Abstract
A hexaploid Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the 3rd most important staple food crop with 15% caloric intake next to maize and rice in the world. The global attention for wheat improvement are still encouraging. However, the population growth and demand for food at this time and in the next years could not be balanced. Due to this, huge investments have been established and performed to improve the most important agronomic traits of wheat. Among the new molecular tools and techniques that have given a big emphasis as it will have many concerns is gene editing. Many gene editing tools have been reported and being implemented including Zinc finger nuclease, transcription activator-like effector nuclease, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated Cas9/12 system for targeted gene editing. Among these, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated Cas9/12 systems are very accurate and widely used for targeted gene editing. By using CRISPR-Cas mediated gene editing technique, important traits of wheat include disease and pest resistance, better grain and flour quality, gluten-free trait, better nutritional value, nitrogen use efficiency, threshability, and other yield components and has been edited and improved. Therefore, the use of gene editing technologies for wheat as well as other important crops improvement was irreversible.
Keywords
- Cas12/Cpf1
- CRISPR-Cas9
- gene editing
- genetic engineering
- wheat
1. Introduction
The new approach and emerging technology of gene editing in crop plants and animals becomes a revolutionary science in the molecular era [1]. The conventional wheat crop genetic improvement or breeding progress has been described by the concept of genetic gain and measured by the difference between a selected population and its offspring population [2]. However, the global population growth is increasing at an increasing rate and is projected to reach 9.2billion in the coming 30 years [3, 4], and difficult to supply enough food and food products. Many studies suggested that improvement in genetic gain meet the growing population demand for agricultural products and food needs to utilize modern breeding techniques (tools and strategies) and platforms, implemented with improved agronomic practice, including improved field-based phenotyping with a better understanding of the genetic architecture of trait [2, 5].
Gene editing is among the new and growing technology of molecular science in crop improvement programs to improve the grain yield other agronomic important traits. The three most important gene-editing techniques widely used in the crop improvement program till this days are Zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats associated Cas9/12 (CRISPR-Cas9/12a) system for targeted gene editing [6, 7]. The development of CRISPR-based gene editing technologies recognizing distinct protospacer-adjacent motifs (PAMs), or having different spacer length/structure requirements broadens the range of possible genomic applications making them more preferred tools over ZFN and TALEN [8]. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated protein (CRISPR-Cas9/Cpf1) is a versatile, simple, and inexpensive system for precise sequence-specific modifications of DNA sequences including targeted mutagenesis for gene Knockout, single base substitution, and gene or allele replacement in vivo [6, 9]. CRISPR is a DNA fragment that contains non-contiguous short DNA repeats separated by spacers, which are snippets of varied sequences. CRISPR-associated (Cas) genes were anticipated to be related to CRISPR loci after they were found in the genome of Escherichia coli in 1987 [5].
Many genetic engineering activities have been done by different scientists across the world to get better traits related to grain yield, disease and pest resistance [3, 10], better grain and flour quality [11], gluten-free trait [12, 13], better nutritional value and nitrogen use efficiency [11] with the help of gene-editing tools. Similarly, in the USA Wang
2. Gene editing for quality improvement
The higher demand for high-yielding varieties with premium grain quality in the continued economic development is a critical issue becomes increasing. Quality traits including grain yield, protein content, hectoliter weight, starch content are governed by many genes with a cumulative effect that is simultaneously affected by many factors, and it is more complicated in hexaploid wheat [11]. Improving this trait could not be a simple activity and not possible in conventional breeding or crop improvement program. Therefore, CRISPR Cas-mediated gene editing technologies have been used and created a great opportunity for allelic variations in a more faster and accurate manner [11]. Zhang
On the other hand, there is a need to have gluten-free wheat to overcome the risk of chronic disease (Coeliac disease (CD)). This disease is caused in genetically predisposed individuals by the ingestion of gluten proteins (gliadins and glutenins) from products of wheat, barley, and rye [12]. This human disease associated with wheat coeliac disease (CD) is an autoimmune reaction prevalent in 1–2% of the global population [12]. Even though gluten proteins are found in wheat, Jouanin
3. Gene editing for disease resistance
Crop production is multi-task activity and is easily affected by many contributing factors for yield and quality reduction of the produce. Among the factors that greatly affect the quality and grain yield of wheat are biotic agents (pest, disease) and abiotic agents especially fertilization, soil acidity, drought, and cold stress besides its genetic potential. Although the conventional approach of crop protection (chemical and cultural) activities has been applied to protect the crop, the numbers, as well as the type of reported diseases and pests, become increasing [3]. Moreover, these classical breeding approaches to develop pest and disease-resistant varieties are laborious, cost-intensive, and not efficient. Therefore, the new technology and approach recently introduced gene editing via the CRISPR-Cas system has been utilized to protect the crops from pests and pathogens and to enhance disease and pest resistance among different crop plants i.e. Wheat, Rice, Cocoa, Tomato, and Grape
4. Gene editing for better nitrogen use efficiency
In the era of the green revolution, we remember what Norman Borlaug has contributed by developing a semi-dwarf wheat genotype that has a great efficiency for fertilizer response and then provides a higher grain yield. Although the semi-dwarf wheat type responded better than the older one, the crop has a great genetic potential to give more yield if its nitrogen use efficiency is edited using the molecular breeding technique CRISPR-Cas system. Moreover, scientists reported that the wheat crop has 40% nitrogen use efficiency whereas the remaining amount is released to the environment via leaching or volatilization [11]. To improve the NUE of wheat Zhang
5. Gene editing for yield component traits
Understanding the genetic basis of yield component traits in major crop plants holds a great promise to improve and utilize yield potential by allowing breeders to make informed decisions. Then, by assembling beneficial allelic combinations, it is possible to create new improved varieties [17]. Gene editing of the wheat homologs of
6. Gene editing for haploid wheat development
Wheat has two species cultivated in the world i.e. bread wheat (
Amin & Safwat [21], developed 120 Doubled haploid spring wheat genotypes from a cross of F1 of cross-pollination between wheat (
In the conventional double haploid development, haploids may be induced either in vitro or in vivo methods [20]. Therefore, while performing the in vitro method of haploid production, isolated microspore culture, as well as an anther and ovary/ovule culture, needs colchicine/charcoal treatment and culturing the cell in the Petri-dish for the chromosome doubling but current in vivo methods are based on the modification of histone molecule H3 (CENH3). The conventional haploid development method takes a long time (6 years) than the haploid inducer mediated editing technology (Figure 5).
7. Other agronomic trait improvements of wheat
Free threshing in wheat is an advantage and leads to the selection of the domesticated
8. Conclusion
The global demand for food is increasing at an alarming rate because of the population growth as expected to reach greater than 9 billion in 2050. It is difficult to supply enough food and feed this much population now and coming 30 years using the usual and conventional crop improvement technique and approach. Scientists and different organizations in the world performed different research activities and developed new and novel tools, procedures as well as protocols in wheat crop improvement. In this review manuscript, the gene-editing tools (CRISPR Cas systems) role and advancement were covered and highlighted. Based on this, many findings reported that CRISPR-Cas9 and 12 systems have been successfully used and implemented to improve agronomic important traits of wheat crop. Mainly, traits related to grain yield, disease and pest resistance, better grain, and flour quality, gluten-free trait, better nutritional value, and nitrogen use efficiency were improved with the help of gene editing tools especially CRISPR-Cas9 and 12 (Cpf1). Surprisingly, gene editing has been successfully implemented in the doubled haploid production and reduced the time required for fixing the trait by 6 years than the conventional method.
9. Future prospects
Although gene-editing techniques are used to improve the qualitative and quantitative traits of wheat, still the wheat genetic yield potential improvement is difficult because of its polygenic and polyploidy nature. Grain yield and most quality traits sometimes may not be improved simultaneously due to their indirect association. Moreover, the science of biotechnology is still growing and needs time, skill, and technology to explore the association of each trait with the grain yield of wheat since the ultimate goal of any crop improvement is an economic yield of the crop. Therefore, for the future scientists and organizations in the world shall create the technology used to detect multiple specific regions of DNA sequences at a time and improve by pyramiding the genes. Finally, the gene-editing technologies had the best features of no risk of chemicals like colchicine and short (2 years) doubled haploid wheat genotype development.
Authors’ contributions
The first author drafted the manuscript, summarization of ideas, interpretation of the data, critical reviewing, synthesizing, and revision. The 2nd author’s contribution is the critical evaluation of the manuscript and providing critical comments.
Funding
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable. Because I have not used the human research data for this paper.
Availability of data and material
This review is done by collecting original published research articles and I have cited the authors for each idea and data taken from their article and included in the reference list.
Abbreviations
UNDESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |
TALEN | Transcription Factor Like Effector Nuclease |
CRISPR | Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats |
ZFN | Zink Finger Nuclease |
CD | Coeliac Disease |
TaEDR1 | Triticum aestivum enhanced Disease Resistance gene1 |
NUE | Nitrogen Use Efficiency |
VIGs | Virus Induced Gene Silencing |
Bgt | Blumera Graminis titici |
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