The applicable line dose windows for 70 nm pitch gratings.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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Thus, in its chapters we will find examples of different approaches, methods, and theories that cognitive semiotics offers as an interdisciplinary field.",isbn:"978-1-83880-553-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-552-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-905-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74897",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cognitive-and-intermedial-semiotics",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b7d636f6a78bfa31a39bab658a4b18c",bookSignature:"Marta Silvera-Roig and Asunción López-Varela Azcárate",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7311.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2259,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 10th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 9th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302728",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Silvera-Roig",slug:"marta-silvera-roig",fullName:"Marta Silvera-Roig",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302728/images/system/302728.jpg",biography:"Marta Silvera-Roig holds a PhD with European Honours in Cognitive Sciences from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. She is currently an assistant professor in the Department\nof English Studies at Complutense University of Madrid, and a\nmember of the research groups Studies on Intermediality and\nIntercultural Mediation (SIIM-UCM) and Biopoetics, Cognitive\nSemiotics and Neuroesthetics (IUIBS-ULPGC). Her academic\ninterests revolve around the new cognitive studies in neuroesthetics, semiotics, and\nnarratology. In particular, her research is based on investigating the importance of\naffective neuroscience in the invisible and visible mechanisms of human creativity.\nFor information on her activities and publications, please visit https://www.ucm.es/\nsiim/marta-silvera-roig",institutionString:"Complutense University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"302731",title:"Dr.",name:"Asunción",middleName:null,surname:"López-Varela Azcárate",slug:"asuncion-lopez-varela-azcarate",fullName:"Asunción López-Varela Azcárate",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302731/images/system/302731.jpeg",biography:"Asunción López-Varela Azcárate is a Professor at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Her research interests are comparative literature, cultural and education studies, and cognitive and intermedial semiotics. In 2007 she established the Research Program Studies on Intermediality and Intercultural Mediation (SIIM), which has received funding from various sources for several projects. She is an external evaluator in various research programs of the European Commission and other national agencies (the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), etc.). She is also an editor of several journals in her research areas. 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A focused beam of electrons induces a chemical change in a layer of radiation sensitive material (resist), such as chain scissioning in positive tone polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) polymer photoresist. The localized fragmented region is rendered more soluble in a suitable developer solution and removed. In negative tone resists, such as hydrogen silsesquioxane (HSQ) or calixarene, the radiation damage eventually results in bond cross-linking, generating structures locally more resistant to dissolution. Limitations of the technology are related largely with unwanted exposure of the resist away from the impact of the focused electron beam due to scattering of the primary electrons in the resist (often described as the forward scattering), generation of secondary electrons, and backscattering from the substrate (the proximity effect). The exposure and development processes have been optimized and routinely used for fabrication of submicron features. However, as requirements for lithography have progressed toward the sub-20 nm regimes, major challenges have emerged of introducing controllable radiation-induced changes at molecular-size scales, within a reasonable tradeoff with the applicability of the standard materials, as well as cost and simplicity of the processes. Due to the proximity effect, this becomes particularly demanding when dense patterns with closely positioned features must be fabricated. Achieving deep nanoscale resolutions in high density patterns at industrially-relevant throughputs requires new approaches to EBL.
\n\t\t\tNovel EBL processes that would extend capabilities of the technology significantly into the deep nanoscale regime entail new approaches to resist design, exposure strategies, and development techniques (Häffner et al., 2007; Liddle et al., 2003; Ocola & Stein, 2007; Word et al., 2003). To achieve this will require a much more detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in both the electron-resist interaction and in the polymer dissolution (development) stages of the nanolithography process. Despite a significant research effort and vast literature on electron beam lithography, the detailed molecular mechanisms are still inadequately understood. Published modeling studies address extensively the processes of electron penetration, scattering, and energy deposition in resist and substrate materials (Kyser & Viswanathan, 1975; Murata et al., 1981; Lee et al., 1992; Raptis et al, 1993; Raptis et al, 2001; Zhou & Yang, 2006), however, the analyses of exposure of resists are mostly limited to conversions of the average amounts of energy deposited by electrons into the average number of relevant molecular events, such as the bond scissions, through the empirically determined radiation chemical yield (Chapiro, 1962; Greeneich, 1974; Han et al., 2003; Kyser & Viswanathan, 1975; Raptis et al., 2001). Furthermore, the detailed molecular processes occurring during dissolution of the most useful resists have been under-addressed if not overlooked so far. As a consequence, understanding of the trends of resist development currently resides mostly on published experimental results (Cord et al., 2007; Dial et al., 1998; Ocola & Stein, 2006; Yan et al., 2008; Yasin et al., 2002; Yasin et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tWithin the last decade, numerous research groups have invested a significant effort to explore experimentally the resolution limits of deep nanoscale EBL. In particular, optimizing the development conditions such as the developer formula (Dial et al., 1998; Yan et al., 2008; Yasin et al. 2002) and development temperature (Cord et al., 2007; Ocola & Stein, 2006; Yan et al., 2008) have been found effective to achieve improvements in resolution below the 20 nm mark. However, these works were conducted by employing exposures with relatively high beam energies of at least 30 keV or higher. Increasing the acceleration voltages allows for easier fabrication of high-resolution structures due to reduced forward scattering and reduced aspect ratio requirements; however, this approach has its disadvantages. High voltage processes are generally more expensive and have a lower throughput due to the increased exposure dose requirement. High energy electrons also tend to penetrate deep in the substrate causing unwanted substrate damage, as well as give rise to a significant proximity effect. In contrast, ultra low voltage electrons in the 1-3 keV regimes deposit most of their energy within the resist, resulting in less substrate damage and decreasing dramatically the proximity effect (Lee et al., 1992; Schock et al., 1997). Furthermore, exposures employing voltages below 10 keV require lower doses roughly in proportion to the acceleration voltage (Schock et al., 1997). Strong forward scattering of low energy electrons, which is routinely believed to be the major resolution-limiting factor, may alternatively be employed to create nanoscale three-dimensional profiles in the resist (Brünger et al., 1995). Realizing this potential, however, requires a thorough, systematic understanding of the intricate interplay of the numerous process control parameters including the accelerating voltage, optimum exposure dose, and the favorable conditions of development. Clearly, this systematic understanding should rely on a solid knowledge of the physico-chemical molecular-level processes behind the resist exposure to electrons as well as the subsequent post-exposure development stages.
\n\t\t\tOver the last several years we have been investigating thoroughly, both experimentally and by numeric modeling, the impact of the major EBL process factors on the quality of dense nanoscale patterns in the popular positive-tone resist, PMMA (Aktary et al., 2006; Mohammad et al., 2007; Mohammad et al., 2009, Fito et al., 2009). In this chapter, we outline the methodologies that we have developed for fabrication and visualization of nanopatterns in PMMA, as well as our model for the exposure, fragmentation, and dissolution of positive resists. We discuss the results of our systematic study of the impact of the exposure dose, duration of development, temperature of developer, and other process conditions on the quality and process sensitivity of dense nanoscale gratings fabricated using low to medium (3-30keV) exposure energies. The focus of the discussion comprises dense patterns of 15-35 nm features in 45-70 nm thick PMMA resist. We demonstrate that, in addition to the exposure conditions that are routinely optimized in standard EBL techniques, post-exposure resist processing is also a crucial factor and should be co-optimized when fabricating the dense nanopatterns. We analyze the tradeoff of the dose requirements and pattern quality when employing low-voltage exposures combined with cold development, and discuss possible optimized solutions to ultimately push the limit of EBL toward the nanometer-scale resolution. We also discuss the research challenges related with the molecular mechanisms of development, which should be understood thoroughly in order to efficiently optimize the EBL process.
\n\t\tIn our work, we have studied systematically the morphologies that we fabricated in the most popular positive resist, PMMA, using low to medium energy EBL. We consider dense arrays of periodic lines (gratings) as a convenient benchmark nanostructure. Employing these grating patterns, we analyze typical morphology regimes, which we visualize by SEM, as a function of the various process conditions. We interpret the conventional characteristics of the EBL process, such as the resolution and sensitivity, in terms of the quality of the fabricated nanoscale morphologies. We believe that the morphology-bound interpretations of the sensitivity and resolution adopted in our work are more relevant to characterize EBL nanofablication than the often-employed studies of the resist contrast curves, since the first approach is directly representative of the quality of fabricated nanostructures.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental methodology that we have employed has been described in detail elsewhere (Mohammad et al., 2007). In brief, cleaned silicon substrates were spin coated with 950k mol. wt. PMMA providing a nominally 65 nm thick layer. As the next stage, sets of periodic grating patterns were generated by electron beam lithography (Raith 150). The incident electron energy used was typically 10 keV with a beam diameter of 2 nm. The layout of our grating design represented an array of grating units, each of which consisted of a set of parallel, 2 nm wide exposed lines of a given pitch. We have generated multiple sets of parallel lines with the spacing varying from 20 nm to 100 nm, and various exposure doses. Each set of parallel lines covered a lateral distance of 2 μm in width, in order to ensure a uniform cumulative exposure due to backscattered electrons in the central portion of the set. The exposed patterns were developed using a standard procedure of dipping the substrates in a 1:3 MIBK: IPA developer followed by an IPA stopper rinse and drying the substrates with a nitrogen gun. As a final step before imaging our samples (Hitachi S-4800 FE-SEM), we coated our substrates by sputtering (Kurt J. Lesker Co.) an approximately 6 nm thick Chromium as an anti-charging layer.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the discussion below, we employ two descriptors for the exposure dose: the average area dose and the line dose. For gratings, these dose descriptors are related by d(area) = d(line) λ, where λ is the interline distance (grating pitch). Employing the area dose is more convenient for comparisons of dense nanopatterns of various shapes, whereas the line dose is more straightforward for use when analyzing process conditions for gratings of a given width. Below we employ the different approaches according to the subject discussed.
Fig. 1 shows a representative selection of morphologies that we have obtained experimentally after 5 sec development of high-density gratings with various interline spacings generated with various exposure doses using 10 keV electrons. From the figure, it is evident that the potential to fabricate a quality grating is strongly dependent on both the exposure dose and the interline distance. Thus, for 70 nm pitch, all the images present well developed gratings, with the exception of Fig. 1(d) that corresponds to the high area dose ofSEM images of 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, and 70 nm gratings fabricated in a 65-nm thick PMMA layer on a silicon substrate, with 10 keV electrons, at the various area doses. The gratings were developed for 5 sec. in a 1:3 MIBK:IPA solution at room temperature. The lateral size of all images is 1 m1 m (Mohammad et al., 2007).
125 μC/cm2. For 40 nm and 50 nm gratings, promising morphologies are seen in Figs. 1(n), 1(o), and 3(k) for the doses from 50 to 75 μC/cm2. For 30 nm interline distance, only Fig. 3(m) for 60 μC/cm2 exhibits a promising morphology. The other images in Fig.1 show various damaging influences. The first and well-known one is underexposure, when the clearance depth of exposed lines is insufficient to generate a grating pattern. In our SEM images, this is manifested by a low contrast as shown in Figs. 1(q), 1(m), and 1(r). The other extreme regime is overexposure, when the pattern is damaged by excessive clearance of PMMA. Strongly overexposed are the gratings in Figs. 1(a) and 1(b), which were obtained with the area dose of 125 μC/cm2. Mild signs of overexposure are also visible in Figs. 1 (c) and (e) for 125 and 100 mC/cm2, respectively. The next typical kind of morphology is the collapse of interline walls. Examples of collapsed gratings are given in Figs. 1(d), 1(f), and 1(g). Some collapse is also apparent in Figs. 1(j) and, to a lesser extent, in Fig. 1(k). It is noteworthy that collapse only occurs in gratings with 40 nm and larger pitch. In 30 nm gratings the limiting mechanism is different as illustrated in Fig. 1(e) and 1(i). In these cases, the grating is partly or entirely destroyed by redistribution of PMMA that tends to form islands at irregular locations. Similar morphologies have been reported in the literature for PMMA uniformly exposed to electrons and then developed (Hasko et al., 2000; Yasin et al., 2004). It is well known that formation of globular islands or percolation networks may occur in immiscible liquids that undergo a phase separation generating such morphologies as seen in Fig. 1(e). Since mixtures of PMMA fragments with most common EBL developers have regimes of limited miscibility, a phase separation can occur. The underlying mechanism would comprise relocation of individual molecules of PMMA driven by thermodynamic forces associated with the surface tension between the insoluble PMMA fraction and the developer. In our works we denote this mechanism as micellization, to emphasize the expected involvement of solventophobic interactions resulting in phase separation (Mohammad et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tTo summarize, we observe four factors that may damage the resist morphology. Two of those factors, underexposure and overexposure, are directly related to the electron dose applied, whereas the other two, micellization and collapse, are post-exposure processes of resist degradation. In the first case, degradation seems to occur through redistribution of individual PMMA molecules, whereas in the second case, entire interline walls are bent or displaced from their initial locations.
\n\t\t\t\tIn addition to plan-view imaging of the grating morphologies in PMMA, we also visualized the cross-sectional profiles of such structures. Our methodology comprises exposure of long (up to 2 mm) grating patterns, which are then developed and blown dry using nitrogen gas. To generate crisp cross sections, the samples were manually cleaved when dipped in liquid nitrogen to achieve a clean fracture and prevent the resist deformation. Before SEM imaging, we coated our substrates with 4-6 nm of chromium.
\n\t\t\t\tA SEM image of a cleaved sample is shown in Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 demonstrates crisp cross sections representing a well-done grating pattern, an underexposed pattern, and a collapsed pattern With this information on three-dimensional structure of the typical surface morphologies, the mechanisms of the resist’s development as well as degradation, such as collapse, can be understood significantly better than from plan-view images alone.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 4 summarizes the observed morphologic regimes for various grating periods and exposure doses. In the low dose regime, the limiting factor is underexposure, whereas at
\n\t\t\t\tSEM micrograph of a cleaved grating in PMMA on a Si substrate.
Examples for (a) under-exposed, (b) well-done, and (c) collapsed gratings in PMMA, imaged by cross-sectional profiles (top) and plan-views (bottom).
increased doses, the patterns degrade through micellization or collapse. The densest gratings, with periods of 20 and 30 nm, degrade through micellization, and the gratings with periods of 40 nm and larger rather tend to collapse. At even higher doses, we observe overexposed patterns that are also micellized for all gratings pitches.
\n\t\t\t\tIt can be seen that the window of favourable exposure doses at which quality gratings can be expected decreases rapidly when the grating pitch decreases. The explanation is that at the deep nanoscale, the electron beam broadening becomes comparable with the interline distance, and the unwanted exposure of the resist between the lines becomes stronger. Generally, the width of the applicable dose window represents the robustness of the process. A large dose window means that the fabrication process has improved reproducibility, and also has greater controllability over the line width and aspect ratio. The minimum size of nanostructures for which a reasonable dose window is attained
\n\t\t\t\tDiagram of the characteristic morphologies in PMMA for various grating periods and area exposure doses using 10 keV voltage. Filled symbols show experimental results for the conditions as in Fig.1: triangles denote the boundary for underexposure (insufficient clearance); diamonds denote the boundary for overexposure (excessive clearance), and circles indicate the boundary for collapse or micellization. Open symbols show the results of numerical modeling of clearance as discussed in Sect. 3.2. (Mohammad et al., 2007).
characterizes the resolution. From Fig. 4 it follows that the highest resolution attainable at the experimental conditions considered corresponds to approximately 30 nm pitch (or approximately 15 nm half-pitch representing the average line width).
\n\t\t\t\tThe minimum applicable doses can be associated with the sensitivity of the EBL process. In Fig. 4, the boundary dose for underexposure decreases when the grating pitch increases. The explanation is that in periodic gratings, the exposure dose per line at which the depth clearance is achieved can be viewed as independent of the interline distance. This leads to the corresponding dose per unit area decreasing roughly in proportion to the inverse of the period (Mohammad et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tNext, we have studied the influence of the development temperature on the nanoscale resolution and sensitivity of EBL using PMMA as the resist (Mohammad et al., 2009). We employed 47-55 nm thick layers of 950k PMMA on a Si substrate, a 10 keV exposure voltage, an 1:3 MIBK:IPA mixture for developer, and IPA for stopper. We varied the developer and stopper temperature between -15 C and 22 C using a cold plate, and experimented with development times from 5 sec to 20 sec. The stopper temperature was the same as that of the developer. Our approach was to determine the applicable dose windows for fabrication of quality grating patterns by varying the exposure doses and investigating the corresponding plan-view SEM images for various conditions of development.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFigs. 5 (a) and (b) present favorable windows for line exposure doses as functions of the development time, at various developer temperatures, for gratings with 70 nm and 50 nm pitches, respectively. In the figures, the solid lines show dose boundaries for underexposure (see Fig. 3(a)), and the dashed lines show the boundaries for collapse (Fig. 3(c)). The regions between the solid and dashed lines represent the favorable dose windows where quality gratings may be fabricated. It can be seen that in a grating with 70 nm pitch, decreasing the development temperature from room temperature (RT) to -15 C results in an increase in the applicable line dose window by an order of magnitude. In gratings with 50 nm pitch, the dose window increases approximately twice when the development temperature changes from -5 C to -15 C. This indicates a strong improvement in the EBL process resolution when decreasing the development temperature from RT to –5-15C. Thus, the temperatures of -5 C and less were the only regimes at which we could fabricate 15-20 nm wide trenches in gratings with 40-50 nm pitch. Examples of the highest resolution structures that we could obtain at various temperatures are given in Sect. 4. Another trend revealed by Fig.5 is that the cold development requires higher exposure doses, i.e. decreases the sensitivity of the process. Thus, the decrease in the development temperature from RT to -15 C in Fig. 5(a) has required an approximately 4 times higher line dose to obtain clearance of the resist.
\n\t\t\t\tTo conclude, cold development results in a dramatic increase in the applicable dose window. However, this advantage is accompanied by a drop in the process sensitivity. Decreased temperatures therefore seem to be a preferred solution when maximizing the resolution is the priority.
\n\t\t\t\tThe applicable dose windows for 70nm pitch (a) and 50nm pitch (b) gratings showing minimum (solid lines) and maximum (dashed lines) line doses for quality patterning. The symbols indicate the temperature of development: room temperature (stars), -5 C (crosses), and -15 C (triangles and diamonds) (adapted from Mohammad et al., 2009).
Our next target is to explore the EBL process when varying the energies of electrons from ultra low to moderate voltage regimes. Fig. 6 shows the examples of cross-sectional profiles for 70 nm pitch gratings fabricated with 3 keV, 10 keV, and 30 keV exposure energies. The grating exposed with 3 keV voltage shows pronounced undercuts because of strong forward scattering of the low-energy electrons (Lee et al., 1992). With increasing energy, the undercut decreases. 30 keV exposures produce almost straight interline walls.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 7 presents results of our analysis of the applicable dose windows when the exposure voltages of 3 keV, 10 keV, and 30 keV are employed to fabricate a 70 nm pitch grating. It can be seen that increasing the electron energy from 3 keV to 30 keV results in a dramatic increase of the dose windows. The reason of this is the decrease of the undercut when electrons’ energy increases. The large applicable process window allows for more control over properties of the fabricated pattern, such as the aspect ratio. Thus, Figs. 8 demonstrates that in 70 nm gratings fabricated with 30 keV exposures, the variation of the line dose within the applicable window allows one to vary the width of the interline trenches from less than ~15 nm to 45 nm, and Fig. 9 shows the corresponding aspect ratio changes by a factor of two. The aspect ratio of PMMA walls turns out to be less sensitive to the change of the exposure dose because of a decrease of the wall height (see Fig. 8). However, according to Fig. 7, the minimum applicable line doses increase roughly in proportion to the electron energy, resulting in a significantly lower sensitivity for 30 keV voltages. In contrast, 3 keV exposures provide a better sensitivity. Furthermore, strong undercuts that occur in the ultra-low energy processes may facilitate 3D shaping of the resist required for metallization and lift-off of high-resolution nanostructures, as will be demonstrated in Sect. 4. The complementary strengths of the low- and moderate-voltage exposures motivate further in-depth research of the corresponding process conditions.
\n\t\t\t\tCross sectional profiles in PMMA gratings exposed using various voltages.
Applicable dose windows for 70nm pitch gratings using the exposure voltages of 3 keV (crosses), 10 keV (circles), and 30 keV (diamonds). The samples were developed at RT, and the initial PMMA thickness was 55 nm. The meaning of the solid and dashed lines is as in Fig. 5.
Cross sectional profiles in 70 nm pitch PMMA gratings fabricated using 30 keV voltage and various line doses. The samples were developed at -15 C for 15 sec., and the initial PMMA thickness was 55 nm.
Aspect ratios for the interline gaps (triangles) and PMMA lines (squares) as a function of the exposure dose, determined from cross-sectional SEM images for 70 nm pitch gratings fabricated using 30 keV electrons. Other process conditions were as in Fig. 8.
\n\t\t\t\t\tTables 1 and 2 compare the process resolutions and sensitivities, expressed in terms of the applicable line dose boundaries dmin and dmax, for various exposure energies, development temperatures, and durations, when fabricating gratings with 70 nm and 50 nm pitches, respectively. From the table it is evident that obtaining reasonably broad dose windows with low energy exposures may require decreasing the development temperature, which
\n\t\t\t\tVoltage, develop. temperature, & initial resist thickness | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDevelop. time, sec . | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLine doses, n C/cm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max /d min \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
d min\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max - d min\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
3 keV RT 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 135 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 155 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 125 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 145 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.0 20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 110 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 115 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.00 5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
3 keV 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 490 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 665 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 175 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.36 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 460 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 630 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 170 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 560 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
10 keV RT 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.313 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.578 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 265 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.303 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 520 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 218 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 270 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.403 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 133 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
10 keV 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 875 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 . 050 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 175 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.34 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 870 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 . 040 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 170 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.34 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 835 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 . 020 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 185 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
30 keV RT 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 875 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 775 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 900 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.03 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 815 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 550 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 735 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 650 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 . 250 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0. 600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
30 keV 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2. 400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6. 465 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4. 065 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.69 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 . 400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6 . 250 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3 . 850 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2. 400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5. 715 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3. 315 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The applicable line dose windows for 70 nm pitch gratings.
Voltage, develop. temperature, & initial resist thickness | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDevelop. time, sec . | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLine doses, n C/cm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max /d min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
d min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td max -d min | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
3 keV 47 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.370 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.430 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.060 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.345 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.405 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.060 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.295 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.055 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
10 keV 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.960 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.280 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.320 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.940 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.260 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.320 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.34 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.840 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.280 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
30 keV RT 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.750 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.040 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.290 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.39 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.725 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.900 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.175 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.600 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.695 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.095 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
30 keV 55 nm | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.330 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.170 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.210 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.010 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.295 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.920 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.625 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.27 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The applicable line dose windows for 50 nm pitch gratings.
would however increase both the difference dmax–dmin and the minimum applicable dose dmin. The implication is that using low-energy exposure regimes requires tradeoffs between the process resolution and sensitivity, which may be achieved by a careful co-optimising of the exposure voltage and development temperature. It is elucidative to compare the process employing 30 keV exposure and RT development with that using 3 keV exposures and -15 C. According to Tables 1 and 2, the ultra-low voltage exposure combined with cold development still leads to a strong improvement in the sensitivity. For both 70 nm and 50 nm pitches, the minimum applicable line dose dmin is approximately half for the 3 keV, cold development processes than for the 30 keV, RT ones. However, the applicable dose window dmax–dmin is 2-5 times narrower for 3 keV than for 30 keV in the cases considered. One can conclude that, to profit from the improved sensitivity and 3D capacity with low voltage, cold development exposures, the applied dose should be chosen carefully in order to satisfy the relatively narrow requirements for quality fabrication.
\n\t\t\t\tOne more control factor to be considered is the duration of development. In Tables 1 and 2 it can be seen that the minimum and maximum boundary doses dmin and dmax show a minor to moderate decrease with the development time in most cases, and so does the width of the applicable dose window dmax–dmin. In contrast, the ratio dmax/dmin is largely insensitive to the duration of development, although it depends on the voltage and grating pitch. Further discussion of these trends is given in Sect. 3.4. Noteworthy at this point is the fact that the optimum conditions for exposure (energy, dose) and development (temperature, time), are intimately interrelated and should be selected simultaneously for optimal performance of EBL at the nanoscale.
\n\t\t\tAs demonstrated in Sect. 2, both the exposure and development conditions should be selected carefully to reach the best quality of dense nanopatterns. In practice this may mean that 4 or even more process parameters must be co-optimized for a given resist-substrate-developer combination. To understand and systematize the relevant trends, predict the outcomes, and potentially optimize EBL in-silico, appropriate numeric models should be employed and/or developed. Providing efficient theories and numeric models of the various stages of EBL can substantially facilitate the optimization at the nanoscale. Below we discuss some of the emerging challenges as well as our solutions for numeric modelling of the exposure and development stages of the EBL process.
\n\t\t\tElectrons’ travel and energy dissipation in resists is believed to be a well explored area of research. Hundreds of publications describing analytic and Monte-Carlo models for handling the interaction of electrons with resists might seem to address every aspect of this. The Reference list to this Chapter features just a few works (Kyser & Viswanathan, 1975; Murata et al., 1981; Lee et al., 1992; Raptis et al, 1993; Raptis et al, 2001; Zhou & Yang, 2006) out of a tremendous amount of literature on theory, modeling, and simulation of EBL exposures. However, the existing models of exposure are mostly limited to computations of the average amounts of energy deposited by primary, secondary, and backscattered electrons in the resist. The resulting distributions of deposited energy are then converted into the probability of bond scissions employing the so-called radiation chemical yield (G-factor), which is the number of main-chain scissions per 100 eV of deposited energy (Greeneich, 1974; Han et al., 2003; Kyser & Viswanathan, 1975). Usually, the G-factor is not
\n\t\t\t\tOutline of our model for resist exposure in EBL. In the model, the probability of main-chain scissions is computed directly through the differential cross-section for inelastic collisions resulting in the scissions (Aktary et al., 2006). The model avoids uncertainties related with the conversion of the distributions of deposited energy into the number of main-chain scissions through the empirical radiation chemical yield.
known precisely and determined from experiments where the resist is exposed to extremely high-energy (1 Mev) electrons or gamma-rays (Chapiro, 1962). Use of such empirical G-factors involves a significant level of uncertainty, since the experimental conditions differ dramatically from those employed in EBL. We have also shown that the G-factor is not necessarily a constant, but may depend on the energies of electrons involved in collisions (Aktary et al., 2006), which should be accounted for. Furthermore, using the distributions of deposited energy as a starting point for the computations of the number of scissions is not an unequivocal choice, since a part of deposited energy is thermalized without scissions involved, whereas the actual yield of scissions is related intimately with the details of individual collisions of electrons with atoms of PMMA.
\n\t\t\t\tThe uncertainties described above are avoided if one chooses an alternative approach employing a direct computation of the probability of main-chain scissions for each inelastic collision individually (Wu & Neureuther, 2001). By this, the conversion of the cumulative deposited energy into the number of scissions is avoided. We have recently introduced a model that explores this vision (Aktary et al., 2006), see also the outline in Fig. 10. In brief, after focused electrons hit a layer of PMMA on a substrate, they undergo both elastic and inelastic scattering in PMMA, as well as backscattering from the substrate. Travel of primary, secondary, and backscattered electrons in PMMA is described by transport theory, which provides a high robustness of the numerical algorithm. The model employs improved cross-sections for inelastic collisions, which were validated against the dielectric-response modeling (Tan et al., 2005). To account for scissions by the inelastic collisions, we compute the probability of dissociation of the main-chain C−C bonds employing a cross-section defined with an accounting for the molecular properties of PMMA’s monomers such as the number of valence electrons and the dissociation energies of bonds. More details on the model are given elsewhere (Aktary et al., 2006). Fig. 11(a) shows an example of a computed 3D distribution of the probability of main-chain scissions in a periodic grating pattern.
\n\t\t\t\tSimulated probability of the main-chain scission per monomer of PMMA (a) and a corresponding volume fraction of small fragments, n12 (b), for a periodic grating with 25 nm pitch exposed with 10 keV electrons. The images present cross-sections of the 3D patterns, where Z is depth and X is width. Periodic boundary conditions were used in the horizontal directions, and Si substrate was located underneath the 70 nm layer of PMMA.
After the spatial distribution of the probability of chain scissions is computed, it is possible to identify the corresponding distribution of fragments of various weights. The distributions of the various PMMA fragments are generally believed to be the major factor determining the outcome of the resist development, eventually defining the morphology of the clearance profiles. However, in spite of the understanding of this importance, molecular models of development and clearance were insufficiently addressed in the literature. Most available models of clearance of positive resists relate the distributions of deposited energy, or the corresponding probability of scission, with the local rate of development through various empirical coefficients (Greeneich, 1974; Han et al., 2003; Kyser & Viswanathan, 1975). Obviously, addressing ultra-high resolution processes at the deep nanoscale requires a more explicit accounting for the resist fragmentation to be included in the model. In our works, we have converted the computed 3D distribution of the probability of chain scissions into the spatial distribution of fragments of various weights employing the Poisson distribution (Aktary et al., 2006; Mohammad et al., 2007) or the geometrical distribution (Fito et al., 2009). As the next step, we assume as a tentative approximation that fragments with molecular weight less than a maximum number of monomers, nmax, are preferentially soluble at the development stage and thus responsible for the resulting morphology of the resist. This allows dichotomizing the spatial distributions of PMMA fragments into a light and preferentially soluble fraction (nnmax) and a heavier and less soluble fraction (n>nmax). Fig. 11(b) shows an example of a spatial distribution of the volume fraction of small fragments for an example of nmax=12.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is clear that the overall volume fraction of small fragments in the resist increases with the exposure dose, and the fraction of the heavier fragments decreases accordingly. This is demonstrated by Fig. 12, which shows the maximum percentage of the heavy fraction (n>nmax), encountered in a dense grating pattern as a function of the area dose, for the various values of nmax. It can be seen that the dependencies have a sharp step, whose position depends on nmax. It worth to note a qualitative resemblance of the dependencies in Fig. 12 with experimentally measured contrast curves representing the dependence of the remaining resist on the dose (Hasko et al, 2000; Yan et al., 2008). This resemblance implies that the conditions of clearance are intimately related with the size distribution of fragments in the exposed resist. In particular, it is reasonable to hypothesize that during development, PMMA is removed at locations where the content of small, preferentially soluble fragments exceeds a given threshold value Cmin (Aktary et al., 2006). With this assumption, it is possible to convert spatial distributions of the light fraction of PMMA into 3D profiles of
\n\t\t\t\tThe maximum percentage of volume fraction of the heavier, less soluble fraction (n>nmax), in a dense grating pattern as a function of the exposure dose, for the examples of nmax= 2, 5, and 10 monomers (adapted from Aktary et al., 2006).
clearance, provided that the parameters nmax and Cmin are available. Fig. 13 presents examples of the clearance profiles for a periodic grating structure exposed with various doses, for the assumed values nmax=12 and Cmin=90% (Mohammad et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tWith the computed clearance profilers, it is possible to analyze the regimes of clearance as a function of the process conditions. Thus for gratings, the regimes of underexposure (insufficient clearance) and overexposure (excessive clearance) are immediately available from the simulated clearance profiles as demonstrated in Fig. 13.
\n\t\t\t\tSimulated clearance regimes for gratings in 70nm thick PMMA exposed by 10 keV electrons with various doses. Black – no resist; white – resist (Mohammad et al., 2007).
In Fig. 4 (Sect. 2.2.) the numerically determined boundary doses for underexposure and overexposure in various gratings are compared with the experiment. The clearance model parameters were as in Figs. 11 and 13. The lower curve in Fig. 4 (open triangles) represents the minimum area dose required for clearance of lines over their entire depth. This dose decreases roughly in proportion to the inverse of the grating period as discussed in Sect. 2.2. The upper curve (open diamonds) shows the boundary dose for overexposure, at which neighbor lines start merging. Since the neighbor lines overlap is less for larger interline distances, higher doses are required to clear the walls between the lines and therefore the boundary dose for overexposure increases with the grating pitch. The overall agreement between the numerical results and experimentally determined boundary doses for underexposure and overexposure is reasonably good, indicating that these limiting factors are well captured by the fragmentation-based model of clearance.
\n\t\t\t\tFrom Fig. 4 it is evident that the theoretical limit of resolution for gratings fabricated in PMMA with a 65 nm initial thickness is close to a 20 nm pitch. It is also possible to identify the area dose at which the best resolution can be reached (which is close to 80 μC/cm2 in this case). However, it is also evident that the clearance conditions alone are insufficient to describe the quality of dense nanostructures. The pattern degradation, such as micellization or collapse, may occur at lower doses than over-clearance. As a result, the dose windows determined experimentally are narrower and the actual process resolution is lesser than predicted by the basic model of clearance. Thus, the predicted resolution can be considered as an ultimate theoretical limit, which would only be attainable if resist degradation during development is avoided.
\n\t\t\t\tSince the fragmentation-based model of clearance is representative of trends determined by the exposure, it may be useful to analyse the dependence of the EBL process on the applied voltage. Fig. 14 presents the computed boundaries for underexposure and overexposure in
\n\t\t\t\tSimulated clearance regimes for 3 keV exposures of gratings in PMMA with the initial thickness of 60nm (open circles) and 40nm (filled circles), (Stepanova et al., 2007).
Simulated distributions of light PMMA fraction (1 to 12 monomers) for a grating with 50 nm pitch, for the exposure voltages of 3 keV and (a) and 10 keV (b). The area doses correspond to the best theoretical resolution as defined from Figs. 14 and 4, i.e. 27 μC/cm2 and 75 μC/cm2, respectively (adapted from Stepanova et al., 2007).
gratings for 3 keV electrons energy. It can be seen that the predicted dose windows for 60 nm thick PMMA are dramatically narrower in comparison with modeling results for 10 keV exposures shown in Fig. 4, and the resolution limit is shifted toward sparser gratings. Thus, the theoretical dose window for 50 nm gratings in 60 nm thick PMMA is 10 times narrower for 3 keV exposures than for 10 keV exposures. The origin of this is clarified by Figs. 15 (a) and (b) which compare the spatial distributions of the light PMMA fraction in a periodic grating structure exposed by 3 keV and 10 keV electrons, respectively. It can be seen that the distribution for 3 keV broadens from the top down significantly more than that for 10 keV. The evident explanation is the strong forward scattering of the low-energy electrons. The corresponding broadening of the intensely exposed area leads to the undercuts in the clearance profiles, which is also confirmed by the experiment in Fig. 6(a). As a result the neighbour lines’ overlap increases, which limits the resolution. However, a thinner (40 nm) resist layer allows fabrication of smaller features, as well as offers a wider window of favourable doses for high-resolution writing. The reason is that the broadening by forward scattering strongly increases with the depth (see Fig. 15(a)), so that the overlap is less pronounced at lower thickness of the resist. Another trend evident from the comparison of the numerical results in Figs. 4 and 14 is that the predicted area dose for optimum resolution is approximately three times less for 3keV exposures than for 10 keV exposures.
\n\t\t\t\tOne can conclude that the basic model of clearance represents reasonably the dependencies of the EBL process on the conditions of exposure, such as the applied dose and voltage. Qualitatively, the model predictions are in agreement with the experimentally observed bahaviour of the overall resist clearance on the dose (contrast curves), as well as with the dependencies of the resolution and sensitivity on the conditions of exposure for dense high-resolution nanopatterns. Some of these trends can be predicted quantitatively. For example, the regimes of clearance in dense nanopatterns or the voltage dependence of the optimum area dose for the best resolution (see Figs. 4, 14, and 6). However, the model includes parameters nmax and Cmin, which are not known precisely. Various resists, developers, and development conditions (such as temperature) would generally require a different parameterization. Also this framework does not address explicitly the kinetics of the development, as well as the limiting factors originating from the resist degradation, such as collapse. To extend the capacity of modeling toward a more detailed interpretation of the experimentally observed trends, and efficiently optimize the various aspects of post-exposure stages of EBL, a complementary kinetic analysis of the resist dissolution is required as outlined in the next section.
\n\t\t\tTo analyse kinetics of resist dissolution, we have adopted as a background the mean-field model of diffusion in polymeric systems introduced recently (Scheinhardt-Engels et al., 2003). The model accounts for the molecular mobility, intermolecular interactions, and pressure relaxation in a system containing a solvent and polymer chains of a given length. In contrast to the original work (Scheinhardt-Engels et al., 2003), which addresses only the stationary-state boundary conditions, we have considered a more general case by adopting non-stationary behaviours. This generalization, however, does not affect the basic equations which are similar to those given in (Scheinhardt-Engels et al., 2003), and read:
\n\t\t\t\tHere A, B, and C denote the molecules type, i.e. the polymer (PMMA) fragments of various size and the developer; NA is the number of segments (e.g. monomers) in molecule A; A(r,t) is the volume fraction of the component A as a function of the location r and time t; JA is the flux of the component A; μA is the local gradient of the chemical potential driving the kinetic process expressed by the flux JA; AB is the Flory-Huggins (FH) interaction parameter, DA is the diffusivity, and δAB is the Kronecker delta function.
\n\t\t\t\tWith appropriate initial and boundary conditions, the numeric solution of Eqs. (1-4) would predict spatial re-distribution of the components as functions of time t. This, however, would require defining the FH interaction parameters \n\t\t\t\t\t
To derive our approximate model of resist dissolution (Fito et al., 2009), we consider PMMA embedded in a developer (solvent). PMMA may contain fragments of various sizes (numbers of monomers) n=1, 2, 3, …. However, at every location r the polymer melt is represented by one characteristic size of fragments (this may be a monodisperse polymer or a polydisperse system represented by local average fragment size). We denote the developer and PMMA fragments by indexes 0 and i, respectively, and assume that the diffusivity of the developer is higher than the diffusivity of PMMA, D0>>Di(r). Further, we define the position of the resist-developer interface, rint, as the level surface of equal developer concentration, 0(rint,t) = p = constant, such that 1 – 0<<1 at the interface. Next, we introduce the velocity at which the interface changes its position, v=drint/dt, and which is determined by the flux of the developer at the interface,
\n\t\t\t\tDepending on the sign of J0 one can distinguish two regimes: prevailing swelling (J0>0), and prevailing shrinking (J0<0). Considering that swelling of the resist occurs only at the beginning of dissolution, whereas shrinking is the major mechanism responsible for development, we have focused our analysis on the shrinking regime. With these definitions and assumptions, we have obtained the following expression for the velocity of motion of the resist-developer interface (Fito et al., 2009):
\n\t\t\t\tIn Eq. 6, Di(rint) is the diffusivity of PMMA at the location rint and η is a constant coefficient that depends on the function 0(r) near the interface. For example if the function 0 decays asymptotically as 0 ~ x—1, where x is the penetration depth of the developer into the resist, the coefficient is η = 2(1–p)(1–2), where is the FH parameter describing the interaction of developer with PMMA such that 1–2 0. L in Eq. 6 is the depth or shrinking of the resist. From Eq. 6, the following expression follows that describes the kinetics of resist shrinking:
\n\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The important implication of Eqs. 6 and 7 is that the rate of resist dissolution is a function of the entire history of the process of development, and thus depends on development time explicitly. This is different from the framework adopted in most if not all available models of EBL resist development, which assume the existence of a stationary regime that can be described by a constant rate of dissolution (Greeneich, 1974; Han et al., 2003; Hasko et al., 2000). Our analysis demonstrates that this assumption is not applicable in general, and that a more complex kinetics of dissolution, e.g. such as expressed by Eq. 7, should be accounted for to describe resist development at the nanoscale.
\n\t\t\t\tEmploying Eq. 7, we have implemented an efficient finite-element numeric algorithm to model the process of development of exposed PMMA. As the initial condition, we use our computed 3D distributions of the probability of scission in the resist (see e.g. the example in Fig. 11(a)). We convert the local probability of scission into the local volume fractions of PMMA fragments of various size n(x,y,z), where n = 1, 2, 3, … is the number of monomers in a fragment. For the normalized diffusivity of fragments of size n, we employ the following expression (Masaro & Zhu, 1999; Miller-Chou & Koenig, 2003),
\n\t\t\t\ta,b) – computed cross-sectional profiles (white - PMMA, grey – no PMMA) in a periodic 70 nm pitch grating exposed by 10 keV electrons with the doses of 700 pC/cm and 1300 pC/cm, respectively, and developed at -10 C during 20 sec; (c,d) – SEM cross-sectional profiles for similar conditions; (e) – computed (lines) and experimental (symbols) percentages of remaining PMMA as functions of the exposure dose, in a 70 nm pitch grating exposed by 10 keV electrons and developed at -15 C during 5 sec. (solid line and filled symbols) and 20 sec. (dotted line and open symbols), (adapted from Fito et al., 2009).
where a and are model parameters, U is the activation energy, and T is temperature. In polydisperse polymers melts, the proportionality \n\t\t\t\t\t
where the averaging is performed over the local distribution of fragments, and =a∙exp(-U/kT). In most polymers, the power varies from 1 in dilute solutions of small molecules to 2 or even higher for denser melts of longer polymer chains, where the mobility is dampened by entanglement (Harmandaris et al., 2003; Masaro & Zhu, 1999; Miller-Chou & Koenig, 2003). We have employed the following dependence for ,
\n\t\t\t\tWe simulate the process of development by a sequence of discrete dissolution steps, where time δt required to dissolve a resist layer of thickness δL is determined by δt=2LδL/D(x,y,z). The simulation provides the location of the 3D resist-developer interface as a function of time. The parameters β and can be evaluated by fitting the computed percentages of PMMA left on the substrate to the corresponding experimental results. We obtain these from the SEM cross-sectional profiles for gratings, and parameterize our model by minimizing the mean square difference using the simulated annealing algorithm (Fito et al., 2009). It has been assumed that the parameters β and may depend on temperature of development, but not on other process conditions.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 16 presents our computed cross-sectional clearance profiles for a 70 nm pitch grating (a,b) and the amount of remaining PMMA (e) in comparison with the corresponding experiments. The fit model parameters that we employed in these examples were: Fig. 16(a,b) – =2.34∙103 nm2/s, =23.1; Fig. 16(e) – =2.38∙103 nm2/s, =16.5 (Fito et al., 2009). From Fig. 16 it can be seen that the kinetic model describes quite well the broadening of the clearance trenches in gratings, the thinning of the walls, as well as the shrinkage of the thickness of the resist during development. The dependencies of the total amount of PMMA remaining at the substrate on the exposure dose and development time are also represented with a promising accuracy. However, this simple model does not capture all the details of the shape the cross-sectional profiles, which appear to be smoother at the top, and show stronger undercuts at the base, than predicted numerically. We expect that some of these differences may originate from surface tension forces and/or plastic deformation; the potential impact of these factors still needs to be investigated.
\n\t\t\tIn this section we extend our kinetic modeling framework to describe the boundary exposure doses for the conditions of resist underexposure and collapse, dmin and dmax, which determine the applicable dose windows and by this represent the nanoscale resolution and sensitivity of EBL (see Sect. 2).
\n\t\t\t\tOur numerical results presented in Figs. 16 (a,b) demonstrate that at a given development time, the locations at which the resist clearance occurs depend on the exposure dose. At lesser doses PMMA is removed preferentially from the intensely exposed trenches where fragments are the most mobile (see Fig. 16(a)), whereas more intense exposures allow for partial dissolution of interline walls containing heavier, less mobile fragments (Fig. 16(b)). According to the kinetic model described in Sect. 3.3, dissolution of the exposed PMMA can be described as a kinetic diffusion-like process, with the effective diffusivities of fragments represented by Eq. 8. For simplicity, we now describe the average local diffusivity in terms of the mean number of monomers in fragments n, D~n– (Masaro & Zhu, 1999). For moderate exposure doses, n is inversely proportional to the local probability of scissions (Aktary et al., 2006), which in turn is proportional to the applied dose d. The dose dependence can therefore be approximately accounted for by n~1/d. As a result, the average diffusivity of fragments in exposed PMMA becomes
\n\t\t\t\twhere c and are, in general, location-dependent parameters. In our recent work (Mohammad et al., 2009) we have assumed that for a given development time and pattern geometry, the minimum and maximum applicable doses for quality nanofabrication, dmin and dmax, correspond to the same value of the average diffusivity D in the exposed trenches and in the walls, respectively. This assumption results in the following equation for the temperature dependence of these boundary exposure doses dmin and dmax for a given development time and pattern geometry:
\n\t\t\t\tHere ‘ref’ denotes a reference value of the minimum or maximum applicable dose and of the development temperature, and the notation min,max indicates that the dependencies for dmin and dmax may correspond to different values. Here, however, we use a single value U/=0.22eV, which we evaluated empirically (Mohammad et al., 2009). In Fig 17, we compare the corresponding theoretical results with the experimental temperature dependencies for the boundary line doses in a 70 nm pitch grating exposed with 10 keV electrons. We used the experiments for -15 C for reference.
\n\t\t\t\tAs it can be seen in Fig. 17, Eq. 12 describes very well the broadening of the applicable dose window with the decrease of the development temperature that we have observed experimentally. According to the model assumptions, the lower boundary of the applicable dose window dmin can be interpreted as the dose at which PMMA fragments in the intensely exposed trenches are mobile enough to be removed over the time of development. The maximum applicable dose dmax is, in turn, determined by molecular diffusion processes occurring in the walls. The applicable dose window dmax–dmin is therefore defined by the difference in these diffusivities. It is noteworthy that, if the parameter is a constant (min=max), Eq. 12 predicts that the decrease in temperature would increase the difference dmax–dmin, but not the ratio dmax/dmin. This prediction is very well confirmed by our experiments for 50 nm pitch gratings exposed with 30 keV electrons (Table 2). For 70 nm pitches (Table 1) we observe a moderate temperature dependence of dmax/dmin; however the reasonable agreement of the theory with experiment in Fig. 17 seems to confirm the viability of the approximate model. Further development of the kinetic framework, which is currently in progress, will provide more detailed predictions for the sensitivity and resolution of EBL.
\n\t\t\t\tComparison of theoretical temperature dependencies for minimum (solid lines) and maximum (dashed lines) applicable exposure doses for a 70 nm pitch grating exposed with 10 keV electrons. The symbols show the experimental data for development times of 5 sec. (stars) and 20 sec. (diamonds) (adapted from Mohammad et al., 2009).
From the previous discussion it is evident that fabricating dense nanopatterns with specified characteristics is a complex optimisation task. At least 4 process parameters (the exposure voltage, dose, development temperature, and time) must be co-optimized for a given resist-substrate-developer combination. Our approach comprises a thorough experimental study as well as numerical analysis that allow interpreting and systematising the observed trends. In Sect. 2 we have described the major limiting factors for nanoscale resolution in EBL (underexposure and collapse) and employed the corresponding window of applicable exposure doses as a descriptor for the dependence of resolution and sensitivity on the various process conditions. Based on this framework, we obtained extensive experimental benchmarks representing the dependencies of the boundary doses dmin and dmax as functions of the size of nanostructures, development time, and temperature. Employing the suite of numeric models described in Sect. 3 has facilitated understanding of the observed trends and allowed us to develop an efficient methodology for optimizing the EBL process at the nanoscale.
\n\t\t\tThe examples in Fig. 18 show the highest resolution grating structures that we obtained by exposing 47-55 nm thick layers of PMMA to 10 keV electrons, for various development temperatures. Thus RT development yields 33 ± 2 nm wide trench lines in a grating with a 70 nm pitch (Fig. 18(a)). With -10 C development, we could fabricate 20 ± 2 nm lines in a 50 nm pitch grating (Fig. 18(b)). This line width was further improved to 15 ± 2 nm in a 40 nm pitch grating at -15C temperature (Fig. 18(c)). One can conclude that the minimal resolved feature size significantly decreases with decrease of the development temperature from RT down to -15C. This is consistent with the observed trend of broadening of the applicable dose windows, and explained by the kinetics of fragment mobility during resist dissolution.
\n\t\t\t3 keV exposures provide a significantly higher throughput than 10 keV ones, which is accompanied by narrower process windows because of large undercuts of the resist (see Sect. 2.4 and 3.2). However, despite the limitations in resolution of low-voltage EBL, the undercuts facilitate metallization and lift-off for ultrahigh-resolution processes. By combining 3 keV voltage exposures with cold development, we were able to fabricate highly uniform arrays of 20 nm wide metal (Cr) lines in a grating configuration with a 60 nm pitch, such as shown in Fig. 19. The cold development enabled a sufficient robustness of the
\n\t\t\tCross-section and top-view micrographs showing examples of optimized dense nanoscale gratings fabricated in PMMA using a Raith 150 system with 10keV voltage, and employing various development temperatures: (a) RT, 70nm pitch; (b) - 10 C, 50nm pitch; and (c) - 15C, 40nm pitch (Mohammad et al., 2009).
nm-wide Cr lines in a 60 nm pitch grating, fabricated by 3 keV exposure of a single layer of PMMA-950K, and developed at -15C. Evaporation of a ~15 nm thick Cr layer was employed followed by ultrasonic lift-off. The substrate is a layer of SiCN on a Si wafer.
process, whereas the undercuts created by the ultra-low energy exposures allowed us to use a single layer of PMMA-950. Overall, the low-voltage based process turned out to be significantly more efficient than the conventional bi-layer schemes that are often used for lift-off at the deep nanoscale.
\n\t\tWe have studied systematically the resolution and sensitivity of EBL processes for moderate to ultra low voltage exposures. We have employed the conventional resist (PMMA) and developer (MIBK:IPA mixture), however, we have varied the development temperature from RT down to -15C. We consistently observe that the lowest development temperatures yield the largest applicable dose windows, but also require the highest clearance doses.
\n\t\t\tOur results indicate that both moderate and low voltage exposures offer great potential for efficient fabrication at the nanoscale dimensions. However, for reaching the ultimate resolution with ultra-low energy exposures, both the exposure and development conditions should be considered as interdependent factors and optimized simultaneously. The major research challenge is related to the molecular mechanisms of development, which should be understood thoroughly in order to efficiently optimize low-voltage EBL.
\n\t\t\tWe have suggested an improved framework for modeling fragmentation of positive resists, and also described a suite of models for clearance. These models have proven to be extremely useful for understanding and systematising the observed trends. Furthermore, the described models of resist development offer a strong potential for in-silico optimization of EBL. Further effort should address the diverse physico-chemical processes accompanying the resist dissolution, such as gelation, swelling, surface tension, and plastic deformation, whose potential impact on the resolution is not yet understood sufficiently. For strengthening the predictive capacity of the kinetic models, their parameterization employing more detailed molecular simulations should also be implemented.
\n\t\tThe authors thank Marko van Dalfsen for his assistance with the EBL process, and Zsolt Szabό for designing dose test samples and his programming contributions. The work was supported by NINT-NRC, NSERC, Alberta Ingenuity, iCORE, and Raith GmbH.
\n\t\tThe situation in which turned out to be power engineering of Russia in the first decade of the twenty-first century has generated heated debate about the causes of the crisis, which turned out to be a domestic machine building, as well as ways to overcome it [1, 2, 3, 4].
\nThe fact that the structural transformation in the Russian machine-building complex, which took place at the time, was associated with a number of assumptions and trends largely determines the prospects for the formation of new and operation of the existing large integrated structure.
\nMeeting the challenges, which national engineering faces, is impossible with outraising capital in the sector, experiencing an investment “hunger.” This applies to power engineering as well—a relatively prosperous industry, which was in the period of sharp decline in the domestic demand for machinery and equipment to go out of the crisis of the 1990s due to export orders with less losses than other engineering enterprises. However, the chronic underinvestment caused reducing the technical level of its production facilities.
\nIt is necessary to focus on all resources—financial, industrial, and intellectual ones for implementation of large-scale tasks by the industry, and that in turn will require improving the management structure.
\nIn the 1980s of the last century, the equipment supplies by power engineering provided the annual commissioning of at least 10 million kWh of electric power.
\nHowever, since 1991, there has been a sharp production decline in the industry, as evidenced by the data on manufacture of steam turbines and boilers, commissioning of generating facilities at the thermal power plants of Russia in 1990–2000, and the lack of orders for manufacturing NPP and HPP equipments [5].
\n“The strategy of development of power engineering of Russia,” elaborated on the basis of the “Russian Energy Strategy till 2030” approved by the Government of the Russian Federation (hereinafter—the Energy Strategy), reflects the fundamental directions of development of power engineering in Russia and contains the practical measures for their effective implementation.
\nThe availability in Russia of its own effective power engineering is one of the pillars of its national security, power independence.
\nAccording to the official data, the equipment in the power industry is currently worn by almost 60%. This means that more than half of the thermal and hydropower plants operate under high risk. Given the strategic line of the state for import substitution, it is necessary to organize the process of updating the equipment in the way when orders are placed with the Russian companies, and that is possible if there are investments into domestic engineering.
\nDescribing power engineering competitiveness, we note the peculiar feature of the domestic energy sector, which consists in the fact that almost all power plants in Russia (and CIS) are equipped with the equipment of domestic production. However, modernization and mobilization of resources in the sector can only be based on the policy of concentrating resources, pooling of capital, and formation of the effective management system. In other words, it is about solving the problem of creation of modern organizational structures.
\nIndustrial policy in power engineering should be focused on the process of system management of its activities. Products of this sector meet the needs of other sectors of the economy as a technological component of such specific product as energy. This means that manufacture of machines and mechanisms in the power engineering industry is inseparably linked with construction and engineering works, which provide the necessary conditions for its operation.
\nThe volume of this work is significant even in cases when the equipment is supplied for modernization of the existing facilities, rather than for equipping of new construction projects. And the technological chain of “design—manufacture—construction—installation—commissioning—operation” implies such requirements for all participants of the process of equipment commercial commissioning, the specifics of which do not allow “third-party” participants to participate in this chain (except for civil works at the facilities of power infrastructure).
\nThus, the logic of the process of improving quality of the products and activities related to design, manufacture, installation, and commissioning of the equipment, as well as reducing the time for putting power units in operation requires co-operation of specialists of different branches within the same structure.
\nIn fact, this principle was previously implemented in the framework of the branch management system. Within the USSR Ministry of Energy, about half the staff was engaged in the manufacture of power equipment, the other half—in the construction of power facilities. However, in the period of market reforms, the branch management system was destroyed, and privatized enterprises became independent market participants. But no one, even a very large factory, is able to meet the needs in power engineering products, given the specificity of these high-tech goods.
\nThe thing is that high technologies require coordination of activities of representatives of different trades, professions, and industries. Especially in the frame of globalization when the tone is set precisely by those companies that represent a major conglomerate that combines research and production structures, as well as structures promoting products on the world market, global high-tech companies. Exactly these companies are able to bring the Russian economy to a different path of development, when export of high-tech products will be no less weighty than export of mineral resources. But none Russian factory, no matter how large it may be, is a global company; therefore, it is not competitive in world markets. Therefore, effective restructuring of production and management is necessary in the conditions of independence of market agents under insufficiency of the branch coordination system.
\nThe process of integration of these structures, allowing to centralize development strategies and improve management and technological cooperation, will be inevitably hampered by problems of redistribution of property, as the system of securing property rights existing in Russia can be effective only if the owner is really controlling activities of all participants of the association, provided by significant proportion of ownership of assets. Given the fact that in the process of mass privatization there was no task to create an effective management system of high-tech industries, which are characterized by a high degree of co-ordination and co-operation of complex productions, formation of global companies will inevitably affect the property interests, resulting in a secondary redistribution of property. Thus, corporate conflicts are inevitable in structural transformation.
\nStructural transformations in the Russian machine-building complex are linked with a number of assumptions and trends, largely determining the prospects for formation of new and operation of the existing large integrated structures.
\nFirst, the experience of formation of large associated industrial structures accumulated in the Soviet times, unfortunately, was not properly developed further. However, foreign large industrial conglomerates were formed not only based on the experience of the Soviet industry but also based on the methodological basics that had been tested in the USSR.
\nSecond, the Soviet machinery represented a hypertrophied form of simple cooperation of the universal enterprises but with huge potential unique possibilities for development. However, this potential was not even used, but, in fact, lost, in connection with the influence of accelerated privatization and breaking of the state management.
\nThird, the breach of economic ties and collapse of the industry management system in the process of privatization caused dominance of partnerships as a protective reaction, which are based on informal contract practices, affecting not only the process of exchange of goods but also property relations.
\nFourth, the property relations established under incomplete legal frame work, regulating property relations, formed a specific model of partnership based on a system of trust relationships with contractors and the state authorities. At the same time, there were quite wide spread manifestations of economic self-interest in all aspects of the economic life, including the processes of disintegration (integration) of industrial enterprises. The new management was formed, which core competence were take over and redistribution of property.
\nFifth, the dynamics of development was influenced not only by selfish holders of economic power but also by competitive strategies of foreign companies who sought to oust domestic producers from the world markets using domestic managers. However, where the owners could find a common language, a new type of engineering companies appeared, which competitiveness was high enough not only in the domestic but also in the foreign markets. As for the numerous cases of collapse of structures, those, as a rule, were associated with numerous contradictions just due to the system of partnership [6].
\nThus, the corporate conflicts cannot be considered solely from a negative point of view: they are unavoidable in the process of consolidation of the technological chains belonging to different owners; moreover, replacing the owner does not always result in changing mismanagement by even more inefficient.
\nImplementation of major projects in the Russian power sector solves a whole range of important social and economic problems, provides employment, increases filling of regional budgets, allows to solve strategic tasks of further increase of the installed generating capacity, and increases global competitiveness of Russian equipment in particular and of Russian high-tech in general.
\nLarge integrated structures should be active participants in the process of implementation of integrated innovations. In a sense, they act both as mechanisms of social partnership, on the one hand, expressing consolidated opinion of a large group of people involved in the manufacture of industry products, and on the other—as structures that implement decisions of the central government concerning the interests of large social groups. In addition, the large integrated structures are able to participate in development of complex innovation programs, including initiation of consideration of a number of issues by the state.
\nIn the years 2004–2005 GAZPROM, following the recommendations of the higher state authorities acquired shares of ATOMSTROYEXPORT, actual monopoly in NPP construction abroad, and of the Incorporated Engineering Company (until 2004, a controlling stake in these companies was in the hands of K. Bendukidze, private entrepreneur). These actions of the state demonstrated that the corporation model, similar to that of the firm AREVA (France) was selected, with a majority stake owned by the state, as opposed to the corporation “General Electric,” USA, which is owned by private capital [3, 7].
\nWhen Sergei Kiriyenko (1998—Prime Minister) came to ROSATOM of RF in 2005, the Agency elaborated a program of accelerated development of nuclear power in Russia [8]. This program was submitted to the government on May 18, 2006, and reported to Vladimir Putin, President of the Russian Federation, who approved the program and plan of priority measures for its implementation in June 2006.
\nIn the development of these solutions, more than 6 billion dollars for implementation of this program were allocated in the budget. In accordance with this program, Russian NPPs should produce about 25% of the total electric power by 2030.
\nThe nuclear industry can play an important role in solving the energy problem both in Russia and in the world. It is necessary to build and put into operation 40 GW of nuclear power units on the territory of the Russian Federation by 2030, and in other states, the Russian nuclear specialists will be able to claim the orders of 40–60 GW in the same period of time.
\nAccording to the forecasts of ROSATOM of RF by 2030, nuclear power in the world will grow up to 300–600 GW. Up to half of this promising market will be closed for external players, and the Russian nuclear specialist scan actually qualifies for 20–25% of orders (40–60 GW) of the remaining 200–300 GW of available access.
\nIn the global nuclear fuel market, the share of Russia is now 45%. The Russian should be 50% in the markets of the USA and Canada, 42% in Europe, 35% in South Korea, 30% in Latin America, and 10% in China and Japan. To maintain its leadership, Russia has to increase capacities and implement market reforms in the sector [4].
\nThere is no enough qualified personnel for safe operation of commissioned NPPs. The today’s current system of personnel training and consolidation in the nuclear industry is clearly insufficient for its large-scale development. Working pensioners make about 25%, young workers and specialists—about 10%. Acquisition of knowledge and skills should be ahead of programs for designing and development of technologies, construction of nuclear facilities, and their commissioning. The current situation with the staff can be considered critical. With a general decline in the number of researchers (the driving force of innovation development), the share of researchers over the age of 60 years increases. The average age of leading industry experts (PhD) and university professors of “nuclear” profile is higher than the average male life expectancy in the country. Although over the past 6 years, ROSATOM has done much to address the deficiencies in training. The corporate university of 20 schools was formed on the basis of MEPI [9, 10].
\nThe long-term construction period further increases the cost and opportunities for corruption. Building “from scratch” actually takes at least 7 years, indicating shortcomings in designing and imperfect work organization.
\nROSATOM stated its desire to achieve the construction time of 4–4.5 years. To do this, it is necessary to unify designs and implement innovative construction techniques based on large-block equipment supplies to construction sites.
\nThe declared cost of 1 GW of nuclear generation has already reached $4 billion (or $4.6 billion for power unit of 1.15 GW) and continues to grow. Today the cost of NPP construction in Russia is two times higher than in China and for 30–40% higher than in Europe.
\nIn the current environment, the economically justified cost of construction of one VVER unit of 1.15 GW capacity is not more than $2.5 billion with the construction term not more than 5 years. If ROSATOM is not able to meet these indicators, the NPP construction in the country is not competitive compared with modernization of steam turbine power units to combined cycle ones at the existing gas TPP according to the main criteria—volume of replaced gas per year during electricity generation and its net cost. The unreasonably high cost of NPP construction includes not less than 40% of the corruption component.
\nThe current regulated price of electricity at the Russian NPPs on the whole sale market is 3.2 US cents per kW/h (for comparison, in the USA—1.87 cents, in France and Germany—2–2.2 cents in 2008 prices). The price of electricity for economic entities in Russia is 2–3 rubles or 7–10 cents, and a new connection of consumers reaches 4.5–5 rubles or 15–17 cents (for comparison, in the USA—6.5–7.5 cents, the average price in the EU—12 cents, in China—8–9 cents). With regard to nuclear engineering, the situation is ambiguous. On the one hand, at the moment, there is possibility of producing the necessary long lead equipment for no more than three nuclear power units per year, which is obviously not enough for realization of the ambitious plans to build nuclear power plants in Russia and abroad. On the other hand, the large-scale modernization is currently carried out at the key enterprises of the energy sector of the country [6, 11].
\nIn general, our analysis shows that in order to achieve its goals by 2030 at home and abroad, ROSATOM of RF needs to complete all the plans to modernize the machine-building enterprises in a relatively short period of time. This will allow achieving the range and scope of manufactured products to the desired level of 4–5 sets of key equipment for NPP units per year. However, given the fact that currently active negotiations are held or bidding procedures are already ongoing concerning construction of a large number of nuclear power units in a number of countries (Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Kazakhstan, Nigeria, and others), more significant increase of national nuclear engineering capabilities may be required in the medium term.
\nTo perform such wide-ranging task, it is necessary for ROSATOM of RF, at least, first of all to eliminate the disadvantages mentioned above and to pay special attention to three main areas.
\nThe first main area is the completion of the package of administrative documents, which provide activities of enterprises of the industry and regulate the relations between the industry and the state authorities. The package of administrative documents also includes a set of more than 20 departmental purpose-oriented programs, and, of course, it includes improvement of ROSATOM structure.
\nThe second key area is the knowledge management. It is clear that it is the high-tech industry in that all technological solutions are based on a sufficiently large block of scientific, engineering, and methodological knowledge. And various kinds of dysfunctions and failures take place without some technologization of knowledge generation, handling, and storage. For example, the knowledge is not standardized—it means that different participants of the process are based on different data. The knowledge was generated but not used in practice—hence, there is necrosis of investments in R&D. Developments were made but not commercially used—hence, there are losses in the financial sector and lack of a sufficient set of secondary developments, in which the results of major research programs are applied that have been made previously.
\nThe third major area is the cost management. ROSATOM has been traditionally occupied in collecting data on the economy of enterprises in the industry, their processing, analysis both for planning of ROSATOM activities and in the interests of monitoring economic, financial activities of the enterprises, preparation of balance commissions, and so on. At present, this work must be carried out consistently for a radical reduction in the construction cost.
\nSubstantiation of NPP construction calculation based on needs in power capacities, including the regional context, analysis of the grid condition in order to justify NPP connection to the general layout of power facilities by 2030.
\nThe state of the national economy significantly affects the nature and methods of corporate management. This suggests the existence of specific corporate management models for each country. Thus, the formation of the corporate management national model in Russia takes place under conditions of incomplete development of the legal framework and uncertainty of ownership of privatized property, with nonexecution of the existing laws on protection of property rights and dominance of the insider control model in joint stock companies.
\nThus, the problem of corporate management, which is not a purely national one, is of particular importance in the global trends. That is because the integration processes in the national high-tech sectors are characterized by the tendency of “winding-down” of internal competition in order to accumulate resources for external expansion. Therefore, the national integrated structures are involved in global competition, in which those benefit who are able to provide customers with the most comprehensive volume of services in comparison with competitors.
\nWith regard to the real possibilities of the modern Russian nuclear power, it must be noted that over the past 15 years, five power units were constructed and put in operation abroad—in China, India, and Iran. After the long years of suspension in construction of nuclear power plants, ATOMSTROYEXPORT became the first company among its competitors, which handed over high power nuclear units complying with all safety requirements to a foreign customer. Thus, ATOMSTROYEXPORT proved to the world that the companies and organizations that make up the core of the nuclear power industry in Russia have sufficient potential and real resources to implement the most complex and demanding nuclear power projects [6].
\nIn 2016, the assets of ASE Group companies (ATOMSTROYEXPORT)—the Engineering division of the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM, a leading player in the global market for the design and construction of nuclear energy facilities, were finally integrated. The Engineering division is well known to our foreign partners. Since its foundation, it has a reputation as an effective provider of the engineering services and has gained trust in the global market.
\nBy decision of the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM, the Engineering division became the Industry competence center for the management of capital construction projects.
\nFor several years, the project management practice has been successfully implemented by ASE. The unique Multi-D technology continues to develop, being a main tool of the project management platform, which allows shortening construction time and improving labor productivity, work quality, and safety while reducing project costs. In 2016, this technology received international recognition as a winner in the WNEAWARDS competition (Le Bourget, France) presenting the “Project Management System Based on Multi-D Technologies,” and that is a witness of great recognition from the world energy community. The “Multi-D® Project Management System at the Rostov NPP” won the international CEL AWARD-2016 contest in the “Megaproject” nomination, announced by FIATECH, one of the most respected industrial associations worldwide.
\nIn addition, ASE Group companies became the first Russian company to receive an international certificate of conformity with the third competency class in the field of project, program, and portfolio management according to the International Project Management Association (IPMA Delta) model. This is another achievement internationally. Currently, certification in the field of project management according to the international IPMA standards has been passed by all top managers of the company. The division will continue to implement its strategic goals in the difficult situation of growing competition both in the NPP construction market and in the market for construction management services for the complex engineering facilities, using all resources to increase competitiveness.
\nBased on the successfully constructed five power units (in China, India, and Iran), the following areas of cooperation abroad are being implemented.
\nThe second phase of the Tianwan NPP (TAES-2), which also includes two units with VVER-1000 reactors under the NPP-91 design, is being constructed in accordance with the General Contract for units 3 and 4 of TAES-2, signed in 2010, and entered into force in 2011. The Russian side has obligations to develop the complete engineering and operation designs of the Nuclear Island (NI) for TAES-2 units 3 and 4, providing the related services. ASE JSC also undertakes the overall technical responsibility for the design of units 3 and 4, is responsible for managing interfaces throughout the project, and provides warranty obligations.
\nThe General Contract provides for commissioning of unit 3 in February 2018 and unit 4 in December 2018. All activities were going on schedule.
\nOn December 30, 2017, power was launched at unit 3.
\nIt is planned to bring the number of Russian power units in China to 8.
\nThe implementation of the Bushehr-1 NPP project made it possible to sign the Protocol to the Intergovernmental Agreement of 08.25.1992 in 2014, which provides for the possibility to construct eight NPP units in Iran.
\nAt the same time, on November 11, 2014, the Contract was signed under which ATOMSTROYEXPORT will construct the second and third power units of the Bushehr NPP. On September 10, 2016, the solemn laying of the “first stone” took place. The start of activities under the Contract was scheduled on December 28, 2016, when the Russian side received an advance from the Iranian customer.
\nDuring 2017, work was carried out to prepare the site. On March 14, 2001, the earthworks were started on the Bushehr-2 NPP site. On October 31, 2017, a ceremony was held to begin activities at the foundation pit of the main buildings of power unit 2. In 2018, engineering and geological surveys of the marine area and the site for spillway facilities were planned.
\nIt was planned to coordinate the Bushehr-2 NPP design with the Customer and begin procedures related to the examination and obtaining a license for construction from the Iranian regulator. For 2018, completion of the pit for power unit 3 was scheduled, and for 2019—the “first concrete” at power unit 2. In accordance with the Contract, provisional acceptance of unit 2 is planned in 2026, of unit 3—in 2027.
\nUnder the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on cooperation in the construction of additional nuclear power units at the Kudankulam site, as well as in the construction of nuclear power plants under the Russian designs at new sites in the Republic of India, dated December 5, 2008, the parties started the project realization plan for construction of power units 3 and 4 of the Kudankulam NPP with VVER-1000 MW reactor units each.
\nOn October 4, 2014, the General Framework Agreement (GFA) was signed for construction of the Kudankulam NPP power units 3 and 4. In June 2017, the first concrete was poured at the second phase of the Kudankulam NPP unit 3, in October 2017—unit 4.
\nThe planned start date for warranty operation of power units 3 and 4 is 2023 and 2024, respectively.
\nOn June 1, 2017, ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Indian Atomic Energy Corporation signed the General Framework Agreement for the construction of the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP, and the Intergovernmental Credit Protocol necessary for implementation of the project was also signed. The Agreement provides for the construction of the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP power units 5 and 6 under the Russian design. On July 31, 2017, Contracts were signed between ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Indian Atomic Energy Corporation (IAEC) for the priority design activities and detailed design and supply of basic equipment for the third phase of the Kudankulam NPP. The planned first concrete for power units 5 and 6 is 2019 and 2020, respectively. Planned dates for the start of warranty operation of power units 5 and 6 are 2025 and 2026, respectively.
\nOn December 25, 2015, ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission signed the General Contract for the construction of the Ruppur NPP consisting of 1200 MW two power units under NPP-2006 design, including a number of Appendices thereto. The signing of the General Contract was a fundamental event that allowed to start activities at the main stage of the plant construction.
\nIn accordance with the agreement of the parties, the entry into force of the General Contract depended from fulfillment of a number of conditions. The first was signing of a credit intergovernmental agreement for the main construction period of the Ruppur NPP, then signing of Appendices to the General Contract, obtaining a license by the Bangladesh party for the NPP site and approval of the selected NPP design by the Bangladesh regulatory body.
\nOn July 26, 2016, the Intergovernmental Agreement was signed on allocation of the state loan to finance, the main stage of the Ruppur NPP construction.
\nSimultaneously with the fulfillment of the conditions for the entry into force of the General Contract, in 2016 significant work was done to coordinate and prepare for signing the related integration Contracts for the Ruppur NPP project, in particular, the Contract for supply of nuclear fuel, the Contract for technical assistance for operation, service, and technical maintenance, and repair of the Ruppur NPP.
\nIn March 2017, the parties agreed and initialed the Intergovernmental Agreement Draft on spent nuclear fuel management at the Ruppur NPP. It was planned to prepare an agreement for signing as soon as possible.
\nATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC is completing the construction and installation activities at the preliminary facilities and construction and installation base. In 2016, under the General Contract, the working documentation for the main construction period was developed, as well as the materials justifying the licenses for location and construction of power units 1 and 2 of the Ruppur NPP. The first concrete is planned for 2017. Commissioning of the first unit of the Ruppur NPP is scheduled for 2022, and of the second unit—for 2023.
\nHistory: The Hungarian-Russian cooperation in the field of nuclear energy has more than 60 years. It began in 1955 with signing of the Agreement to make a research reactor in Budapest. On December 28, 1966, the Intergovernmental Agreement was signed between Hungary and the Soviet Union on construction of the first nuclear power plant in Hungary. Currently, the Paks NPP with four VVER-440 units is successfully operating, providing more than 50% of the country\'s electricity.
\nOn January 14, 2014, the Intergovernmental Agreement between Russia and Hungary was signed in Moscow on cooperation in the field of the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, which envisages the construction of two new Paks-2 NPP units.
\nOn December 9, 2014, the Hungarian MVM Paks-2 JSC and the Russian NIAEP JSC (ASE EC JSC since December 2016) signed three Agreements regarding the construction of two NPP units with VVER-1200 Russian reactors:
EPC—the Contract (engineering, equipment supply, and construction) for two new power units, in which the tasks for the next 10 years are fixed, taking into account the physical launch of the first unit in 2023, of the second—in 2025;
the Contract that governs the terms of service for future power units; and
the Contract on the conditions of long-term fuel supply.
In April 2015, the approval procedure by the EURATOM Commission for the Contract on supply of nuclear fuel for new units of the Paks-2 NPP was successfully completed.
\nOn February 17, 2015, during the visit of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin to Hungary, the Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the State Atomic Energy Corporation ROSATOM and the Ministry of Social Resources of Hungary on training of personnel in the field of nuclear energy and related areas. According to the document, the parties will carry out cooperation in the field of education and training of personnel, educational, and scientific activities, as well as in joint educational programs in nuclear energy and related fields.
\nIn June 2015, NIAEP JSC (ASE EC JSC since December 2016) and MVM Paks-2 JSC signed all necessary Appendices for opening financing for the EPC Contract, which stipulate the time schedule, procedure and terms of payments, and insurance conditions.
\nHungary, as a member of the European Union, was obliged to carry out a total of five notification and conciliation procedures with the European Commission in connection with implementation of the Paks-2 NPP expansion project. In November 2016, the European Commission completed the expertise of the Paks-2 nuclear power plant construction project, removing all obstacles to its further development. In March 2017, construction of the new Paks-2 nuclear power units in Hungary was approved by the European Commission (EC).
\nThe parties are developing the construction time schedule. It is planned that the license for construction of the Paks-2 NPP will be ready in 2019, and the first concrete will be poured in 2020. The peak of construction work is expected in 2021–2022. The nuclear island and the primary circuit are the responsibility of the General Contractor, while other works are carried out on procurement.
\nThe main task of 2017 was preparation for the Paks-2 NPP construction. The scope of tasks includes preparation of engineering documentation, cooperation with suppliers, and application for a building license. As a part of the activities related to preparation of the documentation necessary to obtain licenses for the Paks-2 NPP construction, the technical design for 5 and 6 units, the preliminary safety analysis report (PSAR), and the probabilistic safety analysis reports are being prepared.
\nATOMPROEKT JSC, the General Designer is completing work on the conceptual design documents that precede development of the design documentation and is also completing adaptation of the VVER-1200 base design, agreed with the Paks-2 MVM Customer, to the specific conditions of the Paks site. The process of developing chapters of the PSAR and sections of the technical design is ongoing.
\nThe announcement of the first tender procedures has begun. Competitive information will be available on the specialized platform for ROSATOM tenders. Tender notices will also be widely published on the relevant Hungarian and international sites. All tender documentation will be posted in English. The Hungarian and other European companies can take part in procurement related to almost the entire process of the NPP construction, from design and construction to equipment supplies (except for the primary equipment that requires very specific knowledge and competencies) and related services (legal, translation, etc.).
\n\nProspects for cooperation. In the future, when implementing the project for the Paks-2 NPP construction, all purchases of the necessary equipment and services will be carried out openly and transparently in accordance with European Union standards. As potential suppliers of equipment and services, all interested companies, including those from EU countries, can equally participate in tenders. The Russian side expects significant participation of the firms from Hungary, so that the level of localization, i.e., local industry participation, will amount to 40%.
\nRequirements for suppliers are different, depending on what they supply or what services they provide.
\nThe El Dabaa NPP (Egypt), which includes four units with VVER-1200 reactors, is being constructed in accordance with the EPC Contract, which was signed between ATOMSTROYEXPORT JSC and the Department of Nuclear Plants of the Arab Republic of Egypt on December 31, 2016 and entered into force on December 11, 2017. The project provides for construction of four power units of 1.2 GW capacity with VVER-1200 MW reactor (water-to-water power reactor) according to the Russian design. The Russian side will also assist the Egyptian partners in developing nuclear infrastructure, supply the Russian nuclear fuel for the entire life cycle of the nuclear power plant, build a special storage facility and supply containers for storing spent nuclear fuel, increase the level of localization, provide training for national personnel, and support the Egyptian partners in operation and maintenance of the El Dabaa NPP during the first 10 years of the plant’s operation.
\nIn accordance with the EPC Contract, the first power unit of the El Dabaa NPP will be commissioned in 2026.
\nThe Intergovernmental Agreement of the Russian Federation and Turkey on cooperation in the field of construction and operation of the nuclear power plant on the Akkuyu site in the Mersin province on the south coast of Turkey was signed on May 12, 2010.
\nThe Akkuyu NPP project includes four power units of the Russian VVER-1200 3+ generation reactors. The capacity of each NPP unit will be 1200 MW. The design solutions of the Akkuyu NPP meet all modern requirements of the world nuclear community and established by the IAEA safety standards, the International nuclear security advisory group, and the requirements of the EUR Club.
\nThe start of commercial operation of the Akkuyu NPP units 1–4 was tentatively scheduled for April 2023, 2024, 2025, and 2026, respectively.
\nOn October 5, 2011, the construction site of a new nuclear power plant in Finland was announced: it will be Hanhikivi Cape in the community (municipality) of the Pyhäjoki Province, Northern Ostrobothnia (on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, about 100 km south of Oulu). In the media, there are various names of this plant—the Pyuhäjoki NPP, the Hanhikivi NPP, the Hanhikivi-1 NPP, but the official name is the Hanhikivi-1 NPP. It was originally planned that construction of the plant would begin in 2015, and the plant would be launched in 2020, and its maximum capacity would be 1800 MW. Initially, the negotiations were held with the companies Areva and Toshiba.
\nOn July 3, 2013, the Finnish company Fennovoima Oy and Rusatom Overseas CJSC, a subsidiary of the Russian State Corporation ROSATOM, signed the Agreement to develop the design in order to prepare for signing of the Contract for the plant construction. It was planned that this Contract would be signed before the end of 2013. In September 2014, the Finnish government approved the NPP construction project with the participation of Russia, envisaging the use of the Russian VVER-1200 reactor. The plant should be built by 2024.
\nIn the Republic of Belarus, at the Ostrovets site near the city of Grodno, the construction of the Belarusian NPP consisting of VVER-1200 two power units with the total capacity of up to 2400 (2 × 1200) MW is underway. The obligations of the General Contractor are assigned to ASE JSC. It is envisaged that the Belarusian NPP is being constructed on the basis of the full “turnkey” responsibility of the General Contractor. The “NPP-2006” design, the General Designer is ATOMPROEKT JSC, was chosen for construction of the first Belarusian NPP.
\nThe Belarusian NPP design complies with all international standards and IAEA recommendations and is characterized by the enhanced safety characteristics, technical, and economic indicators.
\nThe main advantages of the Russian design are a high degree of security provided through the use of the independent channels of active and passive safety systems, the melt trap, and other systems. Unit 1 of the plant is planned to be commissioned in 2019, unit 2—in 2020.
\nThe great prospects imply an even greater responsibility. The previous story, now of the ASE Group companies, allows to hope for successful implementation, I am not afraid of the word, of the grandiose tasks, by the nuclear power industry of Russia!
\nWe pride ourselves on our belief that scientific progress is generated by collaboration, that the playing field for scientific research should be leveled globally, and that research conducted in a democratic environment, with the use of innovative technologies, should be made available to anyone.
\n\nWe look forward to hearing from individuals and organizations who are interested in new discoveries and sharing their research.
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