Most common endophenotypes used to evaluate behaviors associated with psychiatric disorders (PDs).
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7311",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cognitive and Intermedial Semiotics",title:"Cognitive and Intermedial Semiotics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cognitive and Intermedial Semiotics offers a window into applied cognitive semiotics with different examples of meaning production studies. Thus, in its chapters we will find examples of different approaches, methods, and theories that cognitive semiotics offers as an interdisciplinary field.",isbn:"978-1-83880-553-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-552-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-905-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74897",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cognitive-and-intermedial-semiotics",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2b7d636f6a78bfa31a39bab658a4b18c",bookSignature:"Marta Silvera-Roig and Asunción López-Varela Azcárate",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7311.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6960,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 10th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 9th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"302728",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Silvera-Roig",slug:"marta-silvera-roig",fullName:"Marta Silvera-Roig",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302728/images/system/302728.jpg",biography:"Marta Silvera-Roig holds a PhD with European Honours in Cognitive Sciences from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. She is currently an assistant professor in the Department\nof English Studies at Complutense University of Madrid, and a\nmember of the research groups Studies on Intermediality and\nIntercultural Mediation (SIIM-UCM) and Biopoetics, Cognitive\nSemiotics and Neuroesthetics (IUIBS-ULPGC). Her academic\ninterests revolve around the new cognitive studies in neuroesthetics, semiotics, and\nnarratology. In particular, her research is based on investigating the importance of\naffective neuroscience in the invisible and visible mechanisms of human creativity.\nFor information on her activities and publications, please visit https://www.ucm.es/\nsiim/marta-silvera-roig",institutionString:"Complutense University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"302731",title:null,name:"Asun",middleName:null,surname:"López-Varela Azcárate",slug:"asun-lopez-varela-azcarate",fullName:"Asun López-Varela Azcárate",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302731/images/system/302731.jpeg",biography:"Asun López-Varela Azcarate is an associate professor at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Her research interests are cognitive and intermedial semiotics, inter-art studies, sustainability, and STEAM approaches. A proactive member of the profession, Dr. Azcarate established the research program “Studies on Intermediality and Intercultural Mediation” (SIIM) in 2007. She serves as an editor for various international journals. She was previously president of the European Society of Comparative Literature, deputy head of the Department of English Studies at her university, and an evaluator in various international research programs, including Vice-Chair at EU Unit REA.A2, Marie Skłodowska-Curie European Postdoctoral Fellowships, Social Sciences and Humanities (SOC).",institutionString:"Complutense University of Madrid",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Complutense University of Madrid",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"238",title:"Psycholinguistics",slug:"psycholinguistics"}],chapters:[{id:"72178",title:"Cognitive Semiotics and Conceptual Blend: A Case Study from The Crying of Lot 49",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92606",slug:"cognitive-semiotics-and-conceptual-blend-a-case-study-from-em-the-crying-of-lot-49-em-",totalDownloads:716,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cognitive semiotics has been defined by the linguist Jordan Zlatev as “the need to unify or at least to ‘defragment’ our world-views, the need to come to terms with increasingly higher levels of dynamism and complexity”. If we consider, as it is clear from the second cognitive revolution, when embodiment claimed its leading role, that meaning emerges from the constant interaction of body-brain-environment, we need to redefine the field that asks “what is meaning and how does it emerge.” New theories about metaphors as neural nodes and image schemas would shed light over the emergence of meaning in human communication, and, to do so, the study of conceptual blends as essential cognitive tools and as an integrative theory should be put in the center of the debate. In words of Brandt and Brandt, “blends occur as signs and are therefore a natural subject of cognitive semiotics”. Here, we will represent the emergence of meaning in a blend from the highly dynamic and complex narrative The Crying of Lot 49 by Pynchon and propose a conceptual story (or mental space sequence of the story) of the mentioned blend.",signatures:"Marta Silvera-Roig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72178",authors:[{id:"302728",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Silvera-Roig",slug:"marta-silvera-roig",fullName:"Marta Silvera-Roig"}],corrections:null},{id:"69940",title:"Semiotic Principles in Cognitive Neuroscience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89791",slug:"semiotic-principles-in-cognitive-neuroscience",totalDownloads:937,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cognitive neuroscientific approaches to language(s) and brain in the twenty-first century have made an important contribution to understanding the importance of the relationship of invariance and variation of language mappings across individuals, the dynamic nature of neurological processing of languages throughout the life cycle, and more ecologically valid modeling of cognitive processing that focus on the interactive nature of linguistic perception and production in the cultural context. Beginning with Ojemann’s unique contribution to language mappings through cortical stimulation mapping (CSM) and continuing through to fMRI studies, contemporary neuroscience research paradigms have moved toward analyzing neural networks and connectivity, the relevance of embodied cognition, and the complex nature of signification and meaning-generation. This chapter presents important interactions between recent cognitive neuroscience studies of language and brain using proficiency with semiotic principles and semiotic theory as given in Peirce, Eco, Lotman, and Sebeok.",signatures:"Edna Andrews",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69940",authors:[{id:"146731",title:"Dr.",name:"Edna",surname:"Andrews",slug:"edna-andrews",fullName:"Edna Andrews"}],corrections:null},{id:"69515",title:"Analog, Embodiment, and Freedom",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89595",slug:"analog-embodiment-and-freedom",totalDownloads:851,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Discussions of computer technology often touch on matters of free will. Can living organisms, especially human beings, be interpreted as like computers? Much writing on computers today assumes that digital technology shows freedom of the will is illusory. Charles S. Peirce (1839-1914) had quite a bit to say about the freedom of the will and its relation to the laws of nature. This chapter provides evidence from a number of writers on computers and related matters which bears on his analysis. Peirce’s category of Firstness has a great deal to contribute to our understanding of freedom as well as human responsibility, but its true meaning requires quite a bit of explanation.",signatures:"Ted Gemberling",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69515",authors:[{id:"308016",title:"Dr.",name:"Ted",surname:"Gemberling",slug:"ted-gemberling",fullName:"Ted Gemberling"}],corrections:null},{id:"69023",title:"‘Evolutionary Stories’: Narratives as Evolutionary Tools to Describe and Analyse Animal Behaviour and Animal Signals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89209",slug:"-evolutionary-stories-narratives-as-evolutionary-tools-to-describe-and-analyse-animal-behaviour-and-",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Animal communication studies, and Ethology itself, deal with the analysis of behaviour in a way that can be understood as an analysis of signal sequences, mainly from a qualitative point of view. Thus, the main goal of behavioural analysis is to interpret the ‘semantic’ content of behavioural sequences and communicative signals. Considering these analyses as narratives to be interpreted, then hermeneutics, narrative schemas and structuralist techniques could be applied. Here, I propose that in fact when exploring and decoding animal behaviour sequences, we should use narrative analysis and biosemiotic techniques to interpret a type of information processing most effective in evolution, which could be called the analysis of ‘evolutionary stories’. Moreover, I think we do exactly that, but do not acknowledge it because is not considered ‘hard science’ (no maths involved). Nevertheless, this type of analysis seems to be the more flexible and appropriate way to interpret animal communication signals and systems, and also to interpret any general behavioural sequence, because it is mostly based on the cognitive capabilities of the involved species. This chapter will argue about the need for a re-evaluation of a cognitive and biosemiotic interpretation of behaviour and communication signals as central to biological behavioural analysis.",signatures:"Gabriel Francescoli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69023",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69023",authors:[{id:"305894",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Francescoli",slug:"gabriel-francescoli",fullName:"Gabriel Francescoli"}],corrections:null},{id:"70557",title:"Assessment of Perception of Physical Environment in the Context of Cognitive Maps and Experiences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90660",slug:"assessment-of-perception-of-physical-environment-in-the-context-of-cognitive-maps-and-experiences",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Experiences in the physical environment awaken different perceptions in different people and enable the formation of an environmental image in people’s minds during and after use. The campuses are also the physical environments in which students from different cultural, ethnic, and social backgrounds spend part of their lives during their education. In the formation of the environmental image, it is important that the students choose, organize, and add meaning to what they see in line with their own needs and goals. In this way, the image formed in the minds of the students limits what is seen, while emphasizing what is important according to their own mental orientation. In this context, the students are asked to draw the cognitive maps of the Meselik Campus of Eskisehir Osmangazi University. The obtained cognitive maps are examined, and the image elements used are evaluated statistically. As a result of the evaluation, it is seen that the students emphasize the reference points and the roads first. In this study, cognitive maps of first and fourth grade architectural students were evaluated separately and then compared with each other in order to determine the change of time factor in students’ perception and the effect of architectural education on expression techniques.",signatures:"Orkun Alptekin and Hasan Unver",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70557",authors:[{id:"311341",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkun",surname:"Alptekin",slug:"orkun-alptekin",fullName:"Orkun Alptekin"},{id:"311563",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Unver",slug:"hasan-unver",fullName:"Hasan Unver"}],corrections:null},{id:"69692",title:"Semiotic Architecture of Viral Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89153",slug:"semiotic-architecture-of-viral-data",totalDownloads:735,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the last 5 years, there has been great debate about digital communication and its role in electoral politics. The question on everyone’s mind is: can viral and massive information on social networks change the voting tendencies and behavior of people? We expose a series of theoretical points from the perspective of semiotics and systemics, to understand these communication phenomena, which are hallmarks of the twenty-first century. We also include some cases of semiotic and systemic orientation and our proposal about natural and artificial communication through viral cascades.",signatures:"Berna Leticia Valle Canales and Julio César Chavarría Hernandez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69692",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69692",authors:[{id:"303983",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",surname:"Valle",slug:"berna-valle",fullName:"Berna Valle"},{id:"303984",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",surname:"Chavarria",slug:"cesar-chavarria",fullName:"Cesar Chavarria"}],corrections:null},{id:"70097",title:"Sources of Computer Metaphors for Visualization and Human-Computer Interaction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89973",slug:"sources-of-computer-metaphors-for-visualization-and-human-computer-interaction",totalDownloads:836,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is devoted to finding sources for metaphors of computer visualization and human-computer interaction. Computer metaphor is considered the basic idea for the development of interfaces, visualization views, and scenarios of visualization and interaction. Global metaphors map the main design idea. These ideas depend on global events and changes in society, art, and science. In the “pre-computer” era, such ideas formed the basics of cartography, engineering drawings, and drawing function graphs on the Cartesian plane. When designing visualization and interactive systems, computer metaphors use “magic features” beside analogies with daily life. Nowadays ideas of visualization are often based on “gamification.” This approach presupposes creating tools that provide software engineers with an interface similar to that of computer games. In this chapter, ideas drawn upon fairy tales, science fiction books, fantasy films, and other similar spheres are considered as sources of computer metaphors. Such metaphors are very interesting when designing visualization systems based on virtual reality.",signatures:"Vladimir L. Averbukh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70097",authors:[{id:"135209",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Averbukh",slug:"vladimir-averbukh",fullName:"Vladimir Averbukh"}],corrections:null},{id:"70553",title:"The Biolinguistic Instantiation: Form to Meaning in Brain/Syllable Interactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89943",slug:"the-biolinguistic-instantiation-form-to-meaning-in-brain-syllable-interactions",totalDownloads:694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We propose, in this chapter, a language model anchored in the relation between immanence and manifestation based on points of view. Within this realm, the biolinguistic instantiation implies both biosemiotic Interpretability and evolutionary symbolism. Furthermore, being one of the five points of views (representation, analysis, catalysis, instantiation, and formantization), it is the principled topology of the thematic/schematic relation between structure and world. We exemplify in this case, the empirical background of syllables and consonant clusters (phonesthemes). From our findings, we seek hypothetically to investigate the instantiation of dual stream dynamics (dorsal/ventral) as the projection (internal structure) of symbolic rules we have observed on the external structure: mirror/deletion and buckling models of onset/codas, on the one hand, and agentive features such as [+/− source], on the other hand; these rules are supposed to form lexicon’s storage and computation. Our heuristic basis will be the relevance of the mirror neuron system for both dual stream model (HicKok/Poeppel) and frame/content theory (McNeilage). Emphasis will be put on universal/typological implications of instantiation in Berber and English.",signatures:"Noury Bakrim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70553",authors:[{id:"305735",title:"Dr.",name:"Noury",surname:"Bakrim",slug:"noury-bakrim",fullName:"Noury Bakrim"}],corrections:null},{id:"70186",title:"Computational Model for the Construction of Cognitive Maps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90173",slug:"computational-model-for-the-construction-of-cognitive-maps",totalDownloads:768,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter considers an option for solving the problem of storing data in the Web environment and providing an access to the data, taking into account their semantics, i.e., in accordance with the nature of the tasks solved by users of different classes. The proposed solution is based on the use of presentation of the data in the form of semantic networks. As the main technical tool for describing access methods, the chapter proposes cognitive maps (CMs), which can also be considered as semantic networks of special type. When access is done, the presentation of information consistent with the semantic description of the user is provided. The suggested method of constructing CMs is based on the intensional logic. The solution is presented in the form of a computational model, which provides for the construction of CM’s dependence on the parameter. The proposed method of parametrization makes it possible to take into account the semantic characteristics of users of various classes. Some CM constructions for problem domain description are presented. A method for semantically oriented naming of CMs is proposed. The method is based on building of a functor of special type.",signatures:"Larisa Yu. Ismailova, Sergey V. Kosikov and Viacheslav E. 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According to the World Health Organization (WHO), psychiatric disorders (PDs) comprise a broad range of dysfunctions, with several and some common symptoms. PDs are generally characterized by the combination of symptoms as abnormal thoughts, emotions, behavior, and social interaction. The most common PDs include schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder (BD), major depression disorder (MDD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), intellectual disabilities, drug abuse disorders, among others [1].
There are several reasons to use animal models in the studies of disorders affecting the brain. The poor understanding of the etiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of PDs is clearly reflected by the unmet clinical need for better pharmacological treatments. Therefore, good models are clearly needed to clarify the neurobiology involved in PDs, as well as for the identification of biomarkers useful to assist diagnosis and/or for the development of novel therapies. It is also implausible to move forward in clinical trials with a novel drug tested only in a cell model, without any evidence about its efficacy in animal experiments. The value of animal models to drug development has been demonstrated empirically. For example, the first and the most efficacious drugs available for complex PDs such as SCZ (e.g., chlorpromazine and clozapine) was discovered observing the alterations in behaviors of experimental animals in response to each drug administration. In fact, in the last decades, most of the CNS drugs approved were discovered employing a phenotypic screening approach in animal models [2, 3].
A reliable animal model must share several similarities with the studied target to allow a successful translation from the basic to the clinical research. However, several limitations need to be overcome. First, the heterogeneous behavioral symptom characteristics of PDs are in some grade uniquely expressed in humans, and they are certainly impossible to be reproduced authentically in animals as rodents, fishes or worms [4]. Second, there is a lack of an objective measure to unequivocally diagnose mental illness [5], which adds complexity to the modeling any mental disorder in experimental animals. Third, in order to develop meaningful animal models for PDs with potential translational power, the disease phenotypes must be represented in the experimental animals. The selection and update of these phenotypes, in agreement with the recent findings in clinical psychiatry and neuroscience, represents a challenge, as evidenced by the recognized gap between the clinical and basic scientific research [6]. In addition, a rising question is what are the specific traits or phenotypes that an animal model should express to be translatable to specific disorder? (Figure 1).
The traditional approach to establish an animal model in PDs is based on three classic constructs proposed by Willner in 1984: face validity, which determines how much a phenotype presented by a patient is represented by the animal model (corresponds to similarity between the model and the PDs assessed, that includes symptoms, signs, and pharmacological features); construct validity, which demonstrates whether it is possible to reproduce the pathological condition based on processes that are already known to be altered (correspondence between the physiological dysfunctions in the human population and in the animal model); predictive validity, which tries to evaluate if a pharmacological or non-pharmacological intervention is capable to reverse the pathological condition (in other words, if the treatment that is effective in reversing PDs in humans would reverse the changes seen in animals) [7, 8, 9, 10]. However, in practice, no animal models fully meet these three criteria of validity.
Many authors have proposed that instead of these three proposed criteria defining an external validation, in addition, the validity of an animal model should not be simply organisms that resemble human dysfunction, but they would also reproduce the processes by which animals and humans enter this state, and therefore, this could be better exploited by adding a new validation criteria [9]. For instance, the validity by homology, which proposes, for instance, an invertebrate model, such as
There is a consensus about the low reliability of the diagnostic construct provided for the employment of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DMS (which is a manual that determines the criteria for the clinical diagnosis of PDs). The heterogeneity implicit in this classification system and the imprecise quantification of the symptoms make it impossible to deconstruct PDs within model organisms. In fact, an etiology-based nosology system has been advocate for psychiatry, and it has been proposed to identify the endophenotypes that occur in both healthy individuals and subjects with different psychopathologies [14]. Endophenotypes are basically quantitative trait-like deficits that are possible to assess by laboratory-based methods rather than by clinical observation. An endophenotype should be state-independent, heritable, occurring at a high rate in affected families, and in addition, it should be associated to genetic variants of the disorder, as it should be involved the same brain circuits associated with the symptoms of the illness in patients (Table 1).
Endophenotype | Description | What can be evaluated |
---|---|---|
Locomotor activity | Distance travelled, time spent, and frequency of the movements measured during or after a habituation period or after some stimuli (i.e. drug administration) | Behavioral sensitization (BD; ADHD; SCZ); Depressive-like behaviors (MDD); etc… |
Latent inhibition | Latent inhibition is the ability of a pre-exposed nonreinforced stimulus to inhibit later stimulus-response learning | Cognitive impairments (SCZ); etc… |
Pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) | Decrease of the startle reflex after exposure to a pre-pulse before the pulse | Cognitive impairments (SCZ); etc… |
Working memory and learning | Describes short-term memory, in a olfactory domain and spatial domain | Cognitive impairments (PDs in general); etc… |
Social interaction | Evaluation of time spent on exploring a social stimulus. | Anxiety-like behaviors; Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Rearing | Measure of activity, investigation and exploratory behavior induced by a drug or/and novelty | Anxiety-like behaviors; etc… |
Grooming | A maintenance behavior evaluated by the cleaning of the fur; is displayed as reaction to unexpected stimuli and in conflict situations | Anxiety-like behaviors; Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Aggressiveness | Evaluation of attack and defensive behavior as reaction to a stimuli or other animal | Anxiety-like behaviors; Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Food intake | Amount of food ingested by the animal | Anxiety-like behaviors; Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Sucrose preference test | Assesses the sensitivity to reward based on the rodent’s natural preference for sweets. This test measures the amount of a sweet-tasting solution that the animal ingests | Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Fear conditioning | Classical conditioning paradigm, in which an aversive stimulus is paired with some neutral stimuli. Used to assess associative fear learning and memory in rodents. | Cognitive impairments (PDs in general); etc… |
Forced swim test | Measures the scoring of swimming and climbing (active behavior), and immobility (passive behavior) when animals are placed in an inescapable cylinder filled with water | Depressive-like behaviors; etc… |
Most common endophenotypes used to evaluate behaviors associated with psychiatric disorders (PDs).
Different approaches to construct animal models for neuropsychiatric disorders studies.
The Research Domains Criteria (RDoC) framework was introduced as an alternative categorization system for psychopathological states [15, 16, 17]. This system provides a platform to improve the translatability of studies from animals to humans, since it supports the endophenotype-based comparison of animals and humans on an objective neurobiological basis across all behavioral domains. In fact, the endophenotypes have been reverse-translated into animal models successfully and allows the evaluation of the neural neurobiological substrates and their circuit dysfunctions [18]. Thus, it has been demonstrated that the modeling of neurobiological and behavioral endophenotypes to reproduce PDs in experimental animals is possible.
The ideal animal model should be derived from risk factors or the causative agent of the human disease. One of the strategies used during the construction of a model is focused on a specific factor that can reproduce the condition as a whole or an aspect of the disease [19]. The choice for the methodology used in establishing a model is fundamentally important to guide which aspect of the disease should be explored, and it is an essential component in the validation of a model known as construct validity.
In the following sections, selected examples of animal models used in the context of investigating PDs will be demonstrated, indicating which changes are observed in behavioral and molecular levels.
Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a severe brain disorder, characterized by a set of positive and negative symptoms and cognitive disorders, which are the basis for the clinical diagnosis of individuals who needs to present at least two or more of those symptoms, according to the DSM. SCZ is one of the most debilitating mental disorders, affecting about 21 million people worldwide. The antipsychotics used to treat SCZ patients can soften the development of the disorder, and this pharmacological treatment was the basis for the most accepted theory to explain the neurobiology of SCZ, as noticed by the alterations in the dopamine transmission. In addition, several other theories have been suggested soon after, as for instance, the serotoninergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic, and the neurodevelopmental susceptibility hypothesis, among others [20]. However, none of these theories had allowed the characterization of the etiology or the identification of strong biomarker for the diagnosis of SCZ. Many efforts are being made to characterize a model for SCZ, but there is a great difficulty in reproduce endophenotypes that frame all the groups of symptoms related to this disease, or which allow associating all risk factors that are already known. Below, we exemplify some of these models, and for a more detailed review of SCZ models can be found elsewhere [21].
Most of the models are based on the theory of neurotransmitter imbalance, and they are induced by the disruption of these pathways, other models explore changes in the levels of expression of candidate genes involved in the processes of SCZ susceptibility. It should be considered that SCZ is a multifactorial disorder, and thus, the genetic component should be evaluated in addition to changes in the environment, as in contrast to the models based on genetic alterations, there are those taking into account the environmental changes, such as the prenatal insults, which impose changes in the neurodevelopment processes. Some of these models are exemplified in Table 2.
Model | Endophenotype | Molecular alterations | References |
---|---|---|---|
Amphetamine model of SCZ | ↓ Latent inhibition; ↑ locomotion Same as acute but with ↓ PPI | ↑ Mesolimbic dopamine response; ↑ Acetilcholine in PFc | [22, 23, 24, 25, 26] |
Glutamatergic manipulation (Phencyclidine; MK-801; Ketamine) | ↑ Locomotion; ↓ working memory; ↓ Reversal learning performance; ↓ Social interaction; ↓ PPI | ↓ PV-immunoreactive neurons in PFc and hippocampus | [27, 28, 29] |
Missense mutations models | ↓ PPI; ↓ latent inhibition; ↑ Depressive-like phenotype | ↓ Brain volume; ↓ PDE4B activity and binding to DISC1; ↓ PV-immunoreactive; ↓ Dendritic density | [30, 31, 32] |
Dominant-negative isoforms of DISC1 | ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↓ working memory | ↓ Dopamine, DOPAC; ↓ PV-immunoreactive | [33, 34] |
Knockdown | ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↓ PPI; ↓ working memory | ↓ Dopamine; ↓ PV-immunoreactive | [35] |
Overexpression | ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↑ rearing behavior; ↑ locomotion; ↓ learning in rotarod task | ↑ Increase in high-affinity D2R; ↑ Translocation of dopamine transporter; ↑ Dopamine inflow | [36] |
Knock-out | ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↑ locomotion; ↓ PPI; ↓ Working memory; ↓ social interaction | ↓ Hippocampal spine density; ↑ Lateral ventricles; ↑ HVA/DA ratio; ↑ Excitability of PFc pyramidal neurones | [37, 38, 39] |
Neonatal excitotoxic hippocampal lesion | ↓ PPI; ↓ Working memory; ↓ Social interaction; ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↑ MK-801/PCP sensibility; ↑ locomotion | ↑ Mesolimbic dopamine response; ↑ Acetilcholine in PFc | [40, 41] |
Methylazomethanol (MAM) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) | ↑ Locomotion;↑ Amphetamine sensibility;↑ MK-801/PCP sensibility; ↓ Social interaction; ↓ PPI; ↓ Working memory | ↓ PV-immunoreactive neurons in PFc and hippocampus | [42, 43, 44] |
Some examples of SCZ models induced by drugs, genetic manipulation, and prenatal insults.
All of these models show behavioral and molecular changes that can be associated with SCZ.
PPI = prepulse inhibition; PFc = prefrontal cortex; PV = parvalbumin; PDE4B = cAMP-specific 3",5"-cyclic phosphodiesterase 4B; DISC1 = disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1; DOPAC = dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; HVA = homovanillic acid; DA = dopamine; poly I:C = Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid.
All of these models show behavioral and molecular changes that can be associated with SCZ.
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common, complex, and heterogeneous mental disorder, characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest in general activities, affecting about 10% of the population worldwide, and which is caused by multifactorial mechanisms not fully understood yet, characterizing MDD as a disorder with many variations in clinical features among the patients, imposing a consequent high variability in the diagnosis, time course of response and remission [45], which is one of the main reasons justifying the intensive search for animal models and biomarkers, aiming for advances in MDD diagnosis [46]. In addition, these advances could be helpful for a better classification for depressive spectrum, and thereby for improving the treatment [47]. The animal models of depression have been developed based on acute or chronic stress exposure, exogenous administration of glucocorticoids, injuries in brain regions and/or genetic manipulations [48, 49, 50]. There is a great variation in the number of protocols that can be used to induce these changes, in which the stressor, time of exposure to the stimulus, and other parameters may vary. For more detailed review of MDD models, see also [51] (Table 3).
Model | Endophenotype | Molecular alterations | References |
---|---|---|---|
Learned Helplessness | ↓ Locomotion; ↑ aggressiveness ↓ Grooming; ↓ response to rewards ↑ Sleep disturbance | ↓ Norepinephrine ; ↑ BDNF; aberrant miRNA brain- region specific expression | [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57] |
Unpredictable chronic mild stress | ↓ Food intake; ↓ growth rate; ↓ Locomotion; ↑ aggressiveness; ↓ Response to rewards | ↑ Corticosterone; ↓ glucocorticoid receptor expression; ↓ endogenous ATP | [58, 59, 60, 61] |
Chronic restraint stress model | ↑ Aggressiveness; ↑ fear conditioning; ↓ locomotion; ↓ food intake | ↑ CA3 dendritic atrophy and damage; ↓ neurogenesis in dentate gyrus; ↑ apoptotic cell death; ↑ corticosteroid | [62, 63, 64] |
Social defeat | ↓ Locomotion; ↓ exploratory activity; ↓ Aggression; ↓ sexual behavior; ↑ Anhedonia; ↑ sleep disturbance ; ↓ Growth rate | ↓ Volume and cell proliferation in hippocampus and PFc; ↑ corticosteroid; ↓ serotonin; ↓ BDNF | [65, 66, 67] |
Early life stress model | ↑ Anxiety-like behavior; ↑ Depression-like behavior; ↑ Novelty responsivity | ↑ BDNF expression PFC and hippocampus | [68, 69] |
Olfactory bulbectomy | ↑ Locomotion; ↓ working memory; ↓ response to rewards; ↓ food intake; ↑ sleep disturbance; ↑ responsivity to stressors | Dysfucntion in HPA and neuro-immune axis; ↓ neurotransmitters; ↑ neuronal degeneration; ↑ BDNF; ↓ neuropeptides | [70, 71] |
Wistar-Kyoto | ↓ Locomotion; ↑ immobility in forced swim test; ↑ social avoidance; ↑ freezing to context | ↑ Adrenal glands; ↑ corticosterone | [72, 73] |
Flinders Sensitive Line rat | ↓ Activity in enclosed arena; ↑ immobility in forced swim test; ↓ sucrose intake under stress | ↓ Serotonin synthesis; dysfunction in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems | [74, 75, 76, 77] |
Examples of models for MDD induced by stressors, injuries in brain regions, and by selective inbreeding.
BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; miRNA = microRNA; ATP = adenosine triphosphate; PFc = prefrontal cortex; HPA = hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic mood disorder, characterized by fluctuations between mania and depressive episodes, which affects approximately 1% of the global population irrespective of nationality, ethnic origin, or socioeconomic status [78]. Due to the complex mood alterations, misdiagnosis in BD is very common, as other mental illnesses as depression and SCZ share several common symptoms, in addition to the specific and common endophenotypes and brain structural changes [79, 80]. The search for advances in diagnosis is important for these disorders, since early diagnosis would be essential to foster earlier suited pharmacological treatment in BD, which was proved to be beneficial to prevent the cognitive deficits and disabilities in these BD patients [81], as also demonstrated for SCZ patients [82]. The major limitation in evaluating a model for BD is the difficulty in reproducing the phases of mania and depression observed in the clinic. Many of these models present only one of these parameters, and they are often developed by genetic alterations in genes known to be involved in this disorder or stressors, mainly involved in the circadian cycle as also demonstrated for other PDs. Another interesting approach used for the development of animal models for BD is the one induced by psychostimulant sensitization (which causes mania-like behavior), as withdrawal from psychostimulants is accompanied by depressive-like behavior, which together leads to changes and compulsory behaviors. Some of these models are exemplified in Table 4. A more detailed review of BD models can be found elsewhere [93].
Model | Endophenotype | Molecular alterations | References |
---|---|---|---|
BDNF haploinsufficient | ↑ Locomotion; ↑ agressive behavior; ↑ food intake | ↓ Brain volume; ↓ BDNF; ↓ dopamine | [83, 84] |
ERK1 Knock-out | ↑ Amphetamine sensibility; ↓ learing in fear conditioning; ↑ locomotion; ↓ immobility in forced swim | ↓ Phospho-RSK1/3 in PFC and striatum; shift of activity rhythm | [85, 86] |
DAT Knock-down | ↑ Locomotion; ↓ anxiety; ↑ rearing | ↑ Dopamine | [87, 88, 89] |
Sleep deprivation | ↑ Locomotion; ↑ agressive behavior; ↑ exploratory behavior | — | [90, 91] |
Photoperiod lenghts | ↑ Anxiety; ↑ helplessness | Switch in dopamine neurotransmission to somatostatin | [92] |
Chronic amphetamine administration followed by withdrawal | ↑ Locomotion; ↑ anxiety; ↑ anhedonia; ↓ motivation; ↓ working memory | ↓ Dopamine responsiveness ↑ serotonin sensitivty | [94, 95, 96] |
Examples of models for BD induced by genetic manipulation, environmental stressors, and induced by sensitization, which lead to some aspects of molecular and behavioral changes related to BD.
BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; ERK1 = Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1; DAT = dopamine transporter.
BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; ERK1 = Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1; DAT = dopamine transporter.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder, affecting approximately 2.2–2.8% of worldwide, with multifactorial inducement, as reflected by the heterogeneity found in this disorder, and as indicated by the diversity in its psychiatric comorbidities [97]. This disorder is defined by inappropriate levels of attention deficits and/or hyperactivity behavior, which directly interfere with the normal life and functioning of an individual [98]. While there is no cure for ADHD, currently available treatments can help reducing the symptoms and improving the general functioning, although with a peculiar wide variability due to the clinically and scientifically difficulties to exactly determine the specificity and the origin of the symptoms [99]. As for other PDs, due to the high heritability, animal models for ADHD are mostly derived from genetic alterations or breeding selection or from neonatal insults that can lead to neurodevelopmental changes. Models related to dopaminergic neurotransmission are also important to evaluate ADHD, as also listed in Table 2, and which includes the administration of psychostimulants as amphetamine. A more detailed review on ADHD animal models can be found elsewhere [100] (Table 5).
Model | Endophenotype | Molecular alterations | References |
---|---|---|---|
Spontaneously hypertensive rats | ↓ Attention; ↑ motor impulsiveness ↑ Locomotion; ↑ exploratory behavior | ↑ Dopamine ↓ Dopamine transporter 1 expression ↓ Brain volume | [101, 102, 103, 104] |
Coloboma mouse mutant | ↑ Locomotion; ↑ exploratory behavior; ↑ amphetamine sensibility | ↑ Noraedrenergic function ↓ Dopamine ↓ DOPAC and HVA | [105, 106, 107, 108] |
6-hydroxydopamine | ↓ Working memory; ↑ locomotion; ↑ Exploratory behavior | ↓ Dopamine ↑ Dopamine receptor 4 ↓ Serotonin transporter binding in striatum | [109, 110, 111] |
Neonatal anoxia | ↑ Locomotion; ↑ exploratory behavior; ↓ spatial memory | Transient changes in neurotransmitters ↑ Dopamine turnover ↓ Noraepinephrine and 5-HIAA ↓ CA1 cell density | [112–114] |
Examples of models for ADHD induced by genetic manipulation in susceptibility genes and selective inbreeding and by prenatal insults.
DOPAC = 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid; HVA = Homovanillic acid; 5-HIIA = 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid.
There is a consensus about the critical role of animal models for the advance and understanding the functioning of brain and brain disorders, as well as for the development of new treatments. However, it is important to use them judiciously and avoid the over interpretations derived for the findings, as it is noticeable that the results obtained on experimental animals are not necessarily confirmed in clinical studies. As it has been shown, there are several approaches to obtain an animal model for studies in psychiatry, but there is still a limitation in reproducing all the conditions involved in the pathophysiology of the disorder, and it is extremely crucial to recognize this limitation. An alternative that has proved to be efficient is to direct the study to a specific symptom domain that can answer at least in part, the significance of these findings to concretely improve the knowledge in PDs, and thereby bring advances in treatment. The crisis of the classification system is evidenced in the diagnostic inflation in psychiatry, which adds complexity to the preclinical research and complicates the modeling of PDs within the available experimental laboratory animals. The recent and alternative approaches as the RDoC to study the brain and behavior are in a relative infancy, but promises bringing new perspectives in how models that can be improved to become indeed helpful to benefit the quality of life of patients with PDs.
This work was supported by the São Paulo Research Foundation (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo) (FAPESP No. 2013/13392-4 and 2017/02413-1 for M.A.F.H) and the National Council of Technological and Scientific Development (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq) (477760/2010-4, 557753/2010-4; 508113/2010-5; 311815/2012-0; 475739/2013-2; 311815/2012-0 and 309337/2016-0 for M.A.F.H). Both João V. Nani and Benjamín Rodríguez receive fellowship from CAPES. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), Brazil - Finance Code 001.
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Research evidence shows that children who are healthy are at a low risk for school problems than students who are unhealthy. Students with good health tend to perform better in school than those with poor health. Problems that emanate from poor health include a higher probability of school failure, poor levels of concentration, grade retention and dropout. However, health is a complex and elusive concept and its definition is often shrouded by assumptions and limitations. Therefore, the relationship between health and student achievement is often complex. The concept of health has been evolving over time, cutting across multiple disciplines. Of late, there has been a focus on achieving not only health but total well-being. Schools have been challenged to promote student health by providing favourable environments, policies, support services and information-based interventions. Schools should develop integrated health interventions because of their proven effectiveness in promoting healthy lifestyles among students. This chapter critically examines the concept of health and establishes the connection between health and achievement. The chapter also proposes health interventions that are effective in influencing academic achievement.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Thomas Matingwina",authors:[{id:"227293",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Matingwina",slug:"thomas-matingwina",fullName:"Thomas Matingwina"}]},{id:"62703",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73580",title:"The Role of Resilience and Psychological Well-Being in School Engagement and Perceived Academic Performance: An Exploratory Model to Improve Academic Achievement",slug:"the-role-of-resilience-and-psychological-well-being-in-school-engagement-and-perceived-academic-perf",totalDownloads:1932,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The aim of the present study is to examine the relationship between resilience, subjective well-being and academic achievement (i.e., school engagement and perceived performance). To achieve this, a battery of instruments was applied to 945 Compulsory Secondary Education students from Basque Country (425 boys and 520 girls) of medium socio-cultural level and aged between 12 and 17 (Mage = 14.50, SD = 1.82). The study tests a structural model for analyzing the effects of resilience and subjective well-being on school engagement and perceived performance. The findings provide evidence in favor of the influence of resilience and subjective well-being as decisive psychological variables in the prediction of school engagement and perceived performance. Finally, the results of this study highlight the need to foster education of resilience and subjective well-being to improve academic achievement among adolescent students.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Arantzazu Rodríguez-Fernández, Estibaliz Ramos-Díaz and Inge\nAxpe-Saez",authors:[{id:"90485",title:"Dr.",name:"Arantzazu",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Fernández",slug:"arantzazu-rodriguez-fernandez",fullName:"Arantzazu Rodriguez-Fernández"},{id:"205183",title:"Dr.",name:"Estibaliz",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Díaz",slug:"estibaliz-ramos-diaz",fullName:"Estibaliz Ramos-Díaz"},{id:"223442",title:"Prof.",name:"Inge",middleName:null,surname:"Axpe-Saez",slug:"inge-axpe-saez",fullName:"Inge Axpe-Saez"}]},{id:"63876",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79938",title:"The Importance of Mindfulness in the Achievement of Optimal Functioning: Conceptualization for Research Development",slug:"the-importance-of-mindfulness-in-the-achievement-of-optimal-functioning-conceptualization-for-resear",totalDownloads:973,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The concept of ‘optimal functioning’ has emerged as a major line of research development in educational psychology. Optimal functioning, which reflects the paradigm of positive psychology, is concerned with a person’s achievement of maximization in his/her functioning, whether it is mental, cognitive, emotional, or social. This inquiry places strong emphasis on importance of flourishing, happiness, and the proactivity of human endeavors. An important question then for consideration, from this testament, is how researchers optimize the achievement of optimal functioning. We have recently made progress by focusing on empirical research development and methodological conceptualizations into the study of optimization. Our conceptualizations, collectively, contend that there are psychological, educational, and psychosocial variables that operate as sources of ‘energization’, which then stimulate the buoyancy of motivation, personal resolve, effective functioning, strength, and effort expenditure. Energization, in its totality, from our postulation, may then arouse, intensify, and sustain a person’s internal state of functioning. Our cross-institutional, cross-cultural research collaboration (e.g., Australia, Malaysia, and Taiwan), to date, has considered one notably construct that could serve as a source of internal energization for the achievement of functioning: mindfulness. We strongly believe that the totality of mindfulness, positive in nature, could play a central role in the psychological processes of human agency.",book:{id:"7698",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",title:"Educational Psychology",fullTitle:"Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan, Hui-Wen Wang, Jen-Hwa Shih, Sheng-Ying Shi, Ruey-Yih Lin and Bing H. 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In this chapter, we will describe the effects of illicit substances of abuse, both stimulants and depressants as well as prescription drug misuse and its influence of on learning and memory processes. Recent evidence on the new so-called smart drugs is also discussed.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Claudia Juárez-Portilla, Tania Molina-Jiménez, Jean-Pascal Morin,\nGabriel Roldán-Roldán and Rossana Citlali Zepeda",authors:[{id:"219266",title:"Dr.",name:"Rossana C",middleName:null,surname:"Zepeda",slug:"rossana-c-zepeda",fullName:"Rossana C Zepeda"},{id:"219492",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Juárez-Portilla",slug:"claudia-juarez-portilla",fullName:"Claudia Juárez-Portilla"},{id:"219493",title:"Dr.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Jiménez",slug:"tania-molina-jimenez",fullName:"Tania Molina-Jiménez"},{id:"219494",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Roldán-Roldán",slug:"gabriel-roldan-roldan",fullName:"Gabriel Roldán-Roldán"},{id:"220789",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Morin",slug:"jean-pascal-morin",fullName:"Jean-Pascal Morin"}]},{id:"59046",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72566",title:"Stress and Cognition: Psychological Basis and Support Resources",slug:"stress-and-cognition-psychological-basis-and-support-resources",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Executive functions are processes that help in tasks such as reasoning, planning, troubleshooting, and management of the individual’s own life. A consequence of the specific connections of stress is that executive functions tend to be interrupted when the stimulation load is so big that the individual becomes stressed. The level of cellular stress becomes evident with the increase of cortisol. Cellular processes such as inflammation, proliferation/death, and oxidative stress have been shown in murine models resembling cognitive impairment in humans. This impairment translates into behavioral changes, loss of memory, inability for decision-making, and attention problems. The incorporation of factors, such as drug use and bullying, promotes the impairment of executive functions. Resorting to strategies, such as exercising, environmental enrichment, and changes in the diet, constitutes an excellent aid in the promotion of academic achievement. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of stress on cognitive executive functions associated with academic achievement and also suggest strategies to reduce the impact of stressing factors.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Tamara Cibrian-Llanderal, Montserrat Melgarejo-Gutierrez and\nDaniel Hernandez-Baltazar",authors:[{id:"209886",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Cibrian-Llanderal",slug:"tamara-cibrian-llanderal",fullName:"Tamara Cibrian-Llanderal"},{id:"210172",title:"Dr.",name:"Montserrat",middleName:null,surname:"Melgarejo-Gutierrez",slug:"montserrat-melgarejo-gutierrez",fullName:"Montserrat Melgarejo-Gutierrez"},{id:"210173",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Baltazar",slug:"daniel-hernandez-baltazar",fullName:"Daniel Hernandez-Baltazar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70837",title:"Identifying and Remediating Dyslexia in Kindergarten and the Foundation Year",slug:"identifying-and-remediating-dyslexia-in-kindergarten-and-the-foundation-year",totalDownloads:940,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Dyslexia is a learning disability found across the ability range. It is an unexpected failure to learn to read and spell despite conventional classroom instruction. It is usually identified at about 7 years of age or beyond when the dyslexic fails to learn to read. The incidence varies in different countries in different languages and with teaching methods. This research presents a new method for the identification of dyslexia by the Reception or Kindergarten teacher as part of everyday teaching. The method uses a child’s freeform writing and a checklist that identifies a critical borderline point that must be reached if the child is to become literate. In order to overcome any difficulty, a specific intervention was identified and a training technique was introduced in a Reception Year cohort (N = 175 children). It was based upon previous research that found dyslexia was caused by a unique deficit that prevented them from developing early phonological awareness in the normal course of learning. The intervention strategy also enabled disadvantaged learners to catch up with more advantaged peers and close the 11-month learning gap found in the national statistics. Their Key stage 1 school SATs showed 30% uplift 3 years later.",book:{id:"9451",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurological-bases-clinical-features-and-strategies-of-intervention",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurological Bases, Clinical Features and Strategies of Intervention"},signatures:"Diane Montgomery",authors:[{id:"85131",title:"Prof.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Montgomery",slug:"diane-montgomery",fullName:"Diane Montgomery"}]},{id:"58763",title:"Stress in Nursing University Students and Mental Health",slug:"stress-in-nursing-university-students-and-mental-health",totalDownloads:2457,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Stress is a physiological response that impacts the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social components. It also involves the adaptation of the organism, the coping resources, and the environment. In young people, stress can be triggered by social interactions or school requirements. This chapter is a narrative review analyzing scientific bibliography from the main databases (NIH, Scielo, Redalyc) that explored the main stressors and their effects on nursing students. These stressors include the care of patients, assignments and workloads, academic evaluations, and negative or hostile social interactions. Data include the deleterious effects of stress in nursing students as anxiety, depression, inhibiting learning, and burnout, which negatively impact their academic development and health. Finally, some interventions to reduce the impact of stress are discussed. Conclusion: Stress responses in nursing students vary in duration and intensity during their academic training; final effects depend on the coping mechanisms, individual resources, and hospital environment. The effects of stress on nursing students impact on academic performance but could also trigger several psychiatric disorders as depression or anxiety, as well as other associated problems such as sleep disorders, alcohol, and psychoactive drug consumption, which in the short and long term may affect the patient care.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Frank Pulido-Criollo, Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo and Gabriel Guillén-\nRuiz",authors:[{id:"175891",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido-Criollo",slug:"frank-pulido-criollo",fullName:"Frank Pulido-Criollo"},{id:"199455",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Cueto-Escobedo",slug:"jonathan-cueto-escobedo",fullName:"Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo"},{id:"218681",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Guillén-Ruiz",slug:"gabriel-guillen-ruiz",fullName:"Gabriel Guillén-Ruiz"}]},{id:"62994",title:"Health, Academic Achievement and School-Based Interventions",slug:"health-academic-achievement-and-school-based-interventions",totalDownloads:2508,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There is a statistically significant relationship between health and academic achievement. Research evidence shows that children who are healthy are at a low risk for school problems than students who are unhealthy. Students with good health tend to perform better in school than those with poor health. Problems that emanate from poor health include a higher probability of school failure, poor levels of concentration, grade retention and dropout. However, health is a complex and elusive concept and its definition is often shrouded by assumptions and limitations. Therefore, the relationship between health and student achievement is often complex. The concept of health has been evolving over time, cutting across multiple disciplines. Of late, there has been a focus on achieving not only health but total well-being. Schools have been challenged to promote student health by providing favourable environments, policies, support services and information-based interventions. Schools should develop integrated health interventions because of their proven effectiveness in promoting healthy lifestyles among students. This chapter critically examines the concept of health and establishes the connection between health and achievement. The chapter also proposes health interventions that are effective in influencing academic achievement.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Thomas Matingwina",authors:[{id:"227293",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Matingwina",slug:"thomas-matingwina",fullName:"Thomas Matingwina"}]},{id:"60102",title:"Bullying in School",slug:"bullying-in-school",totalDownloads:3901,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bullying in school is a significant problem worldwide and is one of the most common antisocial behaviors among adolescents and children. Despite implementing anti-bullying prevention programs in almost every school within the United States, Europe, and some initiatives in low-income countries, yet bullying is more pervasive problems in schools than any other problems. This chapter provides a review of research and evidence on school bullying: understanding the definition of bullying in school, and the size of the problem, the consequences of bullying, academic correlations, who is at risk, students’ perceptions of bullying and the evidence school-based programs to reduce and prevent bullying.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Nahla Mansour Al-Ali and Khulood K. Shattnawi",authors:[{id:"228887",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nahla",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ali",slug:"nahla-al-ali",fullName:"Nahla Al Ali"},{id:"238157",title:"Dr.",name:"Khulood",middleName:null,surname:"Shattnawi",slug:"khulood-shattnawi",fullName:"Khulood Shattnawi"}]},{id:"58183",title:"Influence of Drugs on Cognitive Functions",slug:"influence-of-drugs-on-cognitive-functions",totalDownloads:2195,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Disorders related to the misuse of certain drugs represent not only a worldwide public health problem, but also an economic and social issue. Adolescents and children represent the most vulnerable population for drug consumption and addiction. At this early stage in life, a crucial phase of the neurodevelopmental process, substance abuse can induce brain plasticity mechanisms that may produce long-lasting changes in neural circuitry and ultimately behavior. One of the consequences of these changes is the impairment of cognitive functions, with academic negative impact in the acquisition of new knowledge. In this chapter, we will describe the effects of illicit substances of abuse, both stimulants and depressants as well as prescription drug misuse and its influence of on learning and memory processes. Recent evidence on the new so-called smart drugs is also discussed.",book:{id:"6225",slug:"health-and-academic-achievement",title:"Health and Academic Achievement",fullTitle:"Health and Academic Achievement"},signatures:"Claudia Juárez-Portilla, Tania Molina-Jiménez, Jean-Pascal Morin,\nGabriel Roldán-Roldán and Rossana Citlali Zepeda",authors:[{id:"219266",title:"Dr.",name:"Rossana C",middleName:null,surname:"Zepeda",slug:"rossana-c-zepeda",fullName:"Rossana C Zepeda"},{id:"219492",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Juárez-Portilla",slug:"claudia-juarez-portilla",fullName:"Claudia Juárez-Portilla"},{id:"219493",title:"Dr.",name:"Tania",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Jiménez",slug:"tania-molina-jimenez",fullName:"Tania Molina-Jiménez"},{id:"219494",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Roldán-Roldán",slug:"gabriel-roldan-roldan",fullName:"Gabriel Roldán-Roldán"},{id:"220789",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Morin",slug:"jean-pascal-morin",fullName:"Jean-Pascal Morin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"266",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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