counter a range of both physical and chemical defenses. The defenses employed by plants can have direct effect on the aphid species through difficulty in establishing successful feeding due to the presence of trichomes, thick cell wall, etc. or effect on their biology with lethal consequences in extreme cases (direct defenses). In contrast to this, plants can attract natural enemies of aphids through the release of volatile compounds (the so-called “cry or call for help”) (indirect defense). The information on different defense strategies employed by plants can be utilized to enhance the level of resistance (R) to develop sustainable pest management strategies.",book:{id:"8667",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",fullTitle:"Plant Communities and Their Environment"},signatures:"Sarwan Kumar",authors:null},{id:"72336",title:"Plant Phenology and An Assessment of the Effects Regarding Heavy Metals, Nanoparticles, and Nanotubes on Plant Development: Runner Bean, Artichoke, and Chickpea Seedlings",slug:"plant-phenology-and-an-assessment-of-the-effects-regarding-heavy-metals-nanoparticles-and-nanotubes-",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The relationship between environmental pollution and nutrition in particular, which forms the basis of health, is fundamentally important for protecting human health. Therefore, the data obtained from the examination of how plants and animals consumed as food are affected by environmental pollution can be seen as an indicator of their effects on humans. On the other hand, the role of technology and nanotechnology in life has been increasing in this century, and a considerable amount of heavy metals, nanoparticles (NPs), and nanotubes (NTs) are released to the environment. The results of morphological or anatomical examination of runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L) and artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) plants subjected to copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) heavy metals and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) plants subjected to Au nanoparticles and C70 single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are presented with this study in the point of their phenological development process. The three taxa belonging to Fabaceae and Asteraceae families with high economic status and having flowers with characteristic features were chosen deliberately as representatives. 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