",isbn:"978-1-80356-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"6dcb071a2e978694b6b1cb9c20afc1a3",bookSignature:"Prof. Hai-Zhi Song",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg",keywords:"Electric Field Effect, Nano-Materials, Electric Field Design, Antenna, Microelectronics, Optoelectronics, Electric Field Stimulation, Brain and Nerve, Electric Field Imaging, Atomic Electric Field, Space Science, Climate",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the fields of new materials, optoelectronic devices, and quantum information processing, appointed vice director of the Science and Technology Committee of SWITP, author/co-author of more than 170 research papers, and holder of 40 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196114",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"hai-zhi-song",fullName:"Hai-Zhi Song",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196114/images/system/196114.jpg",biography:"Curriculum Vitae\n\nName: Hai-Zhi Song \nGender: male\nDate of Birth: Oct. 20, 1968\nPlace of Birth: Shanxi, China\nAffiliation and Address: \nSouthwest Institute of Technical Physics\nNo.7, Section 4, Renminnan Road, Chengdu 610041, China\nAnd\nInstitute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences,\nUniversity of Electronic Science and Technology of China,\nNo. 4, Section 2, Jianshebei Road, Chengdu 610054, China\n\nWork Phone: +86-28-68180751, +86-28-83208728\nMobile Phone: +86-158-28239155\nFax: +86-28-83201896\nE-mail: hzsong1296@163.com, hzsong@uestc.edu.cn\n \nEducation \nSept, 1990 – July, 1995:Peking University, PhD, Thesis “Visible luminescence of porous silicon and its mechanism”, Researches on hydrogen-influenced Schottky diodes and silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nSept, 1986 – July, 1990:Nanjing University, Bachelor of Science, Thesis “Study of refractory metal silicides”, Research on Ohmic contact of semiconductors.\n\nWork Experience \nJuly, 1995 – Sept. 1997: Nanjing University, Nanjing, China, Postdoctoral Researcher, Research on silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nOct, 1997 – Sept. 1998: Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Visiting free Researcher, Research on amorphous semiconductors. \nOct, 1998 – Sept. 2001: Tsukuba University, Tsukuba, Japan, Assistant Professor, Research on semiconductor quantum dots. \nOct, 2001 – March 2012: Fujitsu Lab. Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. Realized a series of optoelectronic quantum devices for quantum information processing, such as fiber-integrated photon-pair-entangler, chiplet heralded single photon emitter, fiber quantum memories, quantum number generator, etc.\n\nHonor and Group Memberships \nSelected Scholar of the Recruitment Program of Global Experts, China\nEditorial member of “Laser Technology”\nEditorial member of “Journal of Electronic Science and Technology”\nEditorial member of “Internal J. Mat. Sci. Appl”\nMember of APS (American Physics Society)\nMember of OSA (Optical Society of America)\nPermanent Member of China Physical Science and Technology\nPermanent Member of the Chinese Optical Society\nTechnical committee member of PIERS, organizing a series of “quantum information processing and devices” sessions\nTechnical committee member of ICICM",institutionString:"Southwest University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Southwest University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45129",title:"Pluripotent Adult Stem Cells: A Potential Revolution in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",doi:"10.5772/54366",slug:"pluripotent-adult-stem-cells-a-potential-revolution-in-regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering",body:'
1. Introduction
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells defined by their abilities to self-renew and differentiate into mature cells. Stem cells found in fully developed tissues are defined as adult stem cells. The function of adult stem cells is the maintenance of adult tissue specificity by homeostatic cell replacement and tissue regeneration (Wagers and Weissman, 2004). Adult stem cells are presumed quiescent within adult tissues, but divide infrequently to generate a stem cell clone and a transiently-amplifying cell. The transiently-amplifying cells will undergo a limited number of cell divisions before terminal differentiation into mature functional tissue cells. The existence of adult stem cells has been reported in multiple organs; these include: brain, heart, skin, intestine, testis, muscle and blood, among others. This chapter focuses on four adult stem cell populations: hematopoietic, mesenchymal, periodontal ligament-derived, and spermatogonial (Table 1).
Hematopoietic stem cells are the most characterized adult stem cell population. They function to generate all cell lineages found in mature blood (erythroid, myeloid and lymphoid) and to sustain blood production during the entire life of an animal (Kondo et al., 2003). Adult bone marrow, umbilical cord blood and mobilized peripheral blood are sources of hematopoietic stem cells for transplantation in many blood-related diseases. Hematopoietic stem cells can be characterized by positive selection of CD34, CD45, and CD133 markers and negative selection of CD31, CD105 and CD146 markers (Tárnok et al., 2010).
Mesenchymal stem cells, also called marrow stromal cells, are another well-studied adult stem cell population. Mesenchymal stem cells were originally identified in the bone marrow, but have since been found in other systems such as adipose tissue, umbilical cord and menstrual blood (Ding et al., 2011). Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into osteocytes, chondrocytes and adipocytes (Arita et al., 2011; Pittenger et al., 1999). Human mesenchymal stem cells can be characterized by the positive expression of CD29, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD146 and STRO-1, and the negative expression of CD31, CD34, CD45, CD49f and CD133 (Mödder et al., 2012; Tárnok et al., 2010).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAdult stem cells\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFeasible sources\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCharacterization\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Hematopoietic stem cells
\n\t\t\t
Bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, mobilized peripheral blood
\n\t\t\t
(+): CD34, CD45, CD133
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
(-): CD31, CD105, CD146
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Mesenchymal stem cells
\n\t\t\t
Bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical cord, menstrual blood
Feasible sources and characterization of adult stem cells
Periodontal ligament, derived from the cranial neural crest, is a soft connective tissue embedded between the tooth root and the alveolar bone socket, supporting the teeth in situ and preserving tissue homeostasis. The periodontal ligament contains stem cell populations that can differentiate into cementum-forming cells or bone-forming cells (Seo et al., 2004). Periodontal ligament-derived stem cells are heterogeneous, composed of mesenchymal stem cells and putative neural crest cells. Therefore, human periodontal ligament-derived stem cell populations have been characterized not only by mesenchymal stem cell markers, but also by neural crest cell markers, such as p75, nestin, Slug and SOX10 (Huang et al., 2009; Mrozik et al., 2010).
Testicular spermatogonial stem cells are the germ-line cells for spermatogenesis, an ongoing process throughout the lifespan of the male animals. They are unipotent in nature and continuously generate differentiating daughter cells for subsequent production of spermatozoa (Fagoonee et al., 2011). Human spermatogonial stem cells can be purified by antibodies against cell surface markers CD9, CD49f and GPR125 (Conrad et al., 2008).
2. Pluripotent stem cells
Pluripotency refers to the ability of cells to self-renew and differentiate into all 3 germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm). Pluripotent stem cells are the origin of all somatic and germ-line cells in the developing embryo. The first pluripotent cells were derived in 1976 from a type of germ-line tumor known as a teratocarcinoma (Hogan, 1976). Embryonic stem cells, derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst prior to gastrulation, are still considered the gold standard for pluripotent stem cells. Even though adult cells are terminally differentiated, pluripotency has also been conferred to these cells in past studies, by the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer (Perry, 2005), parthenogenesis of unfertilized eggs (Brevini et al., 2008), and reprogramming by cell fusion (Pralong et al., 2006). Research into adult cell pluripotency was slow to progress until a major breakthrough in 2006 brought with it the technique of “induced pluripotent stem cells”. In this process adult skin fibroblasts were induced into a pluripotent state by the forced expression of key transcription factors (OCT4, SOX2, KLF4 and c-MYC; Takahashi et al., 2007) or (OCT4, SOX2, NANOG and LIN28; Yu et al., 2007). Despite the low reprogramming efficiency, this has become a convenient method for generating new pluripotent stem cell lines for research from differentiated adult cells.
Adult stem cells are thought to be tissue-specific and only able to differentiate into progeny cells of their tissues of origin. An increasing number of studies, however, report that adult stem cells are capable of giving rise to cells of an entirely distinct lineage. The concept of adult stem cell plasticity might be explained by 5 potential mechanisms: cell fusion, trans-differentiation, de-differentiation, heterogeneous stem cell populations, or pluripotency (Wagers and Weissman, 2004). Cell-cell fusion occurs at a low frequency, but is implicated in the transplantation of bone marrow cells to liver hepatocytes, cardiomyocytes and Purkinje neurons (Alvarez-Dolado et al., 2003). In cell fusion events, the stem cells acquire the mature phenotype of the tissue they are embedded within and can be easily mistaken for correct differentiation of the transplanted cells. Trans-differentiation is a direct lineage conversion by the activation of a dormant differentiation program to alter the lineage specificity of the cell. De-differentiation is another lineage conversion phenomenon in which a tissue-specific cell spontaneously de-differentiates into a more basal multipotent cell and re-differentiates to a new lineage. While the heterogeneity of the stem cell population employed can account for some of the apparent trans-differentiation and de-differentiation events observed in vivo, it is worth discussing as a separate factor in the resulting multi-lineage tissues, which are often seen after transplantation. The characterization of homogeneous stem cell populations that contribute to the regeneration of one cell type remains an active field of study for most cellular therapy applications. Lastly, pluripotent stem cells are present in adult tissues as minute sub-populations in certain stem cell niches. Such a population has already been identified and reported in bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (Jiang et al., 2002). In addition, pluripotent stem cells in adult tissues can also arise from remnants of the migrating neural crest. The neural crest is a transient embryonic structure that affords various organs with cells which could undergo a more stochastic type of differentiation than other embryonic progenitor cells (Slack, 2008). Neural crest cells are pluripotent and may retain some of their characteristics after their migration and engraftment into their terminal sites.
3. Isolation of pluripotent adult stem cells
The expression of embryonic stem cell markers in some adult stem cells suggest a sub-population of pluripotent cells in these niches (Table 2). The common embryonic stem cell makers, such as OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, KLF4, LIN28, SSEA-1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60 and TRA-1-81, are all expressed in hematopoietic stem cells (Wang et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2006; Zulli et al., 2008) and mesenchymal stem cells (Anjos-Afonso and Bonnet, 2007; Jaramillo-Ferrada et al., 2012; Riekstina et al., 2009; Sung et al., 2010). Similarly, expressions of most of these markers, except for LIN28, have been reported in periodontal ligament-derived stem cells, a tissue arising from the migrating cranial neural crest (Huang et al., 2009; Kawanabe et al., 2010). Previous studies show that spermatogonial stem cells also express most of the embryonic stem cell markers, except SSEA-3 and TRA-1-60 (Izadyar et al., 2008; Izadyar et al., 2011; Kanatsu-Shinohara et al., 2008; Panda et al., 2011; Zheng et al., 2009). These findings suggest that pluripotent stem cells exist as sub-populations in adult stem cell reservoirs.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tEmbryonic stem cell marker\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tHSC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMSC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tPDLSC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSSC\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SOX2
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
OCT4
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NANOG
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
KLF4
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LIN28
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SSEA-1
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SSEA-3
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
SSEA-4
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TRA-1-60
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TRA-1-81
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Embryonic stem cell marker expression in different adult stem cell populations
The existence of cells with a defined pluripotency-associated phenotypic expression within adult tissues enables researchers to isolate and purify a homogeneous subpopulation of adult pluripotent stem cells. In fact, with the use of magnetic affinity cell sorting, adult human mesenchymal stem cells, shown to differentiate into endodermal, ectodermal and mesodermal cells, were isolated by antibody against SSEA-3 (Kuroda et al., 2010). Similarly, stem cells exhibiting the potential to generate specialized cells of the three embryonic germ layers can be isolated by positive SSEA-4 expression from human periodontal ligament (Kawanabe et al., 2010). Furthermore, human spermatogonial stem cells, sharing cellular and molecular similarities with human embryonic stem cells, can be purified by α6 integrin (CD49f) antibody (Conrad et al., 2008). Moreover, a human hematopoietic stem cell subpopulation, highly efficient in generating long-term multi-lineage grafts, can also be isolated by the same α6 integrin expression (Notta et al., 2011). In addition, stem cells from granulocyte colony-stimulating factor-mobilized human peripheral blood can divide indefinitely without reaching replicative senescence and differentiate into multiple lineages (Cesselli et al., 2009).
Recently, a cell surfaceome map of mouse embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells was reported (Gundry et al., 2012). Previously unidentified cellular surface markers, such as CD31, CD49f, CD123 and CD326, indicated a purified population of pluripotent stem cells. Further analyses should be performed to determine the expression of these markers in different adult stem cell populations. Their presence in adult stem cell populations could facilitate the purification of homogeneous pluripotent stem cells within an otherwise heterogeneous pool of regenerative adult cells.
4. Characterization of pluripotent adult stem cells
The standard tests for pluripotency are teratoma and chimera formation assays. Teratomas can be formed when pluripotent stem cells are injected into immunodeficient animals; they consist of foci with derivatives of ectodermal, mesodermal and endodermal embryonic germs layers (Wobus et al., 1984). Chimeras can be generated when pluripotent stem cells are microinjected into mouse blastocysts and are induced to differentiate into multiple cell types during normal developmental processes (Becker et al., 1984). Teratoma formation assays can be used to test for the pluripotency of human stem cells, whereas both teratoma and chimera formation can test for the pluripotency of mouse stem cells. Spermatogonial stem cells isolated from human testis by positive expression of CD49f are able to form teratomas when injected into immunodeficient mice (Conrad et al., 2008). Mesenchymal stem cells isolated from murine bone marrow contribute to most of the somatic cell types (chimerism ranged between 0.1% and 45%) when they are singly injected into an early mouse blastocyst (Jiang et al., 2002). Moreover, human hematopoietic stem cells isolated by CD49f cell surface marker display multi-lineage chimerism when transplanted into the NOD-scid-IL2Rgc-/- mice (Notta et al., 2011). However, human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells purified by the SSEA-3 cell surface marker do not form teratomas in immunodeficient mouse testes even though cells positive for human ectodermal, endodermal and mesodermal lineage markers were detected within the injected mouse testes (Kuroda et al., 2010). Conversely, pluripotency assays of human periodontal ligament-derived stem cells isolated by SSEA-4 cell surface marker expression have not yet been reported (Kawanabe et al., 2010).
Although most of the adult stem cells are unable to form teratomas in immunodeficient mice, can they still be defined as pluripotent stem cells? Considering this apparent inability as well as the variability in teratoma formation efficiency even when using a known pluripotent stem cell line, a teratoma assay might not be a suitable assay for pluripotency of adult stem cells. Instead, in vitro and in vivo differentiation into cells of the 3 embryonic germ layers along with chimera formation in xeno-transplanted mice can be applied for testing adult stem cell potency. The conventional concept of development involves a hierarchical structure of cellular commitment extending outward from embryonic and pluripotent, to adult terminally differentiated tissues. However, recent ideas propose that all or most tissues in the postnatal body are continuously turning over and contain a pluripotent stem cell reservoir (Slack, 2008). These pluripotent stem cell populations are able to differentiate into multiple cell types depending on their microenvironmental cues. Therefore, the stem cell status should be defined by plasticity (Zipori, 2005). Pluripotency refers to the ability of cells to differentiate into any cell type of the 3 germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm), whereas multipotency refers to the ability of cells to differentiate only into a closely related family of cells (Ilic and Polak, 2011). All of the previously described adult stem cells (hematopoietic, mesenchymal, periodontal ligament-derived, and spermatogonial) could differentiate into specialized cells of the three germ layers: neurons (ectodermal lineage), adipocytes, cardiomyocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes (mesoderm lineage), and hepatocytes and insulin-producing cells (endodermal lineage) (Conrad et al., 2008; Jiang et al., 2002; Kuroda et al., 2010; Kawanabe et al., 2010; Notta et al., 2011). Therefore, these adult stem cells could also be defined as pluripotent stem cells.
5. Advantages of pluripotent adult stem cells over embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells
Human embryonic stem cells come from the inner cell mass of human blastocysts. Therefore, embryonic stem cells used for cell therapy are allogenic; the transplanted donor cells do not originate from the recipient. This raises a concern about the immunogenic response of the host, and the need for immune-suppressive therapy concurrent with embryonic stem cell transplantation (Charron et al., 2009). Moreover, embryonic stem cell-based therapy has been hampered by the moral, legal and ethical dilemma surrounding the use of human embryos for derivation of the stem cell lines (Zarzeczny and Caulfield, 2009). Furthermore, as the gold standard of pluripotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells have the potential to form teratomas in the host. Tumorigenic potential can be reduced by differentiating the embryonic stem cells into lineage-specific progenitor cells or mature tissue cells prior to transplantation (Schwartz et al., 2012). In order to better control standards of good manufacturing practices and reduce variability as much as possible, the in vitro manipulation of embryonic stem cells should be minimized as recommend by the Food and Drug Administration (Lysaght and Campbell, 2011). Furthermore, tumorigenic potential remains a concern if the entirety of the embryonic stem cell population does not completely differentiate into fully mature cells.
Differentiated adult cells used for the generation of the induced pluripotent stem cells can be collected from the recipient body, avoiding the contentious need for a human embryo. This also circumvents the problem of immune rejection. There are technical hurdles, however, concerning generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (Hayden, 2011). Firstly, the delivery of reprogramming factors (OCT4, SOX2, NANOG, LIN28, KLF4 and c-MYC) relies on the use of viral vectors for delivery (Takahashi et al., 2007). Retroviral sequences could integrate into the DNA of the host cells, potentially disrupting the gene structure as well as resulting in an aberrant phenotypic expression. Ultimately this could result in pathological mutations and cancer formation. Alternative methods such as direct protein or small molecule delivery have been adopted, although the reprogramming efficiency of these techniques is lower than with viral vectors (Kim et al., 2009; Shi et al., 2008). Secondly, two of the reprogramming factors, c-MYC and KLF4, are proto-oncogenes, which raise the concern of cancer formation further. Omitting c-MYC would lower the reprogramming efficiency, whereas silencing c-MYC could lead to its reactivation. Moreover, reprogramming can induce other genomic changes, such as DNA mutations (Gore et al., 2011), copy number variations (Hussein et al., 2011) and chromosomal aberrations (Mayshar et al., 2010). Genomic instability could have unpredictable and undesirable effects on the reprogrammed cells. Furthermore, induced pluripotent stem cells carry their epigenetic signatures from the original differentiated adult cells (Lister et al., 2011). The reprogrammed cells, therefore, unlike embryonic stem cells, may not develop into some cell types. In addition, induced pluripotent stem cells can still cause immune reactions when transplanted allogeneically.
The sources of adult stem cells are multiple and feasibly obtained from various adult tissues, such as bone marrow, blood, adipose tissue, teeth and testes (Table 1). These adult stem cells can be collected from the human body at anytime throughout life. This makes them readily available and does not raise the moral and ethical issues involved with the attainment of embryonic stem cells. Moreover, pluripotent adult stem cells can easily be isolated and purified by cell surface markers, such as CD49f, SSEA-3 and SSEA4 (Conrad et al., 2008; Kuroda et al., 2010; Kawanabe et al., 2010; Notta et al., 2011). The pluripotent status of these adult stem cells is naturally acquired and does not require reprogramming by the introduction of pluripotent transcriptional factors, thus eliminating the use of viral vectors and the chance of aberrant chromosomal changes. Furthermore, transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells and periodontal ligament-derived stem cells can be autogenic or allogeneic. Immuno-suppression is not necessary since mesenchymal stem cells have strong immunomodulatory properties against alloreactivity of T lymphocytes and dendritic cells (Chen et al., 2011). Similarly, mesenchymal stem cells and periodontal ligament-derived stem cells inhibit the proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (Wada et al., 2009). Spermatogonial stem cells, however, are killed by cytotoxic T lymphocytes after transplantation (Dressel et al., 2009), whereas allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation induces graft-vs-host disease (Strober et al., 2011). Therefore, transplantation of spermatogonial stem cells and hematopoietic stem cells should only be autogenic, without the application of immunosuppressive drugs. Similar to embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, pluripotent adult stem cells can differentiate into specialized cells of the three germ layers. Except for spermatogonial stem cells (Conrad et al., 2008), teratoma formation was not found in pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells and periodontal ligament-derived stem cells (Kuroda et al., 2010; Kawanabe et al., 2010; Notta et al., 2011). This suggests a reduction in the probabilities of tumor formation post-transplantation, and the elimination of the need to manipulate the cells into mature tissue prior to transplantation. In addition, transplanted stem cell-induced regeneration may not be due to stem cell differentiation per se (Johnson et al., 2010; Williams and Hare, 2011). Instead, a paracrine effect has been hypothesized in which the adult stem cells secrete cytokines, chemokines, or protective proteins (Bai et al., 2012; Bráz et al., 2012) that nourish the host tissue cells and facilitate the healing process. This special feature has not yet been reported with the use of embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells in a clinical setting.
6. Potential applications of pluripotent adult stem cells
Stem cell clinical trials have advanced rapidly for a broad spectrum of diseases, such as diabetes, neurodegeneration, immune diseases, heart disease, and bone disease. In 2011, there were 123 clinical trials using mesenchymal stem cells (Trounson et al., 2011). It is predicted that stem cell therapy will eventually become the treatment of choice in regenerative medicine, especially the use of adult stem cells. As stem cell products become more wide-spread and maintained under various conditions, the need for global standardization and regulation of processes will become necessary for the viable application of these products in a clinical setting. The Food and Drug Administration regulates interstate commerce in human cells and tissue-based products under the Public Health Service Act and the Code of Federal Regulations for Food and Drugs (Lysaght and Campbell, 2011). Human cells and tissue-based products are defined as “articles containing or consisting of human cells or tissues that are intended for implantation, transplantation, infusion, or transfer into a human recipient” (Lysaght and Campbell, 2011). Human cells and tissue-based products must be: (1) minimally manipulated, (2) intended only for homologous use, (3) not combined with another article (except for water, or sterilization, preservation, or storage agents), and (4) either: (a) have no systemic or metabolic effect, or (b) be for autologous use, allogeneic use in first- or second-degree blood relative, or reproductive use.
Pluripotent adult stem cells fall under the criteria for human cells and tissue-based products as stated by the Food and Drug Administration. Unlike induced pluripotent stem cells, pluripotent adult stem cells can be minimally manipulated as their pluripotent state occurs naturally. Unlike embryonic stem cells, pluripotent adult stem cells are suited for autologous use. Similar to embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, pluripotent adult stem cells are able to differentiate into specialized cells of the three germ layers. In addition, embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells have the potential to form teratomas (an unfavorable side-effect in clinical applications) although a recent study suggests that the teratoma-forming cells could be removed by the antibody against SSEA-5 (Tang et al., 2011). In contrast, most pluripotent adult stem cells do not form teratomas in vivo, eliminating the need for preemptive differentiation of pluripotent adult stem cells into mature specialized cells.
If stem cell-aided regeneration is not due to stem cell differentiation to replace damaged cells (Johnson et al., 2010; Williams and Hare, 2011), pluripotent adult stem cells are favorable over embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. The secretion of cytokines, chemokines, and/or protective proteins from the adult stem cells could nourish the host tissue and facilitate the healing process (Bai et al., 2012; Bráz et al., 2012).
7. Summary
Adult stem cells are found all over the body. They can be conveniently obtained from different accessible tissues: bone marrow, blood, adipose tissue, teeth and testes. Pluripotent adult stem cells, which reside as a subpopulation within adult stem cells, can be easily isolated by pluripotent cell surface markers, such as SSEA-3, SSEA-4 and CD49f. Moreover, pluripotent adult stem cells can be characterized by their ability to differentiate into cells of 3 germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) as well as by the chimera formation in xeno-transplanted mice. Pluripotent adult stem cells are better than embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells as they are an autologous source, require minimal manipulation and do not have the ability to form teratomas. In addition, they are more appropriate to be used as a clinical product for therapeutic treatments, as a cellular replacement or secretory protein reservoir. However, there are uncertainties that still remain unanswered. Which stem cell types are optimal for regenerative medicine? What is the optimal cell number for transplantation? Should the cells be preemptively differentiated or used as is? Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms of stem cells in regenerating damaged tissues after transplantation.
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Cheung",slug:"herman-s.-cheung",email:"HCheung@med.miami.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pluripotent stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Isolation of pluripotent adult stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Characterization of pluripotent adult stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Advantages of pluripotent adult stem cells over embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Potential applications of pluripotent adult stem cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Alvarez-doladoM. RPardalJ. MGarcia-verdugoJ. RFikeH. OLeeKPfefferCLoisS. 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Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Miami Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Herman S. Cheung",address:"hcheung@med.maimi.edu",affiliation:'
Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Miami Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
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1. Introduction
Many rhyolite lavas are usually associated with pyroclastic deposits [1, 2, 3]. In fact each lava eruption is almost invariably associated with preceding phases of explosive pyroclastic activity [4, 5, 6]. This suggests that lavas could be a terminal event of many explosive eruptions during which most of the volatiles of the magma have been removed. Even while the rhyolite lavas being growing explosive activity may continue, as evidenced by the presence of unusually large amounts of obsidian ejecta among the pyroclastic deposits [4].
The principal requirement for the effusive (not explosive) eruption of magma as coherent lava is that the exsolved volatile content of the magma immediately before eruption should be sufficiently low to prevent the build-up of a gas pressure which could cause explosive fragmentation of magma and country rock [7]. Nevertheless, sufficient water is initially available in the magma source regions [3]. Therefore, for coherent magmas to be erupted from magma sources with high volatile contents the magma has to degas [7].
Volcanologic and petrologic studies on the silicic centres which lie within the Afar axial range or off the axis are very scarce. This is partly because of the remoteness and inaccessibility of the area that practically inhibits field investigation. The very few previous studies mainly focused on the extensive basaltic flow fields [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13], which have been interpreted as incipient oceanic ridges. However, there are also comparable volumes of silicic magmas to that of the basaltic counterparts in the region [14, 15, 16]. Very little is known about these silicic centers which form a conspicuous central edifice in the axial range of the Afar magmatic segments [15, 17, 18, 19, 20].
This study presents field observation; textural description (thin section and scanning electron microscope); and mineral chemistry (backscattered electron imaging and dispersive X-ray analysis) for previously undescribed Badi volcanic edifice from central Afar, Ethiopia (Figure 1). Contrary to many localities, whereby rhyolitic lava domes and flows are usually associated with pyroclastic deposits, the Badi volcanic edifice contains several clusters of coalescing silicic domes and lava flows, and sparse evidence for pyroclastic rocks. Thus, this volcano offers a relatively rare opportunity to study effusive silicic volcanic phenomena. The motivation of this work is to understand the mechanism of emplacement of Badi silicic domes and flows with hope to draw inferences on the formation of the flow bands. In order to address these questions we employ textural analysis of the lavas using petrographic microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM), accompanied by mineral chemistry. To the knowledge of the authors, there are no earlier studies of this kind documented in the literature from the region so far. Petrologic and geochemical studies of some silicic volcanic rocks from Afar including those from Badi have been considered elsewhere [17, 18, 19, 20, 22] and are omitted from the forthcoming discussion.
Figure 1.
Topographic relief map of central Afar, showing the location of the off-rift axis Badi volcano. Dashed line represents the 2005 dyke injection (after [21]).
2. Geologic background
Afar depression (the Afar triple junction), roughly 300 km wide, marks the intersection of three rifts: the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and east African rifts. This extensional province formed within a Palaeogene Ethiopian flood basalt province associated with the Afar mantle plume [23, 24]. Rifting within the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden arms of the triple junction has progressed to oceanic spreading [25], whereas the less-evolved Ethiopian rift is transitional from continental rifting to oceanic seafloor spreading [26]. The crust of the Afar depression is highly extended and intruded with mafic dykes [27]. Crustal thickness ranges from 16 km in the north beneath Erta’Ale range to 24 km in the south [28].
Within the southern Red Sea rift and Afar, the initial development of border faults was roughly coincident with the 31–29 Ma flood basalt sequences in the same area [29]. Strain migrated riftward from 19 to 12 Ma [29], and by ~5 Ma, an oceanic spreading ridge had developed within the south central Red Sea rift [30]. Southward propagation (south of 16°N) of the ridge runs inland through Ethiopia, whereby extension (faulting and dyking), seismicity and volcanism are localized in discrete narrow (<10 km wide) ~60 km long rows/zones within the Afar depression [31]. These rows are referred to as magmatic segments and are characterized by aligned chains of basaltic cones with associated flow fields, shield volcanoes, shallow seismicity and positive gravity anomalies [26]. The available K-Ar data for basaltic and silicic rocks along the terrestrial portion of the Red Sea rift system indicate an age range of 1.46–0.52 Ma [32]. Within these magmatic segments, volcanism tends to be bimodal, with extensive basaltic flow fields and axial silicic centers [15, 18, 19, 20, 22]. Profuse fissure basalt volcanism, referred to as “Stratoid Series” [33] covering most of the central and southern part of the Afar depression, occurred about 5 Ma ago where it was most active between 4.5 and 1.5 Ma [34].
3. Methods
Fresh, unaltered obsidians (twelve samples) were collected from Badi volcano, and were examined under petrographic microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) at Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, UK. SEM images and chemical analysis (backscattered electron imaging and dispersive X-ray analysis) of samples were acquired.
4. Result
4.1 Field relation
Badi volcano (located at 12.387°N and 40.366°E) lies off the axis of the main rift and is associated with a deviation in the strike of the faults (Figure 1). It is a well-defined rounded volcanic center with diameter of emerging from fissural basaltic lava fields. The summit of the center is about 1280 m high above mean sea level (msl) and the base is around 640 m high above msl. The total volume of the volcano is estimated to be about 31.5 km3. The silicic lava consists of a cluster of several rhyolite domes and flows. There is no central vent; rather each dome/flow has its own vent. The only age constraint available for the silicic part of the Badi edifice is a K-Ar age of 290 Ka for one of the basal silicic domes [32].
The sub-aerial Badi volcanic edifice has essentially two parts (Figure 2): the base of silicic domes and flows and then, the upper basaltic flows which have been erupted on to the silicic material. There are no exposed explosive products associated with the effusive activity in Badi volcano, unlike many rhyolitic obsidian flows and domes in the Ethiopian rift valley which are commonly associated with pyroclastic deposits [4, 6, 35, 36, 37]. It has been noted that in most volcanic centers of Afar, pryroclastic products are scanty [15]. However, there are large silicic caldera complexes in Afar away from the rift axis [16]. The absence of fragmental magmatic materials at Badi volcano clearly reflects that the effusion of lava domes and flows resulted from the different rheology of the magma.
Figure 2.
Outcrop photos illustrating the eruptive sequence of Badi volcano; Basal silicic domes and flows, and upper basaltic flow.
During our preliminary field investigation, we found evidence for a single, coarse-grained pumice cone deposit, on the side of the volcano. The pumice fall deposits are quite high up elevation wise and lay directly on top of some basaltic scoria cones (Figure 2), so they post-date at least some of the later basaltic volcanism and have been erupted after almost all of the silicic domes/flows that make up the main body of the Badi Mountain. Accordingly, the volcanic stratigraphy of Badi volcano from old to young is silicic dome, then basaltic scoria and finally pumice fall deposit. There are certainly no silicic flows interbedded with the pyroclastic material (Figure 2). The very large pumices (0.5 m in size or more) suggest reasonably close to the vent. All of the dates for the late stage basaltic activity are around 50 Ka and younger (Ar-Ar and cosmogenic 3He datings, [13]). This indicates that the pyroclastic deposits are much younger than 50 Ka. An interpretation might be that the pumice deposit is the product of a small explosive eruption, sourced from a body of silicic melt that was rejuvenated by the later injection of basaltic magma.
4.2 Texture of flow bands
Field inspection reveals that the rhyolite lavas show a vertical zonation of lava textures related to the mechanism of emplacement (Figure 3a). The upper surface of obsidian usually fractures into blocks, probably related to the movement and cooling of the interior of the flow. Beneath these layers is the core (interior) of the dome which is unlaminated and shows columnar joints. The upper outer surface of the dome is made up of obsidian layer which displays a very pronounced layers, or flow bands (Figure 3b) defined by a color variation (i.e., alternating domains of light and brown glasses). The flow bands are frequently folded (Figure 3c) and exhibit intricate fluidal textures as indicated by highly contorted and intensively crenulated layers (Figure 3d). Folds arise as flow layering deforms during flow advance [38].
Figure 3.
Outcrop photos illustrating the lithological variability (a) Textutal differences through a rhyolite lava, with a chilled glassy carapace top and a columnar jointed bottom. (b) Black, vitreous obsidian occurring as interbanded layers. (c) Flow-folded obsidian. (d) Fluidal characteristic as evidenced by contorted and crenulated layers.
Petrographic observation of the flow bands (Figure 4) shows that the boundaries between the light and brown glass bands are abrupt, reflecting laminar flow state. The brown lamella is relatively thickener than the light one. The flow banding is locally deflected around phenocrysts (Figure 4), suggesting that crystallization took place before the cessation of flowage of the lava.
Figure 4.
Photomicrographs illustrating flow banding defined by alternating domains of brown and light glasses (×30, ordinary light). Note flow bands deflected around phenocrysts.
As seen both in the hand specimen and thin section, SEM observation (Figure 5) illustrates that the Badi lavas have flow banding/layering defined by alternating lamellae of light and black glasses. Black bands are represented by non-vesicular obsidian, while light layers are vesicular glass. The obsidian domain shows abundant, very small microlites of mainly alkali feldspar, quartz and pyroxene set in a glassy matrix. Microlites are generally randomly oriented. It is important to note that there is no notable difference in the abundance of microlites between the two glass domains. Furthermore, the Badi lavas contain neither xenocrystic nor xenolithic materials.
Figure 5.
SEM image illustrating the differences in abundance of vesicles between the flow bands. Note microlites are randomly oriented. Field of view is 9 μm.
4.3 Petrography
The rhyolite lavas, which form the main part of the Badi edifice, display a wide variety of textures ranging from sparsely porphyritic through aphyric to almost completely glassy obsidians (Figure 6). The phenocrysts are unbroken which provides textural evidence that distinguish the flows and domes as lava rather than rheomorphic ignimbrite. They appear to have been in equilibrium without embayment or resorption. The porphyritic lavas (e.g., samples 01–04, 02–06, 25–02) contain very few phenocrysts or microphenocrysts (< 5 vol.%) of alkali feldspar, quartz, green clinopyroxene and aenigmatite enclosed in a microcrystalline or glassy groundmass which is mainly alkali feldspar, quartz and pyroxene. The aphyric lavas (e.g., samples 01–07, 02–04, 29–03) exhibit very scarce microphenocrysts of alkali feldspar, quartz and green pyroxene embedded in a microcrystalline groundmass which mainly contains alkali feldspar and quartz. They are slightly altered as indicated by a dirty appearance of feldspar. The rhyolitic obsidians (e.g., samples 01–09, 02–04, 03–01, 30–04(1), 30–12, 31–01) contain microlites of alkali feldspar, quartz and pyroxene set in a glassy matrix. The groundmass/matrix is relatively fresh and unaltered devoid of post eruption divetrification and hydration products such as spherulites.
Figure 6.
Photomicrographs illustrating the petrographic characteristics of pertalkaline rhyolites from Badi volcano with phenocrysts of alkali feldspar (euhedral), quartz (rounded), aegirine (green) aenigmatite (dark brown) set in a microcrystalline or glassy matrix (×30, ordinary light).
The mineral assemblage in Badi lavas, in order of decreasing abundance, includes alkali feldspar, quartz, green clinopyroxene and aenigmatite, although not all phases are found in every sample. Table 1 reports the main petrographic characteristics of phenocrysts and matrix of the Badi rhyolite lavas. Accessory Fe-Ti oxides and apatite are present in trace amount and occur as inclusions. Fe-sulfide, possibly pyrrhotite occurs as tiny bleb inclusions within oxides. Alkali feldspar, quartz, green clinopyroxene, and aenigmatite are ubiquitous in the phenocrysts and microphenocrysts. Alkali feldspar is volumetrically the most abundant crystal in the Badi lavas. Phenocryst and matrix compositions of the Badi rhyolite lavas are presented in Table 2. Composition of alkali feldspar is anorthoclase or sanidine. Alkali-pyroxene is the most abundant mafic mineral and is mostly aegirine and subordinate aegirine-augite. Aenigmatite is commonly the second most abundant mafic mineral.
Phase
Mode (vol.%)
Petrographic description
Phenocrysts
(1–5%)
Alkali feldspar
up to 3%
Typically tabular and prismatic euhedral phenocrysts (1–4 mm in length); unbroken showing simple twinning; rarely cloudy appearance. Equant microphenocrysts (< 1 mm in size).
Quartz
<2%
Subhedral to rounded crystals.
Alkali pyroxene
<2%
Aegirine forms elongated (skeletal) and prismatic crystals (up to 3 mm in length); showing green to brownish-yellow color and pleochroism, and only one perfect cleavage. Aegirine-augite occurs as small euhedral; Equant microphenocrysts (0.6 mm in size); shows both cleavages.
Aenigmatite
<1%
Euhedral crystal with typical dark brown color.
Groundmass/matrix
Generally fresh and unaltered; ranges from entirely glassy to microcrystalline groundmass; alkali feldspar, quartz and pyroxene are the principal microlite minerals; display flow banding defined by variation of vesicle abundances.
Table 1.
Main petrographic characteristics of phenocrysts and matrix of the Badi rhyolites.
Anorthoclase
Sanidine
Aegirine
Aenigmatite
Glass
Sample
01−/04
25−/02
01/−04
01/−04
SiO2
66.52
66.55
53.84
40.15
67.60
TiO2
1.22
9.39
Al2O3
17.19
18.22
0.72
0.66
12.87
FeO
1.41
0.78
29.67
41.66
5.49
MnO
0.10
0.07
0.34
1.40
MgO
0.23
0.21
0.05
0.27
CaO
0.04
0.16
1.22
0.38
0.05
Na2O
7.12
6.77
12.00
6.41
5.82
K2O
6.68
7.49
0.09
6.93
Total
99.29
100.04
99.32
100.11
99.03
Table 2.
Representative energy dispersive (EDS-SEM) x-ray analyses of minerals and glass of rhyolites from Badi volcano.
The modal presence of alkali pyroxene and aenigmatite, which are considered to be index minerals in the peralkaline salic rocks [39], in Badi rhyolites surely confers a peralkaline affinity. Nicholls and Carmichael [40] indicated that aegirine is the dominant phase in strongly peralkaline composition (pantellerite), whereas hedenbergite seems to be dominating in less peralkaline composition (comendite). The presence of modal aegirine in Badi lavas implies a pantelleritic composition. This affinity is also supported by chemical composition (Hutchinson et al., 2018) in which the silicic lavas from Badi volcano are predominantly pantellerite with minor comendite. The absence of Fe-Ti oxides in the mineral assemblage suggests that the magma was crystallized at low oxygen fugacity which lies at or below the FMQ buffer curve in the T-fO2 space [41]. Recent works (e.g., [42]) have shown that the nature of co-existing phases, especially pyroxene, in peralakline rhyolites is controlled by the redox conditions; aegirine crystallizes in more reduced conditions (i.e., in no-oxide field). The co-existence of aenigmatite and aegirine in Badi rhyolites strongly suggests that the original silicic magma was generated, evolved and crystallized in a more reduced condition; at low oxygen fugacity which lies at or below the FMQ buffer in no-oxide field.
It becomes increasingly apparent that some workers (e.g., [37]) have shown the presence of fayalite, hedenbergite and plagioclase in the mineral assemblage of peralkaline rhyolites from Ethiopian rift valley. These minerals are not found in Badi rhyolites. We only observed plagioclase and hedenbergite as xenocrysts in xenolithic material in a single specimen (30-01(4)). These less-evolved inclusions show angular contacts, suggesting that they were solid while the host rhyoltic lava was liquid. We emphasize the importance of indentifying the mineral assemblage found in rhyolites as phenocrysts and xenocrysts.
5. Discussion
5.1 Origin of flow banding
Thin flow banding, defined by discrete lamellae/layers with contrasting color, is a common feature of many effusive volcanic rocks. It is a ubiquitous texture in very viscous, highly siliceous lavas, such as rhyolites (e.g., [3, 43, 44]). Flow band in rhyolite lavas has been described from varying crystallinity and vesicularity [45]. Differences in abundance of microlites and/or vesicles appear to develop either during flow of the melt in the conduit or during late stage cooling and degassing during flow emplacement [45, 46]. Flow banding is thought to be a reflection of laminar flow.
Flow banding in rhyolite lavas may have a variety of origins, including mixing of compositionally distinct magmas [47, 48], or incorporation of xenolithic material in a shear flow [49], or fracture-healing processes of texturally distinct magma [46, 50]. Another type of flow banding origin seems to arise from deformation of domains in the melt that had contrasting water concentration in the melt prior to flow [43]. There is yet little consensus on any of these alternatives.
One of the most important questions to answer is whether or not the banding displayed by the Badi rhyolite lavas is due to textural (i.e., differences in abundance of vesicles) or compositional (i.e., differences in abundance or preferred orientation of microlites) heterogeneities. Flow banding in Badi lavas is defined by alternating domains/layers of contrasting glass colors (light and brown glasses). Brown bands are represented by non-vesicular obsidian, while light layers are vesicular glass (Figure 5). Our data set shows that there are no extreme differences in mineral composition or proportion between the light and brown glasses. This appears to indicate that the banding observed in the studied lavas is not due to compositional heterogeneities at least on the basis of mineralogical grounds. Instead it is due to textural differences, caused by variations in vesicle concentration of the glass bands (Figure 5).
Such textural heterogeneities due to differences in the abundance of vesicles of the glass may develop either during magma flow in the conduit [46], or during flow emplacement [49]. All of the samples from Badi volcano surveyed both in thin section and SEM do not contain xenocystic and/or xenolithic material. This further provides evidence against incorporation of xenolithic material during the course of the flow of Badi lavas at the Earth’s surface. Hence, this textural (vesicularity) heterogeneity could not have developed during late stage cooling and degassing during flow emplacement. Rather such textural variations (heterogeneities) imply distinct cooling and/or degassing histories, and must have formed during flow in the conduit prior to magma extrusion.
5.2 Emplacement of rhyolite domes and flows
Many rhyolitic obsidian flows and domes are commonly preceded or accompanied by explosive episodes [2, 3, 36, 37]. Two contrasting models have been proposed to explain the common sequence of initial, explosive plinian eruptions followed by quite effusions of lava: (1) the volatile stratification model; and (2) permeable foam model. In the former case, a stratification of volatiles in the source magma body is invoked to explain the initially explosive phase [1]. In the later case, one envisions a fairly uniform batch of magma that can release gas as it ascends through the fracture and porous conduit rock [7].
The Badi volcanic edifice is entirely constituted by several clusters of coalescing silicic domes and lava flows; there are no any explosive products associated with the effusive activity. This is in contrary to many rhyolitic obsidian flows and domes (e.g., Fentale and Gedemsa, Ethiopia; Inyo Dome, USA; Pantelleria, Italy) which are commonly associated with pyroclastic deposits [1, 2, 3]. These features are also common in most silicic volcanic centers of Afar in which pyroclastic rocks are usually scarce [15].
The fundamental question is whether extrusive rhyolite lavas of Badi volcano represent quenched dry rhyolite magma or have somehow degassed during ascent and eruption to prevent build-up of a magmatic gas pressure. The lack of hydrothermal manifestation, represented by direct escape of exsolving volatiles through the vent immediately before eruption, strongly suggests that the coherent lavas from Badi did not erupt from degassed magma source. Furthermore, amphibole phases are not observed in Badi rhyolites. The absence of amphibole phase in Badi rhyolites demonstrates that the water content of the pre-eruption magma was not enough to stabilize amphibole which requires about 3 wt.% H2O in a silicic magma to crystallize [3]. The absence of amphibole phase suggests that the Badi rhyolite domes and flows resulted from initially volatile-poor silicic magmas. Hence, the lack of progression from tephra ejection to lava extrusion, contrary to many rhyolite eruptive sequences, at Badi volcano reflects the lava must be nearly as dry as obsidian to escape fragmentation up on extrusion.
Effusions of silicic lavas often pile up over the vent area rather than traveling long distances (e.g., [1, 2, 3]), due to their high viscosity that prevents them from flowing far from the vent from which they extrude. It seems that the Badi rhyolites advanced outward. This might be related to their composition (Table 1 and Figure 6) in that the Badi rhyolites are predominantly pantellerite with relatively high Na+ and K+ ion concentrations which act as network modifier (i.e., lowering the degree of melt polymerization) thereby relatively lowering the viscosity of the silicic magma [51]. Once extruded, the Badi lava flows outward (the average Badi flow is about 1.5 km) due to their relatively low viscosity.
In addition, the Badi rhyolite lavas are aphyric (with total phenocryst contents of <5%, Table 1), suggesting an extremely high magma temperature at the time of eruption. The high emplacement temperature implies that the rhyolite lavas reached the surface through a circular conduit, which presents a much smaller cooling surface to the country rocks [52]. The aphyric condition of rhyolite lavas has been ascribed to unusually low viscosity [53]. The Badi lavas have flowed outward up to 1.5 km. Hence, these lavas may have had reduced viscosity due to their high magma temperature and peralkaline affinity, as the cause of the increased fluidity.
6. Conclusions
The rhyolite lavas from effusive Badi volcano, central Afar, show peralkaline affinity (predominantly pantellerite), as evidenced by the presence of modal aegerine and aenigmatite in the mineral assemblage. These lavas display flow banding defined by alternating lamellae of brown, non-vesicular (obsidian) and light, vesicular glasses. Flow banding is thought to arise from differences in vesicle abundances between the brown and light glasses. Such textural heterogeneity might have developed during magma flow in the conduit prior to magma extrusion. The scarcity of explosive products is explained by the fact that the Badi rhyolite domes and flows resulted from initially volatile-poor silicic magma that prevents build-up of a magmatic gas pressure which could cause explosive fragmentation. The Badi lavas flowed outward due to their high magma temperature and peralkaline affinity as the cause of the increased fluidity.
Acknowledgments
This work was carried out as a part of the NERC-funded Afar Consortium. We thank the Ethiopian Air Force for helicopter support.
\n',keywords:"Afar, Badi, flow band, lava, pyroclastic",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77349.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77349.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77349",totalDownloads:118,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 14th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 17th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We report field observation, textural description (thin section and scanning electron microscope (SEM)) and mineral chemistry (backscattered electron imaging and dispersive X-ray analysis) for rhyolitic obsidian lavas from previously under described effusive Badi volcano, central Afar within the Ethiopian rift. These rhyolitic obsidian lavas are compositionally homogeneous and contain well developed flow bands. Textural analysis is undertaken to understand the formation of flow band, and to draw inferences on the mechanism of emplacement of this silicic volcano. Flow band arises from variable vesicularity (i.e., alternating domains of vesicular, light glass and non-vesicular, brown glass). Such textural heterogeneities have been developed during distinct cooling and degassing of the melt in the conduit.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77349",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77349",signatures:"Dereje Ayalew, David Pyle and David Ferguson",book:{id:"10851",type:"book",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Progress in Volcanology",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Angelo Paone and Prof. Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-503-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-502-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-504-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Geologic background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Result",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Field relation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Texture of flow bands",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Petrography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1 Origin of flow banding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2 Emplacement of rhyolite domes and flows",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Fink, J.H., 1983. Structure and emplacement of a rhyolitic obsidian flow: Little Glass Mountain, Medicine Lake Highland, northern California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 94, 362-380.'},{id:"B2",body:'Fink, J.H., Anderson, S.W., Manley, C.R., 1992. Textural constraints on effusive silicic volcanism: beyond the permeable foam model. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 9073-9083.'},{id:"B3",body:'Swanson, S.E., Naney, M.T., Westrich, H.R., Eichelberger, J.C., 1989. Crystallization history of obsidian dome, Inyo domes, California. Bull. Volcanol. 51, 161-176.'},{id:"B4",body:'Fontijn, K., McNamara, K., Tadesse, A.Z., Pyle, D.M., Dessalegn, F., Hutchison, W., Mather, T.A., Yirgu, G., 2018. Contrasting styles of post-caldera volcanism along the main Ethiopian rift: implications for contemporary volcanic hazards. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 356, 90-113.'},{id:"B5",body:'Siegburg, M., Thomas M., Gernon, T.M., Bull, J.M., Keir, D., Barfod, D.N., Taylor, R.N., Abebe, B., Ayele, A. 2018. Geological evolution of the Boset-Bericha Volcanic Complex, Main Ethiopian Rift: 40Ar/39Ar evidence for episodic Pleistocene to Holocene volcanism. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 351, 115-133'},{id:"B6",body:'Tadesse, A.Z., Ayalew, D., Pik, R., Yirgu, G., Fontijn, K., 2019. Magmatic evolution of the Boku volcanic complex, main Ethiopian rift. J. Afr. 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Timing of the Ethiopian flood basalt event and implications for plume birth and global change. Nature 389, 338-341.'},{id:"B24",body:'Marty, B., Pik, P., Yirgu, G., 1996. Helium isotopic variations in Ethiopian plume lavas; nature of magmatic sources and limit on lower mantle contribution. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 144, 223-237.'},{id:"B25",body:'Manighetti, I., Tapponnier, P., Gillot, P.Y., Jacques, E., Courtillot, V., Armijo, R., Ruegg, J.C., King, G., 1998. Propagation of rifting along the Arabia-Somalia plate boundary: into Afar. J. Geophys. Res. 103(B3), 4947– 4974.'},{id:"B26",body:'Hayward, N.J., Ebinger, C., 1996. Variations in along-axis segmentation of the Afar rift system. Tectonics 15, 244-257.'},{id:"B27",body:'Dugda, M.T., Nyblade, A.A., 2006. New constraints on crustal structure in eastern Afar from the analysis of receiver functions and surface wave dispersion in Djibouti. Geol. Soc. Spec. 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Lett. 207, 103-116.'},{id:"B33",body:'Varet, J. 1978. Geology of central and southern Afar (Ethiopia and Djibouti Republic) Edition CNRS, Paris.'},{id:"B34",body:'Kidane, T., Carlut, J., Courtillot, V., Gallet, Y., Quidelleur, X., Gillot, P.-Y., Haile, T., 1999. Paleomagnetic and geochronological identification of the Reunion subchron in Ethiopian Afar. J. Geophys. Res. 104(B5), 10,405-10,419.'},{id:"B35",body:'Hutchison, W., Biggs, J., Mather, T.A., Pyle, D.M., Lewi, E., Yirgu, G., Caliro, S., Chiodini, G., Clor, L.E., Fischer, T.P., 2016. Causes of unrest at silicic calderas in the east African rift: new constraints from InSAR and soil-gas chemistry at Aluto volcano, Ethiopia, Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 17(8), 3008-3030.'},{id:"B36",body:'Rampey, M.L., Oppenheimer, C., Pyle, D., Yirgu, D. 2010. Caldera-forming eruptions of the Quaternary Kone volcanic complex, Ethiopia. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 58, 51-66.'},{id:"B37",body:'Ronga, F., Lustrino, M., Marzoli, A., Melluso, L., 2010. Petrogenesis of a basalt-comendite-pantellerite rock suite: the Boseti volcanic complex (main Ethiopian rift). Mineral. Petrol. 98, 227-243.'},{id:"B38",body:'Castro, J., Cashman, K.V., 1999. Constraints on rheology of obsidian lavas based on mesoscopic folds. J. Struct. Geol. 21, 807-819.'},{id:"B39",body:'Gibson, I.L., 1970. A pantelleritic welded ash-flow tuff from the Ethiopian rift valley. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 28, 89-111.'},{id:"B40",body:'Nicholls, J., Carmichael, I.S.E., 1969. Peralkaline acid liquids: a petrological study. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 20, 268-294.'},{id:"B41",body:'Marsh, J.S., 1975. Aenigmatite stability in silica-undersaturated rocks. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 50, 135-144.'},{id:"B42",body:'Markl, G., Marks, M.A.W., Frost, B.R., 2010. On the controls of oxygen fugacity in the generation and crystallization of peralkaline melts. J. Petrol. 51, 1831-1847.'},{id:"B43",body:'Seaman, S.J., Dyar, M.D., Marinkovic, N., 2009. The effects of heterogeneity in magma water concentration on the development of flow banding and spherulites in rhyolitic lava. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 183, 157-169.'},{id:"B44",body:'Smith, J.V., 2002. Structural analysis of flow-related textures in lavas. Earth Sci. Rev. 57, 279-297.'},{id:"B45",body:'Gonnermann, H.M., Manga, M., 2005. Flow banding in obsidian: a record of evolving textural heterogeneity during magma deformation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 236, 135-147.'},{id:"B46",body:'Castro, J.M., Dingwell, D.B., Nichols, A.R.L., Gardner, J.E., 2005. New sights on the origin of flow bands on obsidian. In: Manga, M., Ventura, G., eds. Kinematics and dynamics of lava flows. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper 396, p. 55-65.'},{id:"B47",body:'Gibson, R.G., Naney, M.T., 1992. Textural development of mixed, finely porphyritic silicic volcanic rocks, Inyo Domes, eastern California. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 1541-1559.'},{id:"B48",body:'Seaman, S.J., Scherer, E.E., Standish, J.J., 1995. Multistage magma mingling and the origin of flow banding in the Aliso lava dome, Tumacacori Mountains, southern Arizona. J. Geophys. Res. 100 (B5). doi.org/10.1029/94JB03260.'},{id:"B49",body:'Rust, A.C., Cashman, K.V., Wallace, P.J., 2004. Magma degassing buffered by vapor flow through brecciated conduit margins. Geology 32(4), 349-352.'},{id:"B50",body:'Tuffen, H., Dingwell, D.B., Pinkerton, H., 2003. Repeated fracture and healing of silicic magma generate flow banding and earthquakes? Geology 31(12), 1089-1092.'},{id:"B51",body:'Mysen, B.O., Virgo, D., Seifert, F.A., 1982. The structure of silicate me;ts: implications for chemical and physical properties of natural magma. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 20, 353-383.'},{id:"B52",body:'Clough, B.J., Wright, J.V., Walker, G.P.L., 1982. Morphology and dimensions of the young comendite lavas of La Primvera volcano, Mexico. Geol. Mag. 119, 477-485.'},{id:"B53",body:'Bailey, R.A., Dalrymple, G.B., Lanphere, M.A., 1976. Volcanism, structure, and geochronology of Long Valley Caldera, Mono County, California, J. Geophys. Res. 81, 725-744.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dereje Ayalew",address:"dereayal@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
School of Earth Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK
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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/100186",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"100186"},fullPath:"/profiles/100186",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()